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71-534: The Oakland firestorm of 1991 was a large suburban wildland–urban interface conflagration that occurred on the hillsides of northern Oakland, California , and southeastern Berkeley over the weekend of October 19–20, 1991, before being brought under full control on October 23. The official name of this incident by Cal Fire is the Tunnel Fire . It is also commonly referred to as the Oakland Hills firestorm or

142-523: A CAL FIRE S-2T air tanker crashed while fighting the Dog Rock Fire in Yosemite National Park . The pilot was killed. CAL FIRE uses several enterprise IT systems to manage operations. Altaris CAD, a computer-assisted dispatch system made by Northrop Grumman , is employed by each unit's emergency command center (ECC) to track available resources and assignments. This is made possible through

213-453: A community is a fire-adapted community . The U.S. Forest Service defines fire-adapted communities as "a knowledgeable and engaged community in which the awareness and actions of residents regarding infrastructure, buildings, landscaping, and the surrounding ecosystem lessens the need for extensive protection actions and enables the community to safely accept fire as a part of the surrounding landscape." Three groups are responsible for achieving

284-675: A degree of wildfire threat. These are ecological factors that define force, human factors that define ignition, and vulnerability factors that define damage. These factors are typically viewed in a geospatial relationship. The ecological factor category includes climate, seasonal weather patterns, geographical distributions of vegetation, historical spatial wildfire data, and geographic features. The ecological determines wildfire size and intensity. The human factor category includes arrangement and density of housing. Density correlates with wildfire risk for two reasons. First, people cause fires; from 2001 to 2011, people caused 85% of wildfires recorded by

355-559: A fire; lower vegetation has a lower risk. A quantitative risk assessment simulation combines wildfire threat categories. Areas at the highest risk are those where a moderate population overlaps or is adjacent to a wildland that can support a large and intense wildfire and is vulnerable with limited evacuation routes. The Calkin framework predicts a catastrophic wildfire in the Wildland–urban Interface (WUI), with three categories of factors. These factors allow for an assessment of

426-607: A limited window and thus MTT is only applicable to short-timescale simulations. Structure and vegetation flammability is reduced through community-focused risk management through reduction of community vulnerabilities. The degree of control of vulnerability to wildfires is measured with metrics for responsibilities and zones of defenses. The probability of catastrophic WUI wildfire is controlled by assignment of responsibility for three actionable WUI objectives: controlling potential wildfire intensity, reducing ignition sources, and reducing vulnerability. When these objectives are met, then

497-468: A sample of more than 3,000 structures that burned in a known accidental fire. A group of fire investigators surveyed the residences and looked for artifacts that would normally be considered "suspicious," such as melted metals, spalled concrete and crazed glass. A careful study of 50 of the homes revealed that most of them contained artifacts that would be considered evidence of arson had they been found in an isolated fire that burned to completion. The study

568-407: A two-dimensional surface. Minimum Travel Time (MTT) methods build on Huygens' principle to find a minimum time for fire to travel between two points. MTT assumes nearly-constant factors such as environmental factors for wind direction and fuel moisture. The MTT is advantageous over Huygens in scalability and algorithm speed. However, factors are dynamic and a constant representation comes at a cost of

639-835: A variety of effects on plant life. Depending on the influences that are present, some plant traits like woodiness and height may increase while many other traits either show mixe responses or are not well studied. Additionally, disease vectors in isolated patches can undergo genetic differentiation, increasing their survivability as a whole. Increases in wildfire risk pose a threat to conservation in WUI growth regions. Ecological change driven by human influence and climate change has often resulted in more arid and fire-prone WUI. Factors include climate change driven vegetation growth and introduction of non-native plants, insects, and plant diseases. In North America, Chile, and Australia, unnaturally high fire frequencies due to exotic annual grasses have led to

710-459: A variety of reasons, the firefighting teams were initially overwhelmed by the firestorm. The winds were gusting at times in excess of 70 mph (110 km/h), creating erratic and extreme fire behavior. Flames took out power lines to seventeen pumping stations in the Oakland water system. Outside fire teams faced various equipment compatibility issues such as hydrants having the wrong size outlets for

781-475: A way that defense zones are effective (note: fire-resistant is arbitrary and is not defined in hours of resistance for a given degree of heat; these guidelines are relaxed for non- evergreen trees which are less flammable; this guide is not intended to prevent combustion of individual structures in a wildfire—it is intended to prevent catastrophic wildfire in the WUI): There are three challenges. An example of

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852-590: A wide range of disasters and incidents, including earthquakes, water rescues, and hazardous material spills. The organization manages eight Demonstration State Forests for timber production, recreation, and research. In conjunction with the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation , CAL FIRE uses thousands of incarcerated firefighters at 44 conservation camps throughout the state on fire prevention, fire suppression, and various maintenance and conservation projects. CAL FIRE works with employees of

923-428: A wildfire is calculated by a Home Ignition Zone (HIZ) metric. The HIZ includes at a minimum the space within a 200 foot (61 m) radius around a structure. The HIZ is a guideline for whoever is responsible for structure wildfire protection; landlords and tenants (homeowner if they are the same) are responsible for physically constructing and maintaining defense zones while local government defines land use boundaries in

994-510: Is Joe Tyler, who was appointed March 4, 2022, by Governor of California Gavin Newsom . CAL FIRE's foremost operational role is to fight and prevent wildfire on 31 million acres of state forestland. The organization works in both suppression and prevention capacities on state land, and offers emergency services of various kinds in 36 out of California's 58 counties, through contracts with local governments. The organization also assists in response to

1065-512: Is expected the WUI will continue to expand; an anticipated amenity-seeking migration of retiring baby-boomers to smaller communities with lower costs of living close to scenic and recreational natural resources will contribute to WUI growth. Climate change is also driving population shifts into the WUI as well as changes in wildlife composition. Housing growth in WUI regions can displace and fragment native vegetation. The introduction of non-native species by humans through landscaping can change

1136-564: Is managed from an office in Davis, California . The largest and most visible part of CAL FIRE operations is fire protection. Operations are divided into 21 operational units, which geographically follow county lines. Each unit consists of the area of one or more counties. Operational units are grouped under either the North Region or South Region. The Office of the State Fire Marshal (OSFM)

1207-417: Is measured with evacuation time through a proximity of habitable structures to roads, matching of administrators to responsibilities, land use, building standards, and landscaping types. Wildfire spread is commonly simulated with a Minimum Travel Time (MTT) algorithm. Prior to MTT algorithms, fire boundaries were modeled through an application of Huygens' principle ; boundaries are treated as wave fronts on

1278-677: Is planning to acquire up to 12 of these rotorcraft to replace the aging Bell UH-1H Super Huey fleet. From the 13 air attack and ten 10 helitack bases located statewide, aircraft can reach most fires within 20 minutes. Aircraft are a prominent feature of CAL FIRE, especially during the summer fire season. Both fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft are employed. Helicopters (also known as rotorcraft or rotary wing aircraft) are used to transport firefighting "Helitack Crews" into fire areas. They also drop water and retardant chemicals on fires. Fixed-wing aircraft are used for command , observation, and to drop retardant chemicals on fires. CAL FIRE contracted in

1349-624: Is suspected to have originated with unhardened electrical transmission line infrastructure which had recently been redesigned though had not been reconstructed and the new design did not include hardening against ignition where it passed through the WUI. The Camp Fire demonstrated limitations of the fire-adapted community theory in late season wildfires driven by Katabatic winds , and in the land management agencies' responsibility in controlling infrastructure ignition sources. California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection ( CAL FIRE )

1420-535: Is the fire department of the California Natural Resources Agency in the U.S. state of California . It is responsible for fire protection in various areas under state responsibility totaling 31 million acres, as well as the administration of the state's private and public forests . In addition, the department provides varied emergency services in 36 of the state's 58 counties via contracts with local governments. The department's current director

1491-820: Is the CAL FIRE Training Center in Ione , east of Sacramento. The second academy is at the Ben Clark Training Center in Riverside . Both centers host the Fire Fighter Academy (FFA). All CAL FIRE Fire Protection employees go through this academy once they become permanent employees. The Company Officer Academy (COA) is only held in Ione. All new company officers (Engineer, Captain, Forester I, etc.) attend this academy. The uniformed executive staff of CAL FIRE includes

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1562-486: Is the CAL FIRE program that protects life and property through the development and application of fire prevention, engineering, training and education, and enforcement. As part of this mission, OSFM establishes a fire-safe environment for the people of California, which serves as a foundation for local agencies to build on as they strive to meet their specific goals. There are two CAL FIRE training centers. The original academy

1633-574: Is true for a range of environments in North America, the Mediterranean Basin, Chile, and South Africa. Possible reasons for a decrease include decreases in open space for ember transmission, fuel fragmentation due to urban development, and higher availability of fire-suppression resources. Areas with moderate population densities tend to exhibit higher wildfire risk than areas with low or high population densities. The vulnerability factor category

1704-715: The Berkeley Hills , northeast of the intersection of California State Routes 24 and 13 (0.5 mi (0.8 km) north of the Caldecott Tunnel west portal. Firefighters fought the 5-acre (2.0 ha) fire on a steep hillside above 7151 Buckingham Boulevard, and by Saturday night believed it to be under control. The fire re-ignited as a brush fire shortly before 11:00   a.m. on Sunday, October   20, and rapidly spread southwest, driven by wind gusts up to 65 mi (100 km) per hour. It quickly overwhelmed local and regional firefighting resources. By 11:30 a.m.,

1775-562: The California Conservation Corps since that agency's creation in a partnership for fire suppression duties, logistics and forestry management. CCC members are involved in job training programs as Type 1 Hand Crew firefighters, supervised by CAL FIRE personnel, in increasing prevalence to offset CDCR inmates as the incarcerated firefighter program is closed. Programs to control wood boring insects and diseases of trees are under forestry programs managed by CAL FIRE. The vehicle fleet

1846-459: The East Bay Hills fire . The fire ultimately killed 25 people and injured 150 others. The 1,520 acres (620 ha) destroyed included 2,843 single-family dwellings and 437 apartment and condominium units. The economic loss from the fire was estimated at $ 1.5 billion ($ 2.99 billion in 2023 dollars). The fire started on Saturday, October   19, from an incompletely extinguished grass fire in

1917-645: The Inland Empire and communities in the metropolitan Palm Springs area. The area includes forested mountains, the Colorado River basin, the Mojave Desert and Interstate 10 . The counties of Marin (MRN), Kern (KRN), Santa Barbara (SBC), Ventura (VNC), Los Angeles (LAC) and Orange (ORC) are paid by CAL FIRE to provide fire protection to state responsibility areas within those counties rather than CAL FIRE providing direct fire protection, and are commonly known as

1988-679: The International Association of Firefighters (IAFF). Operational units are organizations designed to address fire suppression over a geographic area. They vary widely in size and terrain . For example, Lassen-Modoc-Plumas Operational Unit encompasses three rural counties and consists of eight fire stations, one Helitack Base, three conservation camps and an inmate firefighter training center. Fire suppression resources include 13 front-line fire engines, 1 helicopter, 3 bulldozers and 14 inmate fire crews. The unit shares an interagency emergency command center with federal agencies including

2059-515: The National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC). Second, housing intensifies wildfires because they contain flammable material and produce mobile embers, such as wood shakes. The relationship between population density and wildfire risk is non-linear. At low population densities, human ignitions are low. Ignitions increase with population density. However, there is a threshold of population density at which fire occurrence decreases. This

2130-558: The US Forest Service , National Park Service , and the Bureau of Land Management . An interagency center contributes to economies of scale, supports cooperation, and lends itself to a more seamless operation. The area has fragmented jurisdictions across a large rural area along the Nevada and Oregon state lines. Riverside Operational Unit by itself is one of the largest fire departments in

2201-562: The fire-adapted communities performance was demonstrated in November 2018 when the Camp Fire passed through the community of Concow in Butte County, California. The Concow community was a fire-adapted community. This late season fire provided a stress test of the fire-adapted communities theory. The Concow community was destroyed. The wildfire continued through the community without demonstrating

Oakland firestorm of 1991 - Misplaced Pages Continue

2272-514: The "Contract Counties". Lawmakers in Sacramento have mandated that every operational unit develop and implement an annual fire management plan. The plan will develop cooperation and community programs to reduce damage from, and costs of, fires in California. One metric used by fire suppression units is initial attack success: fires stopped by the initial resources, (equipment and people,) sent to

2343-427: The 3-inch (76 mm) outlets previously used by Oakland were considerably more efficient. Water cisterns and a new hills fire station were added, and radio communications were improved. On June 12, 2008, a brush fire ignited in almost the exact location of the starting point of the 1991 fire, but owing to a rapid response, the preventive measures implemented after the 1991 disaster, and the lack of significant winds,

2414-531: The CAL FIRE Web site under Mobile Equipment. CAL FIRE owns its own fleet of air tankers, tactical aircraft and helicopters, which are managed under the Aviation Management Program. Additional aviation resources are leased by the department when needed. All of the fixed wing aircraft, while owned by CAL FIRE, are piloted and maintained by DynCorp International. The CAL FIRE Air Program is one of

2485-556: The Model 14, and 15. CAL FIRE Models 24 and 25 were test-bed models, with only a few of each model fielded. The newest versions of these engines are CAL FIRE model 34 (4WD) and 35 (2WD), manufactured by Placer Fire Equipment , Rosenbauer , and HME . Model 34/35's are currently being fielded statewide. As of 2009 Model 35's have been discontinued and Model 34's from BME Apparatus are the new standard. Fact sheets on all of CAL FIRE's current-service Type 3 (wildland) engine models can be found on

2556-631: The United States, the wildland–urban interface (WUI) has two definitions. The US Forest Service defines the wildland–urban interface qualitatively as a place where "humans and their development meet or intermix with wildland fuel." Communities that are within 0.5 miles (0.80 km) of the zone are included. A quantitative definition is provided by the Federal Register , which defines WUI areas as those containing at least one housing unit per 40 acres (16 ha). The Federal Register definition splits

2627-444: The WUI into two categories based on vegetation density: Human development has increasingly encroached into the wildland–urban interface. The WUI was the fastest-growing land use type in the United States between 1990 and 2010. Factors include geographic population shifts, expansion of cities and suburbs into wildlands, and vegetative growth into formerly unvegetated land. The primary cause has been migration. Of new WUI areas, 97% were

2698-405: The area were crowded with parked cars, including many in front of fire hydrants; this prevented fire trucks and ambulances from getting to certain areas and connecting fire hoses. The general situation was one of chaos and panic among residents in the area. The most important factor was the rapid spread of the wind-driven fire. Before most of the firefighting resources could be brought to the scene,

2769-469: The bay into San Francisco . Ash fell onto the field of Candlestick Park where the Detroit Lions and San Francisco 49ers were playing during that afternoon. The CBS telecast of the game also showed live footage of the fire. As with the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake two years earlier, the blimp shots from the national sports media provided many people with first word of the disaster. By mid-afternoon,

2840-575: The buildings and houses were spared. The hot, dry northeasterly winds, dubbed as " Diablo winds " in reference to the Diablo mountain range , Diablo Valley , and surrounding geography of same name, periodically occur during the early fall season. These are similar to the Santa Ana winds in Southern California, and have been the cause of numerous devastating fires. The fire began generating its own wind,

2911-859: The bulk in modern history occurred after 2003. In the United States, from 1985 to 2016, federal wildfire suppression expenditures tripled from $ 0.4 billion per year to $ 1.4 billion per year. Evacuations in WUI regions could be complex due to densely populated communities, limited road networks, and varying levels of preparedness and risk perception among residents can lead to congestion, delays, and unsafe evacuation routes. The diverse demographics in these areas —ranging from elderly populations to young families— require tailored evacuation strategies to accommodate different vulnerabilities and safety needs. Effective WUI evacuation planning must balance early warning systems, clear communication, adequate infrastructure, and community engagement to enhance preparedness and ensure rapid, safe responses in emergencies. Calculating

Oakland firestorm of 1991 - Misplaced Pages Continue

2982-487: The defining characteristic of a firestorm . The superheated fire-driven winds combined with warmer, drier air east of the Berkeley Hills, and interacted with the ambient cooler, more moist Bay/Coastal air to create erratic, dangerous gusts, which helped produce numerous rotational vortices. All of these combined to help spread the fire, tossing embers in all directions. The wind was so strong that it also blew debris across

3053-449: The efforts undertaken by CARD (Collaborating Agencies Responding to Disasters) after the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, to build a nonprofit preparedness infrastructure, were key to addressing the needs of vulnerable communities. In response to issues about firefighting equipment during the disaster, Oakland city firefighters now carry more extensive wildland firefighting gear and fire shelters. Prior to and during this firestorm, when this

3124-436: The expected slowing of the flame front. If there was a slowing it was less than anticipated though any slowing contributed to allowing residents to evacuate ahead of the flame front. The wildfire continued through wildlands between the community of Concow and the town of Paradise, California. The wildfire then destroyed the town of Paradise which was in the process of developing into a fire-adapted community. The wildfire ignition

3195-456: The fire had established a large perimeter. At the fire's peak, it destroyed one house every 11 seconds. By the first hour, the fire had destroyed nearly 790   structures. In addition to the winds and the heat, an important factor in the rapid spread of the fire was that it started in an area that was at an interface between developed and undeveloped land. Many of the first dwellings to burn were surrounded by thick, dry vegetation . In addition,

3266-541: The fire had spread to the nearby Parkwoods Apartments located next to the Caldecott Tunnel. Shortly before noon, the fire had been blown up to the top of Hiller Highlands to the west, from where it began its sweep down into the Hiller Highlands development and the southern hills of Berkeley . Burning embers from houses and vegetation were carried ahead of the fire line by torrid winds and started new blazes ahead of

3337-462: The fire slowly marched house by house toward the evacuated hotel. The fire was stopped shortly before it reached the hotel. By 5:00   p.m., the winds died down, giving firefighters a chance to control the blaze, though full containment would not be achieved until October   22. As many as 400   engine companies, 1,500   personnel, and 250   agencies worked to put out the fire. By Wednesday, October   23, at 8:00   a.m.,

3408-483: The fire was confined to 2 acres (0.81 ha), with no damage to any structures, and was extinguished within 90 minutes. In 2015, a $ 4 million federal grant to prevent fires in the Oakland Hills ignited debate over whether to cut down trees in the region. The city and its fire department say clearing young eucalyptus trees and other non-native plants would deter another deadly firestorm like the one that whipped through

3479-486: The fire was declared under control, almost 72   hours after it started. The fire's rapid rate of spread and massively-destructive nature sparked renewed recognition of the dangers posed by wildland-urban interface fires in major cities, and spurred research and investigation into improved prevention and suppression of such fires. Several nonprofit groups arose after the fire. One, the Hills Emergency Forum,

3550-637: The following individuals. As of 2017, median pay for full time firefighters (which includes base pay, special pay, overtime and benefits) is $ 148,000. Firefighters employed by the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection are represented by IAFF affiliate, CAL FIRE Local 2881, which represents 5,700 members within CAL FIRE Local 2881 and is also associated with the California Professional Firefighters (CPF) and

3621-456: The hills in 1991. One of the most famous victims who lost his house in the disaster was game designer Will Wright , who lived a few blocks away from where the fire started. He used his experience of rebuilding his life as the basis for the concept of the Maxis computer game series The Sims , and added the city's recovery from the fire as a scenario in the game SimCity 2000 . The fire provided

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3692-405: The hoses used by neighboring counties. Oakland was also not able to communicate with many mutual aid resources due to antiquated equipment and lack of access to statewide radio frequencies brought on by the budget restrictions in the preceding years. In some areas, firefighters simply ran out of water, as there was no power to refill the emptied reservoirs. Additionally, many narrow, winding roads in

3763-448: The incident. CAL FIRE uses various apparatus to accomplish their daily responses. Engines fall under two categories, either being state-owned — mostly wildland, or city/county owned, which CAL FIRE operates under contract. For the wildland portion, most engines are manufactured with West-Mark or Westates (now American Truck & Fire Apparatus) bodies on an International chassis. Commonly seen models of wildland engines include

3834-585: The largest non-military air programs in the country, consisting of 23 Grumman S-2 Tracker (S-2T version) 1,200 gallon fixed wing turboprop air tankers, seven Lockheed-Martin C-130H Hercules 4,000 gallon fixed-wing turboprop air tankers (in service in 2025), 14 North American Rockwell OV-10 Bronco fixed wing turboprop air tactical aircraft and 12 Bell UH-1H Super Huey helicopters. CAL FIRE has also now begun operating new Sikorsky S-70i Firehawk helicopters for aerial firefighting support including water drops and

3905-471: The loss of native shrublands. Human development has increasingly encroached into the wildland–urban interface. Coupled with a recent increase in large wildland fires, this has led to an increase in fire protection costs. Between 1985–1894 and 2005–2014, the area burned by wildfires in the United States nearly doubled from 18,000 to 33,000 square kilometers. Wildfires in the United States exceeding 50,000 acres (20,000 ha) have steadily increased since 1983;

3976-608: The nation, with 95 fire stations and about 230 pieces of equipment. The Riverside Operational Unit operates the Riverside County Fire Department under contract as well operates eighteen city fire departments and one community services district fire department. Nine of these stations belong to the state, with rest owned by the respective local government entity. The unit operates its own emergency command center in Perris . Terrain served includes urban and suburban areas of

4047-418: The nearby undeveloped land had even more dry brush. Other factors included many wood shake/shingle roofs which were easily ignited by embers, and the use of wood chip mulch in landscaping around buildings, which was blown around spreading embers and igniting vegetation across streets. The same conditions contributed to a major conflagration nearby in the 1923 Berkeley fire and a more limited conflagration in

4118-511: The original burn. Within thirty minutes the fire had crossed both Highway   24 (an eight-lane freeway) and Highway   13 (a four-lane freeway), eventually igniting hundreds of houses in the Forest Park neighborhood on the northwest edge of the Montclair district and in the upper Rockridge neighborhood . The fire eventually touched the edge of Piedmont , burning some municipal property, but

4189-451: The past with 10 Tanker Air Carrier for three years' of exclusive use of their McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 heavy air tanker known as Tanker 910 for aerial firefighting at a cost of $ 5 million per year. Additional access was also provided to DC-10-30 air tankers, being Tanker 911 and Tanker 912. In 2014 Tanker 910 was retired; however, 10 Tanker Air Carrier continues to currently operate several DC-10-30 air tankers. On October 7, 2014,

4260-577: The result of new housing. In the United States there are population shifts towards the WUIs in the West and South; increasing nationally by 18 percent per decade, covering 6 million additional homes between 1990 and 2000 which in 2013 was 32 percent of habitable structures. Globally, WUI growth includes regions such as Argentina, France, South Africa, Australia, and regions around the Mediterranean sea. Going forward it

4331-447: The risk posed to a structure located within a WUI is through predictive factors and simulations. Identifying risk factors and simulation with those factors help to understand and then manage the wildfire threat. For example, a proximity factor measures the risk of fire from wind carried embers which can ignite new spot fires over a mile ahead of a flame front. A vegetation factor measures the risk those wind carried embers have of starting

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4402-465: The same area on September   22, 1970, again under similar conditions. A smaller fire also started in Wildcat Canyon on December   14, 1980. As night descended, the firestorm threatened to destroy the historic Claremont Resort hotel, where the media had gathered to report on the fire. Television crews trained their cameras on the dark hill immediately behind the hotel and millions watched as

4473-424: The scene of the fire. The next morning, before full control had been gained, satellite photographs, especially infrared (heat-sensing) photographs, were provided with the help of NASA Ames Research Center 's Disaster Assistance and Rescue Team (DART) to aid firefighters in plotting the extent of the fire and spotting hidden hot spots. In terms of alarm assignments, it was the equivalent of a 107-alarm fire . For

4544-609: The state Department of Forestry and Fire Protection was asked to mobilize air tanker support to the fire zone. Eventually the California Department of Forestry (CDF) was asked to dispatch several air tankers , which doused the fire with tons of fire retardant all day long. The CDF established a base at the Naval Air Station in Alameda . Additionally, the Naval Air Station itself sent its own firefighting equipment and material to

4615-416: The three WUI objectives, these are land management agencies, local governments, and individuals. Fire-adapted communities have been successful in interacting with wildfires. The key benefit of fire-adapted communities is that a reliance on individuals as a core block in the responsibility framework reduces WUI expenditures by local, regional, and national governments. The risk of a structure to ignite in

4686-405: The use of an automatic vehicle locating (AVL) system which provides vehicle location, data communication, and dispatching through a mobile data terminal (MDT) and a multi-network switching system in over 1200 vehicles statewide. Each operational unit has a stand-alone system which includes detailed address and mapping information. Fire Country is an American drama television series in which

4757-472: The wildlife composition of interface regions. Pets can kill large quantities of wildlife. Forest fragmentation is another impact of WUI growth, which can lead to unintended ecological consequences. For instance, increased forest fragmentation can lead to an increase in the prevalence of Lyme disease. White-footed mice , a primary host of the Lyme tick , thrive in fragmented habitats. Increased urbanisation has

4828-564: The wind had slowed and shifted to the west, driving the fire to the southeast. At about 9:00   p.m., the wind abruptly stopped, giving firefighters a chance to contain the fire. Assistance from firefighting agencies as far north as the Oregon state line, as far south as Bakersfield and as far east as the Nevada state line were delayed initially. Official reports differ between when the Oakland Fire Department made requests, and when

4899-594: Was created by local fire agencies to build consensus on fire safety standards and codes, offer multi-jurisdictional training, and coordinate fuel reduction strategies, as well as other goals. At least two citizen groups also arose, the North Hills Phoenix Association and the Claremont Canyon Conservancy to participate in policy decisions and provide educational and stewardship services at the wildland–urban interface . The fire validated that

4970-451: Was not standard equipment, firefighters were sometimes forced to don turn-outs which greatly hampered their ability to move quickly and stay cooler during a wildland fire. Fire hydrants now have the industry standard 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 and 2 + 1 ⁄ 2  inch outlets throughout the city. The lack of a standard in 1991 caused numerous difficulties for various agencies who attempted to connect to non-standard hydrants, even though

5041-671: Was published in a peer-reviewed journal, Fire Technology, as well as the trade journal The Fire and Arson Investigator. These articles helped to debunk several of the myths that plagued fire investigation, and improved the work product of fire investigators. Lentini, J., Smith, D. and Henderson R. “Baseline Characteristics of Residential Structures Which Have Burned to Completion: The Oakland Experience,” Fire Technology, Vol. 28, No. 3, August 1992. Lentini, J., Smith, D. and Henderson R., “Unconventional Wisdom: The Lessons of Oakland,” The Fire and Arson Investigator, Vol. 43, No. 4, June 1993. Wildland%E2%80%93urban interface In

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