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103-591: The manuscript of the Trinity Chronicle may or may not to have contained a 'Short Redaction' of the Kulikovo Chronicle Tale . The Chronicle ended with Edigu 's invasion of 1408. Its tendenz has been tentatively described as pro- Muscovite and pro- Cyprian . The text appears to have been an early 15th-century copy of a text that was close to the Laurentian Codex of 1377. The Trinity Chronicle

206-406: A numerological value. The army came to the "clean field" near Nepryadva mouth and assumed a battle formation. After some time, Tatars appeared and began to form their order of battle against the "Christians". The Russian army was organized into six "regiments" - a Patrol, a Forward, two regiments of "Right" and "Left Hand," a Large regiment and an Ambush regiment. In turn, each of the regiments

309-520: A "legitimate khan" and his nobles defected to his rival Tokhtamysh khan. Mamai again fled to Caffa and was killed there. The war with Moscow had led Mamai's Horde to a complete crash. With one stroke Tokhtamysh received full power, thus eliminating the 20-year split of the Golden Horde. According to historian Gorsky, it was Tokhtamysh who received the most concrete political benefit from the defeat of Mamai. Prince Dmitri, who became known as Donskoy (of

412-431: A "text."' Plokhy and Halperin agreed that of the three passages mentioning the "Rus' land" in the reconstruction, those under the years 1308 and 1328 were Priselkov's interpolations , while the sub anno 1332 passage – known from Karamzin's notes – appeared authentic, but too weak by itself to count as conclusive evidence of the translatio . In 2022, Halperin 'replaced citations to the Trinity Chronicle with references to

515-481: A Persian blade dug out from the field was discovered in the house of a local family and transferred to the Kulikovo field museum. After visiting the field and the village of Monastyrschina, Tikhomirov noted that "swords, axes, arrows, spears, crosses, coins and other similar things" that were of value were frequently found there and owned by private persons. Numerous fragments of weapons, crosses and armour were also noted by

618-414: A catalogue of findings in the Kulikovo field. According to the compilers, the following items of weapons belonging to the time of the battle: four spearheads (and two fragments), a tip of a javelin, two fragments of axe blades, a fragment of an armour plate, a fragment of chain mail , and several arrowheads. Many weapons found in the vicinity of the Kulikovo field (such as bardiches , firearms), date back to

721-514: A coat and a helmet, so the Grand Prince could fight like an ordinary boyar, remaining unrecognized. The battle opened with a single combat between two champions. The Russian champion was Alexander Peresvet and the Horde's champion was Temir-Murza (also Chelubey or Cheli-bey, also Tovrul or Chrysotovrul). During the first pass of the contest, each champion killed the other with his spear and both fell to

824-461: A few years later when Timur burnt down the archives of the Golden Horde in Sarai. Each of the literary works of the Kulikovo cycle contains at least some historical errors or fictions. The earliest three works ("Chronicle Tale", Zadonshchina and "Narration") probably derived from a common source. Scholars usually consider the "Narration" to be the youngest version of this Slavonic primary source, and

927-514: A hundred copies of the "Narration" have survived, indicating the greater popularity of these later versions, which systemically rewrote various episodes from the Zadonshchina to make them more religious. For example, the "Narration" adds an invocation of Volodimer I of Kiev baptising the Rus' Land , Alexander Peresvet pronouncing a prayer before going into battle, and unlike in the Zadonshchina , nobody

1030-553: A panic. It seemed that the rout of the Russian army was close and the Tatars put all their forces into action. At that time, the cavalry of the ambush regiment launched a surprise counterstrike on the Horde's flank, which led to the collapse of the Horde's line. People and horses, tired from a long battle, could not resist the blow of fresh forces. After the Horde was routed, the Russians chased

1133-511: A result, in 1365, forced the princes of Nizhny Novgorod to give up claims to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir finally. In 1368, the conflict between Moscow and Tver began. Prince of Tver Mikhail used the help of Lithuania, and in addition, in 1371 Mamai gave him a jarliq to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. But the Moscow troops simply did not let the new "Grand Prince" enter Vladimir, despite the presence of

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1236-660: A singular ruler, an " emperor ", or sometimes even several emperors, e.g., the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Holy Roman Empire . The concept is closely linked to translatio studii , the geographic movement of learning. Both terms are thought to have their origins in the second chapter of the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible ( verses 39–40 ). French historian Jacques Le Goff (1924–2014) did describe

1339-579: A surprise flank attack of a Horde. The Ambush regiment under the command of Vladimir the Bold and Dmitry Bobrok (brother-in-law of the Grand Prince) was hidden behind the line of Russian troops in an oak grove. The Grand Prince himself went to the front lines, leaving his trusted boyar Mikhail Brenok as the head of the Large Regiment under the great banner. He also exchanged with the boyar horses and gave him

1442-741: Is a historiographical concept that was prominent in the Middle Ages in the thinking and writing of elite groups of the population in Europe, but was the reception of a concept from antiquity . In this concept the process of decline and fall of an empire theoretically is being replaced by a natural succession from one empire to another. Translatio implies that an empire metahistorically can be transferred from hand to hand and place to place, from Troy to Romans and Greeks to Franks (both remaining Romans) and further on to Spain, and has therefore survived. In classic antiquity, an authoritative user of this scheme

1545-401: Is considered the least reliable of the six main witnesses, and is sometimes excluded (reducing the total number of "main witnesses" to five). Dmitry Likhachev (1957) criticised 'inattentive scholars' who carelessly utilised Priselkov's 'reconstruction', treating all parts of it as equally reliable and running with it. Similarly, Iakov Lur'e (1976) rebuked uncritical readers for not understanding

1648-533: Is fun, but not terribly productive." – Charles J. Halperin (2001) The reconstructed text of the Trinity Chronicle is considered by some scholars to be one of the six main copies that are of greatest importance for textual criticism of the Primary Chronicle (PVL), 'which aims to reconstruct the original [text] by comparing extant witnesses.' Because the original is lost and its text can only be indirectly reconstructed, as Priselkov attempted in 1950, it

1751-454: Is known that at the time some of the finds were collected by economist Vasily Lyovshin , who had a personal interest in the history of the battle. A large number of antiquities were discovered in the 19th century and their relatively large number led to the publication of the first catalogue of Kulikovo artefacts by Ivan Sakharov , Secretary of the Department of Russian and Slavic Archaeology of

1854-410: Is no exact data on the number of the army of Dmitry. It can only be said that by the standards of that time, it was a very large army, and even in the 15th century the Moscow princes could not assemble an equally powerful force, which led to fantastic stories about hundreds of thousands of warriors. The definition of the real size of medieval armies based on chronicles is a difficult task. Estimates of

1957-432: Is not available). Grand Duchy of Ryazan could be represented by the troops of the appanage Principality of Pronsk , whose rulers have long rivalled their Grand Princes. Also, the presence of small detachments from the borderlands of Murom , Yelets and Meshchera is "not excluded". Probably, the army of Dmitri was enforced by Jogaila 's rebellious brothers Andrei of Polotsk and Dmitri of Bryansk . The first data on

2060-519: Is said to be fighting "for the Rus' Land", but only "for the Christian faith and Grand Prince Dmitrii Ivanovich". The paintings on the theme of the battle were created by many Russian and Soviet artists such as Orest Kiprensky , Vasily Sazonov , Mikhail Nesterov , Alexander Bubnov , Mikhail Avilov . The French painter Adolphe Yvon , later known for his works on the Napoleonic Wars, in 1850 wrote

2163-491: Is scholarly agreement that by the late 15th century, and perhaps earlier, the Daniilovichi princes of Moscow were presenting themselves as the legitimate dynastic successors to Kievan Rus', and the true representatives of the "Rus' land". The question is how much earlier this translatio can be dated, because the evidence is ambiguous. In 2016, Charles J. Halperin summarised the scholarly debate so far: Application of

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2266-485: Is sometimes challenged. Mamai camped his army on the bank of the Don River , waiting for the arrival of his allies. In August 1380 Prince Dmitri learned of the approaching army of Mamai. It is alleged that Oleg Ryazansky sent a message to him. The interpretations of such an act are different. Some believe that he did this because he was not a supporter of Mamai, while others believe that he expected to intimidate Dmitry – in

2369-405: Is unknown whether "The Tale" is based on an unknown earlier source, or whether it reflects a retrospective attempt to describe the battle based on tactics and practices of the 16th century. Due to the absence of other sources, the course of the battle according to "The Tale" was adopted as a basis for subsequent reconstructions of the battle. On 7 September, Prince Dmitri was told that Mamai's army

2472-460: The translatio imperii concept as "typical" for the Middle Ages for several reasons: To be noted is that Le Goff in saying that, did refer to a very small group of rich and prosperous people living during the Middle Ages. For the largest part of the citizens, translatio imperii was unknown. Different medieval high-class authors described the translatio imperii as a succession leaving

2575-445: The Don River (now Tula Oblast , Russia ) and was won by Dmitry, who became known as Donskoy ("of the Don") after the battle. Although the victory did not end Mongol domination over Russia, it is traditionally regarded as the turning point at which Mongol influence began to wane and Moscow's power began to rise. The battle would allow Moscow to strengthen its claims of ascendancy over

2678-546: The Early modern period , the translatio scheme was used by many authors who wished to legitimate their new centre of power and to provide it with prestige. In Renaissance Florence, humanists wrote Latin poems fashioning their city as the new Rome, and members of the Medici family as Roman rulers. More generally speaking, history is in this concept viewed as a linear succession of transfers of an imperium that invests supreme power in

2781-631: The Holy Roman Empire . Sayri Túpac , second Inca of Vilcabamba , after negotiating with the viceroy Andrés Hurtado de Mendoza on January 5, 1558, in Lima ceded the rights of his crown to the King of Castile , renouncing his claims as sovereign of the Inca Empire and converting to Catholicism ; in exchange, he received a pardon from the "superior government", obtained titles to land and income, recognition of

2884-525: The Principality of Moscow , and the Principality of Ryazan . Meanwhile, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania continued its expansion. It competed with Moscow for supremacy over Tver and in 1368–1372 made three campaigns against Moscow. After the death of Algirdas in 1377, his eldest sons Andrei of Polotsk and Dmitri of Bryansk began to struggle with their step-brother Jogaila for their legitimate right to

2987-527: The Simeonov Chronicle .' Ostrowski (1981) remarked: 'Priselkov's reconstruction must be used cautiously because we do not know whether he always checked his readings against the manuscripts.' In their 2003 interlinear collation of the entire PVL, Ostrowski et al. 'included readings from Priselkov's reconstruction only up to the entry for 906. These readings are based on the plates of the early nineteenth-century attempt by Chebotarev and Cherepanov to publish

3090-651: The Spanish Nobility , the indigenous nobility receiving multiple shields and privileges from the Crown. Authors like the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega would make a lot of reference to this Translatio imperii in his works. The claims of Spanish rights in the Kingdoms of Peru is in this way: Pre-Inca Kingdoms and Andean civilizations → Incan Empire/Tahuantinsuyo → Christianity → Spanish Empire A long-standing problem in

3193-671: The Spanish monarchy and its promotion of miscegenation . Given this, the Kings of Spain would be the legitimate successors of the Sapa Incas, therefore, Carlos I of Spain would be succeeding Atahualpa as Emperor of the Kingdoms of Peru, not only in fact, but also in law. Which was referenced in multiple paintings of viceregal art (especially from the School of Cuzco and the Cathedral of Lima ), such as

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3296-697: The Trinity Chronicle should equally be considered invalidated by the fact that Priselkov's reconstruction was far from the reliability required to make such bold claims. He concluded that the reconstructed Trinity Chronicle was useless for dating purposes. Margaret Cecelia Ziolkowski (1978) had voiced similar arguments against Salmina's poor use of sources. Noting that in earlier publications of 1976 and 1981, Halperin himself had also tried to draw untenable historical conclusions from Priselkov's reconstruction before shifting his position by 2001 and criticising others for doing so, Serhii Plokhy (2006) argued that these earlier works 'are clearly in need of reexamination, given

3399-798: The Viceroyalty of Peru , while, from these treaties, the incorporation of the Tahuantinsuyo in the Spanish Monarchy, with the official recognition of the Inca royal House  [ es ] , which consider the Monarchs of Spain as Kings of Peru, which would encourage the loyalty and fidelity of the Peruvian Monarchists  [ es ] (especially the royalists from the Royal Army of Peru ) towards

3502-407: The Zadonshchina is a rather chivalric and militaristic story with only superficial religious elements, while the "Narration" is a very Christian religious retelling of the events narrated in the Zadonshchina . The two German chroniclers were not eyewitnesses, but in all likelihood received their information from Lithuanian informants, who had their own biases. According to Ostrowski (1998, 2000),

3605-597: The historiography of the medieval history of Kievan Rus' , Vladimir-Suzdal and Muscovy , preceding the modern republics of Russia and Ukraine , is when usage of the term "Rus' land" ( Old East Slavic : ро́усьскаѧ землѧ́ , romanized:  rusĭskaę zemlę ; Russian : Русская земля , romanized :  Russkaia zemlia ), which was initially associated with the Middle Dnieper (Dnipro) river valley around Kiev (modern Kyiv ), shifted towards Vladimir-Suzdal, also known as "Suzdal land" or "Suzdalia". There

3708-538: The "precious things" from the field, once numerous, were "scattered across Russia" and formed private collections, such as those of Nechayev, Countess Bobrinskaya and other noble persons. The fate of these collections is not always clear and not all of them have been preserved to this day; General Governor Alexander Balashov and educator Dmitri Tikhomirov pointed to the fact that in their time iron objects were often collected, melted down by peasants and used for their purposes. One such cases occurred recently, in 2009, when

3811-399: The 16th–18th centuries and cannot in any way relate to the Kulikovo battle of 1380. The historical evaluation of the battle has many theories as to its significance in the course of history: 53°39.15′N 38°39.21′E  /  53.65250°N 38.65350°E  / 53.65250; 38.65350 Translatio imperii Translatio imperii ( Latin for 'transfer of rule')

3914-520: The 1950 Priselkov reconstruction of the Trinity Chronicle as evidence to date the translatio (variously from the 1320s to the mid-14th century ), but – by 2001 – Halperin changed his position (confirmed in 2010 after Serhii Plokhy (2006) explored the question) due to the unreliability of Priselkov's reconstruction. In his 2022 updated bundle of all previous articles about the Rus' land (published at Plokhy's suggestion ), Halperin posited that

4017-448: The Christian elements in it pale in comparison to its military and chivalric ethos . On the other hand, the "Narration of the Battle with Mamai", which has been largely derived from the Zadonshchina , is "a highly religious depiction of the battle, replete with constant prayers, miracles, and religious symbolism". As of 2022, there were 6 known manuscripts of the Zadonshchina , while over

4120-529: The Don) after the battle, did not manage to become fully independent from the Golden Horde, however. In 1382, Khan Tokhtamysh launched another campaign against the Principality of Moscow . He captured and burned down Moscow, forcing Dmitri to accept him as sovereign. However, the victory at Kulikovo was an early sign of the decline of Mongol power. In the century that followed, Moscow's power rose, solidifying control over

4223-515: The German chronicles were generally earlier and more accurate than the Kulikovo cycle sources, and showed that the battle did take place on the Don River, but was not as significant as claimed. The Battle of Kulikovo gave rise to an unprecedentedly large stratum of medieval Rus' literature; no other historical event has received such wide coverage. Russian historians singled out a body of "literary works of

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4326-485: The Imperial Russian Archaeological Society. Historian Stepan Nechayev noted in his writings that during their agricultural operations, local peasants discovered old weapons, crosses, chainmail, and used to find human bones before; some of those finds were purchased by him, and their descriptions appeared on the pages of Vestnik Evropy . In 1825, it was reported by a famous Russian adventurer that

4429-568: The Kulikovo cycle", or "Kulikovo cycle" for short. The most important works are: While the Zadonshchina is based on the literary model of The Tale of Igor's Campaign (also known as Lay of the Host of Igor’ ), the latter had elements of Slavic paganism , which in the Zadonshchina narrative were replaced by the idea that the Rus' soldiers fought "for the Rus’ Land and the Christian faith"; yet

4532-501: The Mamai itinerary and about the approaching forces of Jogaila. So, after reviewing the army, on August 20 he moved west along the Oka River, crossed it at the town of Lopasnya on August 24–25 and moved south towards Mamai. On September 6, the Russian army reached the Don River, where it was reorganized, taking into account the units that joined during the movement from Kolomna. At the council, it

4635-632: The Nechayevs and the Chebyshevs, whose rich collections were still remembered by local citizens in the 1920–1930s. Their estates were situated around the village of Monastyrschina, close to the site of the battle, but during the Civil War most of their collections were lost and only a significant part of the Nechayevs’ collection survived the revolutionary period, whereas the extensive use of agricultural machinery in

4738-611: The Nikon Chronicle, "to Lithuania") and the Ryazan boyars received Moscow governors. Soon Prince Oleg returned to power, but he was forced to accept Prince Dmitry as his sovereign ("older brother") and to sign a treaty of peace. Mukhammad-Bulek, Mamai's figurehead Khan, was killed in battle. Mamai escaped to the Genoese stronghold Caffa in Crimea . He assembled a new army, but now he did not have

4841-543: The Northeast, was a fait accompli ." Plokhy (2006) had argued this was too early, and the translatio could not have taken place before the mid-15th century due to Donald Ostrowski in 1998 re-dating of the works of the Kulikovo cycle to after the 1440s, which Halperin (1999) rejected. Instead, Plokhy suggested tracing it to the Muscovite Codex of 1472, wherein an entry sub anno 1471 "may be regarded as one of

4944-586: The Princes of the Smolensk Land and part of the Upper Oka Principalities were represented in the army of Dmitry, but there were no troops from Nizhny Novgorod and from the Principality of Tver (except for Kashin, who became independent under the treaty of 1375). The probability of the presence of a detachment from Veliky Novgorod is quite high (although in the early Novgorod chronicles, such information

5047-457: The Russian historian Gorskii, the list of princes and commanders (according to which one can estimate the composition of the army), cited in "The Tale of the Rout of Mamai" and the sources derived from it, is completely untrustworthy. However, he identified two chronicles with a sufficiently high level of reliability. According to his reconstruction, detachments from most of North-Eastern Russia, part of

5150-557: The Tatar ambassador. The campaigns of the Lithuanian army also failed and so the jarliq returned to Dmitry. According to the results of the truce with Lithuania in 1372, the Grand Duchy of Vladimir was now recognized as the hereditary possession of the Moscow princes. In 1375 the Prince of Tver once again received a jarliq for the Grand Duchy from Mamai. Then Dmitri with a strong army (larger than it

5253-443: The Tatar side. Mamai's allies, Grand Prince Oleg II of Ryazan and Grand Prince Jogaila of Lithuania, were late to the battle and the number of their troops can be ignored. The early sources contain few details about the course of the battle. "The Tale of the Rout of Mamai", which dates back to the 16th century, gives a complete picture detailing the alignment of forces and the events on the field and adds many colourful details. It

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5356-402: The Tatars for over 50 kilometres (31 mi), until they reached Krasivaya Mecha River . The losses in the battle were great. A third of the commanders of 23 "banners" were killed in action. Grand Prince Dmitry himself survived, although wounded and fainted from exhaustion. His entire escort died or scattered and he was hardly found among the corpses. For six days the victorious army stood "on

5459-698: The Tula Diocese" (1895), editor Pavel Malitsky received reports from inhabitants of the Tula Oblast , who had found spearheads, poleaxes and crosses on the field. Spears and arrows dug out by the locals are also mentioned in the worksheets of the Tula Provincial Academic Archival Commission. Many artifacts were collected by noble families that owned Kulikovo, such as the Oltufyevs, the Safonovs,

5562-422: The armies on the Kulikovo field fought by several separate consolidated units, that tried to keep the battle order. As soon as this order was disrupted, the survivors from the unit fled and a new detachment was put in their place. Gradually, more and more units were drawn into the battle. As described in the "Expanded Chronicle Tale": "And a corpse fell on a corpse, a Tatar body fell on a Christian body; then here, it

5665-460: The battle. According to the "Narration", Donskoy fought on horseback with his clothes, was wounded and left the field of battle, and was found unconscious under a tree after the battle; according to the "Chronicle Tale", Donskoy switched clothes with a boyar, fought in the frontline until the end of combat, and did not sustain even a scratch. The style of the Slavonic sources also differs significantly:

5768-577: The bones". Upon learning of Mamai's defeat, Prince Jogaila turned his army back to Lithuania. People of the Ryazan Land attacked separate detachments coming from the battlefield, plundered them and taken prisoners (the question of the return of prisoners remained actual for twenty years, it was mentioned in the Moscow–Ryazan Treaties of 1381 and 1402). Prince Dmitry of Moscow began to prepare for reprisal, but Prince Oleg of Ryazan fled (according to

5871-408: The book of 1966 argues that the maximum strength of the army of six regiments on Kulikovo Field could not exceed 36,000. Archaeologist Dvurechensky, an employee of the "Kulikovo field" museum, in his report of 2014 determined the number of the Russian army as 6,000–7,000 warriors. Close assessments are given by modern Russian historians Penskoy and Bulychev. The main impetus for reducing the estimates of

5974-540: The chronicle while the manuscript was still extant. [Since they] worked directly from the manuscript, the readings they present have a high probability of actually having been in the Trinity Chronicle, in contrast to the readings Priselkov has after 906, which, because they are conjectural, have a lower probability.' Halperin 2022 invoked Priselkov's reconstruction only one more time for an entry sub anno 955 , commenting that 'This passage appears in large type, meaning it

6077-565: The city of Kolomna from Ryazan, and the prince of Ryazan was killed after several years in captivity. After the killing of Khan Berdi Beg of the Golden Horde in 1359, the Great Troubles had arisen there. Warlord ( temnik ) Mamai , who was the son-in-law and beylerbey of Berdi Beg, soon took power in the western part of the Golden Horde . Mamai enthroned Abdullah Khan in 1361 and after his mysterious death in 1370, Muhammad Bolak

6180-502: The city of Rome in his Aeneid . Continuing with this tradition, the twelfth-century Anglo-Norman authors Geoffrey of Monmouth (in his Historia Regum Britanniae ) and Wace (in his Brut ) linked the founding of Britain to the arrival of Brutus of Troy , son of Aeneas. In a similar way, the French Renaissance author Jean Lemaire de Belges (in his Les Illustrations de Gaule et Singularités de Troie ) linked

6283-460: The differences in probability as expressed by Priselkov in the two font sizes, and treating it as if it were a 'text'. Charles J. Halperin (2001) accused Lur'e of doing precisely what he told others not to do, namely, using Priselkov's tentative reconstruction of the Trinity Chronicle as a source. He also argued that, although her chronology was widely accepted by Soviet and Western scholars alike, Marina A. Salmina's 1960s–1970s textual analysis of

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6386-450: The famous 19th-century Tula historian Ivan Afremov , who suggested building a museum for these artefacts. Some of the finds are known to have been sent as gifts to government officials and members of the Imperial family ; in 1839 and 1843, the head of a mace and the blade of a sword were gifted to Emperor Nicholas I by a Kulikovo nobleman. While preparing his work "Parishes and Churches of

6489-519: The field contributed to a loss of remaining artefacts. Several antiquities, however, were found and transferred to museums in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Works on relics from Kulikovo were published in the 1920s and 1930s by local lore specialists Vladimir Narcissov and Vadim Ashurkov . Most recent descriptions of Kulikovo weaponry and other artefacts have been presented in publications by Vasily Putsko, Oleg Dvurechensky and other historians. The 2008 book by Dvurechensky et al. presents

6592-403: The founding of Celtic Gaul to the arrival of the Trojan Francus (i.e. Astyanax ), the son of Hector ; and of Celtic Germany to the arrival of Bavo, the cousin of Priam ; in this way he established an illustrious genealogy for Pepin and Charlemagne (the legend of Francus would also serve as the basis for Ronsard 's epic poem, " La Franciade "). Famous and very successful was the use of

6695-449: The ground. Thus, it remained unclear whose victory was predicted by the duel's outcome. After the fights of the advanced detachments, the main forces of both armies clashed. According to the "Expanded Chronicle Tale" it happened "at the sixth hour of the day" (the daylight was divided into twelve hours, the duration of which changed throughout the year). "The sixth hour of the day" approximately corresponds to 10.35 am. According to one of

6798-414: The hypothetical nature of Priselkov's reconstruction of the Trinity Chronicle'. In a 2010 review of Plokhy's book, which he generally praised, Halperin acknowledged using the reconstruction 'without much precision' for dating the translatio of the "Rus' land" concept, which he hadn't yet 'revised following the reclassification of the Trinity Chronicle as a invalid source because it is a reconstruction, not

6901-450: The iconic Efigies de los incas o reyes del Perú , present in the Museum of Art of Lima , in which Atahualpa bestows his Scepter of Power to the Spanish Habsburgs (marked with a cross), or the painting by Juan Núñez Vela y Ribera , in the Copacabana monastery , where reference is made to the "poderosissimo Inga D. Carlos II Augustissimo Emperador de la América". Meanwhile, the King of Spain would flaunt his rights as Sapa Inca, through

7004-487: The idea of the translatio imperii in establishing a link between the Western Roman Empire after its downfall in the fifth century, and the possessions ruled by ruler Charlemagne between 768 and 814. Charlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and King of the Lombards from 774 and negotiated an agreement with Pope Leo III to be crowned as Roman emperor in 800, reviving that title in Western Central Europe more than three centuries later. The title lapsed in 924, but

7107-414: The last time "Rus' land" meant the region around Kiev was in c.  1240 , when the Tale of the Destruction of the Rus' Land was written (probably in Kiev) during the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus' . Conversely, by c.  1340 , at the accession of Ivan I Kalita as Prince of Moscow in 1340, "the translatio of the Rus' Land to the Muscovite principality itself, or at the very least to

7210-703: The later sources, the Tatars met the first blow of the Russian cavalry on foot, exposing the spears in two rows, which gave rise to stories about the "hired Genovese infantry." Russian sources, even the earliest ones, unanimously tell us that after the clash of the main forces, a cruel melee began, which lasted a long time and in which the "innumerable multitude of people" perished on both sides. The medieval German historian Albert Krantz describe this battle in his book Vandalia : "both of these people do not fight to stand in large detachments, but in their usual way they rush to throw missiles, strike and then retreat backwards". An expert on medieval warfare, Kirpichnikov assumed that

7313-517: The least reliable, but even scholars who claim it has some historical elements have openly admitted that it has its flaws. For example, the "Narration" mistakenly claimed that Cyprian, Metropolitan of Kiev in 1380 resided in Moscow rather than Kyiv, that Algirdas (died 1377) was still grand duke of Lithuania in 1380, and that Dmitry Donskoy had a meeting with Sergius of Radonezh , which almost certainly did not happen. They also contradict each other on some fundamentals such as Donskoy's role during

7416-524: The monumental painting "The Battle of the Kulikovo Field" by order of Nicholas I . A minor planet , 2869 Nepryadva , discovered in 1980 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Stepanovich Chernykh , was named in honour of the Russian victory over the Tataro - Mongols . Medieval sources do not give a precise description of the site of the battle, but they mention a large clear field beyond the Don River and near

7519-458: The mouth of the Nepryadva River. In the 19th century, Stepan Nechaev came up with what he believed was the exact location of the battle and his hypothesis was accepted. Studies of old soils in the 20th century showed that the left bank of Nepryadva near its influx in the Don was covered with dense forests, while on the right there was a wooded steppe with vast openings. On one of them, between

7622-416: The number of the Russian army by historians gradually departed from the hundreds of thousands of soldiers described in the chronicles and medieval literature. Military historian General Maslovsky in the work of 1881 estimated it to be 100,000–150,000. The historian of military art Razin in the book of 1957 estimated it to be 50,000–60,000. The historian and archaeologist, medieval warfare expert Kirpchinikov, in

7725-488: The other Russian principalities, in which it would ultimately become the centre of a centralized Russian state. Following the Mongol invasion of Rus' in the 13th century, the numerous principalities became vassals of the Golden Horde . During this period, the principality of Moscow was growing in power and was often challenging its neighbours over territory, including clashing with Ryazan . Thus, in 1300, Moscow seized

7828-641: The other Russian principalities. Russian vassalage to the Golden Horde officially ended in 1480, a century after the battle, following the defeat of the Horde's invasion at the great stand on the Ugra River . Only five primary sources about the battle have survived into modern times: one in Church Slavonic , two in Middle High German , and two Bolgar sources. No sources from the Tatar side are available; if they had been written, they were probably destroyed

7931-573: The past, none of the Russian princes dared to meet in battle with the Khan himself. Nevertheless, Dmitry quickly assembled an army in Kolomna . There he was visited by the ambassadors of Mamai. They demanded an increased tribute, "as under the Khan Jani Beg ". Dmitry agreed to pay tribute, but only in the amount provided for by his previous contract with Mamai. In Kolomna, Dmitry received updated information about

8034-487: The place where the river flows from the lake. As early as the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that Nepryadva derived from Lake Volovo (Volosovo). The first searches for traces of the battle were done by amateurs in the 18th and 19th centuries by asking for items from peasants who ploughed the land, and frequently reported having discovered fragments of "weapons, baptismal crosses, icons, medallions and other items" that were allegedly related to Kulikovo. It

8137-569: The primogeniture of his lineage, and obtaining the Encomienda del Valle de Yucay [Mayorazgo de Oropesa ]. Later, his successor Titu Cusi Yupanqui , would ratify this transfer with the signing of the treaty of Acobamba  [ es ] . This application of the Translatio Imperii, for the Kingdoms of Peru, was invoked as the legitimacy tool, by the Spanish Empire , for its domain in

8240-493: The rivers Nepryadva and Smolka, the place of the battle was finally localized by a team of archaeologists led by Dvurechensky in 2005. The historian Azbelev (2016) subjected this localization to sharp criticism. Trying to prove that 400,000 people were involved in the battle on both sides, he assumed that the real battlefield was not at the mouth, but at the source of Nepryadva since the Old Russian word ust'e had also designated

8343-407: The strength of the army was the analysis of demography and mobilization potential. It was noted that even a much larger and more densely populated Russia of the 16th century rarely could expose 30,000–40,000 soldiers at a time. It was also noted that the timeframe for mobilization (about two weeks) was too small to mobilize a huge army of unskilled militiamen (even apart from the fact that this approach

8446-440: The supreme power in the hands of the monarch ruling the region of the author's provenance: Later, continued and reinterpreted by modern and contemporary movements and authors (some known examples): Medieval and Renaissance authors often linked this transfer of power by genealogically attaching a ruling family to an ancient Greek or Trojan hero; this schema was modeled on Virgil 's use of Aeneas (a Trojan hero) as progenitor of

8549-575: The term "Rus" to Muscovy has always been a bone of contention, especially to Ukrainian historiography. Nasonov and others noted that in Kievan Rus' "Rus" originally meant the Dnieper (Dniepr', Dnipro) River triangle of Kyiv, Chernihiv, and Pereslavl', not Vladimir–Suzdal'. [...] Rus ' " was not an ethnic term, it was a political term. By the late fourteenth century Rus' meant Moscow, Kolomna, and Serpukhov. Several scholars including Halperin previously used

8652-436: The threat from Tokhtamysh, Mamai chose to personally lead his army against the forces of Moscow. In preparation for the invasion, he allied with Prince Jogaila of Lithuania. Ryazan Prince Oleg was defeated by Mamai in 1378 (and his capital was burnt), he had no strength to resist Mamai, and Ryazan's relationship with Moscow had long been hostile. Therefore, in the campaign of 1380 Oleg took the side of Mamai, although this fact

8755-545: The throne and allied with the Grand Prince of Moscow. Simultaneously with the beginning of the Great Troubles in the Horde in 1359, Prince of Moscow Ivan II died and the new Khan of the Horde by his jarliq (law pronouncement) transferred the throne of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir to the Prince of Nizhny Novgorod . But the Moscow elite (in 1359, the new Prince Dmitry was only 9 years old) did not accept this. They used equally armed force and bribes to various Khans and as

8858-619: The title King of the West Indies, which is the sum of the rights of the Inca and Aztec crowns, which has been commemorated with the statues of the Aztec and Inca Emperors at the main entrance of the Royal Palace of Madrid . This in turn gave guarantees to the Inca Nobility to have recognition of their titles (and traditions of their peoples) in Spanish law , considering themselves twinned with

8961-474: The total number of troops collected by Dmitry appeared in the Expanded Chronicle Tale , which estimates them to 150–200,000. This number is completely unreliable, as such masses of people simply could not physically fit on the field; even the number of 100,000 seems overestimated. Late literature sources determine the number of Russian troops at 300,000 or even 400,000 armoured soldiers only. Thus, there

9064-516: The tributary lands of the Golden Horde. In 1378, he sent forces led by the warlord Murza Begich to ensure Prince Dmitri's obedience, but this army suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of the Vozha River . Meanwhile, another khan, Tokhtamysh , seized power in the eastern part of the Golden Horde. He enjoyed the support of Tamerlane and was ready to unite the entire Horde under his rule. In 1380, despite

9167-540: The war for the throne of the Golden Horde. In the following years the Tatars raided Dmitry's allies and the Moscow troops made a campaign against Tatars over the Oka River in 1376 and seized the city Bolghar in 1377. In the same year "Mamai's tatars" defeated the army of Nizhny Novgorod with an auxiliary detachment left by Dmitry at the Battle on Pyana River . The Tatars then began to raid Nizhniy Novgorod and Ryazan . Mamai continued attempts to reaffirm his control over

9270-663: The year 906. The published reconstruction, however, contains much speculative borrowing from other chronicles and is not entirely reliable. Especially Aleksey Shakhmatov 's assumption that 'the Simeon Chronicle was identical to the Trinity Chronicle through 1390' turned out to be a great flaw in Priselkov's efforts, as was the assumption that it had to have been similar to the Rogozh Chronicle in other places. Priselkov acknowledged as much himself by indicating his 'reconstruction'

9373-476: Was Virgil , who has been traditionally ranked as one of Rome's greatest poets. In his work Aeneid , that has been considered the national epic of ancient Rome , he linked the Rome in which he lived, reigned by its first emperor Caesar Augustus , with Troy . The discourse of translatio imperii may be traced from the ninth century to the fourteenth, and may be carried on into the sixteenth century or even further. In

9476-616: Was approaching. On the morning of 8 September, in a thick fog, the army crossed the Don River. According to the Nikon Chronicle , after that the bridges were destroyed. The day of 8 September was very special, as it was the feast of the Nativity of the Theotokos , who was considered a patron Saint of Russia. According to the chronology adopted in Russia it was the year 6888 Anno Mundi , which also had

9579-457: Was completely contrary to all the military traditions of that time). Attempts to reduce the size of the army are criticized by some authors. Estimates of the forces of the Tatars in Russian sources are equally unreliable, they only show an overwhelming numerical superiority. So, in one variant of "The Tale" the number of Russian troops was boldly given at 1,320,000 but the Tatar army was named "innumerable". There were no medieval sources from

9682-454: Was decided to cross the Don before the enemies could combine their forces, although this step cut off the path to retreat in case of defeat. The earliest chronicle tales do not provide details on the composition of the Russian army. Among the dead in the battle there are named only Princes of Beloozero (which by that time were in strong submission to Moscow), noble Moscow boyars, and Alexander Peresvet . The latter, according to some sources,

9785-604: Was divided into smaller tactical units – "banners" (a total of about 23). On the field the army was arranged in multiple lines, and probably, the location of the regiments did not match their names (there is no evidence that the regiments of the Left and Right Hand disposed in line with the Large Regiment). The terrain did not allow for a broad front; probably, the units entered into battle gradually. The army's flanks were protected by ravines with dense thickets which excluded any chance for

9888-422: Was enthroned. Mamai was not a Genghisid (descendant of Genghis Khan), and as such his grip on power was tenuous, as there were true Genghisids with claims to mastery. Therefore, he had to constantly fight for supreme power and at the same time struggle against separatism. While there was a war of succession in the declining Golden Horde , new political powers were appearing, such as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania ,

9991-483: Was from Lithuania (rather from Bryansk). The poetic story " Zadonshchina ", along with a figure of 253,000 fallen in the battle, gives dozens of dead princes, boyars, "Lithuanian pans " and "Novgorod posadniks " from all over North-Eastern Rus', but all this data is doubtful. There are mentioned even 70 fallen Ryazan boyars, although according to all other sources the Duchy of Ryazan was the forced ally of Tatars. According to

10094-441: Was in the Kulikovo battle) quickly moved to Tver and forced it to capitulate. Mikhail recognized himself as the "little brother" of the prince of Moscow and ensured to participate in wars with the Tatars. The open conflict between Dmitry and Mamai began in 1374, the exact reasons are unknown. It is believed that the illegitimacy of the puppet khans of Mamai was by that time too obvious, and he demanded more and more money, as he lost

10197-555: Was not really a 'restoration', but an 'approximation'; the material with a higher degree of 'probability' was printed in a larger font size, and less reliable readings called 'conjectured segments' in a smaller font. "[T]extual comparisons of reconstructed non-texts [the Trinity Chronicle ] with hypothetical non-texts [the Compilation of 1448 ] in order to determine textual primacy cannot be definitive. (...) Inventing new hypothetical compilations or redating old hypothetical compilations

10300-574: Was often cited by 18th-century historians. The only known manuscript was lost in the fire of Moscow in 1812 . After its destruction in 1812, the text was partially reconstructed by Mikhail D. Priselkov  [ ru ] (posthumously published in 1950) from quotations in Nikolay Karamzin 's History of the Russian State (1816–1826) and in the 1804 critical edition of the Laurentian Codex by Chebotarev and Cherepanov, which only reached

10403-452: Was possible to see how a Rusyn pursued a Tatar, and a Tatar pursued a Rusyn." The tightness of the field did not allow the Tatars to realize their mobility and use their tactics of flanking. Nevertheless, in a fierce battle, the Tatars began to gradually overcome. They broke through to the banner of the Large Regiment, threw it down and killed Boyar Brenok. The regiment of the "Left Hand" was also overturned and some "Moscow recruits" fell into

10506-580: Was quoted verbatim by Karamzin.' Battle of Kulikovo#Literary works of the Kulikovo cycle Moscow Mamai , controlling the western part of the Golden Horde The Battle of Kulikovo ( Russian : Куликовская битва , romanized :  Kulikovskaya bitva ) was fought between the forces of Mamai , a powerful Mongol military commander of the Golden Horde , and Russian forces led by Grand Prince Dmitry of Moscow . The battle took place on 8 September 1380, at Kulikovo Field near

10609-519: Was revived in 962 after negotiations between Otto I and Pope John XII , where Otto had his troops positioned near Rome. As a result, the Pope accepted Otto fashioning himself as Charlemagne's and the Carolingian Empire 's successor, and beginning a continuous existence of the empire for over eight centuries. From 962 until the 12th century, the empire was one of the most powerful monarchies in Europe, as

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