197-505: Thomas Cranmer (2 July 1489 – 21 March 1556) was a theologian, leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII , Edward VI and, for a short time, Mary I . He is honoured as a martyr in the Church of England . Cranmer helped build the case for the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon , which was one of the causes of
394-530: A Nobel Prize . Two fellows of the college have been appointed to the International Court of Justice . Sonita Alleyne was elected master of Jesus College in 2019, 40 years after the college began admitting women as students. She is also the first black leader of an Oxbridge college. When founded in 1496, the college consisted of buildings taken over from the Nunnery of St Mary and St Radegund , which
591-465: A bishop on 30 March in St Stephen's Chapel , by John Longland , Bishop of Lincoln ; John Vesey , Bishop of Exeter ; and Henry Standish , Bishop of St Asaph . Even while they were waiting for the bulls, Cranmer continued to work on the annulment proceedings, which required greater urgency after Anne announced her pregnancy. Henry and Anne were secretly married on 24 or 25 January 1533 in the presence of
788-622: A café bar, research space and student social areas. The development is built on part of the site of Wesley House, the freehold of which had previously belonged to the College and was returned to it in 2014. The College Chapel was founded in 1157 and took until 1245 to complete, and is believed to be the oldest university building in Cambridge still in use. Originally it was the chapel of the Benedictine Convent of St. Mary and St. Radegund , which
985-518: A colleague of Martin Luther's, Friedrich Myconius . The delegates arrived in England on 27 May 1538. After initial meetings with the king, Cromwell, and Cranmer, discussions on theological differences were transferred to Lambeth Palace under Cranmer's chairmanship. Progress on an agreement was slow partly owing to Cromwell being too busy to help expedite the proceedings and partly because the negotiating team on
1182-513: A complete liturgy for the English Church and in doing so, turning to the language of the people. With the assistance of several Continental reformers to whom he gave refuge, he changed doctrine or discipline in areas such as the Eucharist , clerical celibacy , the role of images in places of worship, and the veneration of saints. Cranmer promulgated the new doctrines through the prayer book,
1379-544: A council taking care of matters for the king in his absence. His colleagues were Lord Chancellor Thomas Audley and Edward Seymour , Earl of Hertford. This was Cranmer's first major piece of responsibility outside the Church. In October, while the king and queen were away, a reformer named John Lascelles revealed to Cranmer that Catherine engaged in extramarital affairs. Cranmer gave the information to Audley and Seymour and they decided to wait until Henry's return. Afraid of angering
1576-492: A day (except during the hunting season); of "powerful but unoriginal mind", he let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart, by night or day. He was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear. This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor , Cardinal Thomas Wolsey . As long as Wolsey had his ear, Henry's Catholicism was secure: in 1521, he had defended
1773-679: A deacon, a priest, and a bishop. In the same year, Cranmer produced the Defence of the True and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ , a semi-official explanation of the eucharistic theology within the prayer book. It was the first full-length book with Cranmer's name on the title page. The preface summarises his quarrel with Rome in a well-known passage where he compared "beads, pardons, pilgrimages, and such other like popery" with weeds. Still,
1970-529: A fifth statement, the first which could be called a true recantation, was issued. Cranmer repudiated all Lutheran and Zwinglian theology , fully accepted Catholic theology, including papal supremacy and transubstantiation, and stated that there was no salvation outside the Catholic Church. He announced his joy at returning to the Catholic faith, asked for and received sacramental absolution , and participated in
2167-465: A fight. When rumours spread that he authorised the use of the mass in Canterbury Cathedral, he declared them to be false and said, "All the doctrine and religion by our said sovereign lord king Edward VI is more pure and according to God's word than any that hath been used in England these thousand years." Not surprisingly, the government regarded Cranmer's declaration as tantamount to sedition. He
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#17331156005772364-423: A grammar school in his village. At 14, two years after his father's death, he was sent to the newly created Jesus College, Cambridge . It took him eight years to attain his Bachelor of Arts degree, following a curriculum of logic, classical literature, and philosophy. During this time, he began to collect medieval scholastic books, which he preserved faithfully throughout his life. For his master's degree he studied
2561-478: A handful of witnesses. Cranmer did not learn of the marriage until 14 days later. For the next few months, Cranmer and the king worked on establishing legal procedures on how the monarch's marriage would be judged by his most senior clergy. Several drafts of the procedures have been preserved in letters written between the two. Once procedures were agreed upon, Cranmer opened court sessions on 10 May, inviting Henry and Catherine of Aragon to appear. Gardiner represented
2758-436: A humanist whose enthusiasm for biblical scholarship prepared him to adopt Lutheran ideas, which were spreading during the 1520s. A study of his marginalia reveals an early antipathy to Martin Luther and an admiration for Erasmus. When Cardinal Wolsey , the king's Lord Chancellor , selected several Cambridge scholars, including Edward Lee , Stephen Gardiner and Richard Sampson , to be diplomats throughout Europe, Cranmer
2955-526: A job as a reader at Buckingham Hall (later reformed as Magdalene College ). When Joan died during her first childbirth, Jesus College showed its regard for Cranmer by reinstating his fellowship. He began studying theology , and by 1520, he had been ordained , the university already having named him as one of its preachers. He received his Doctor of Divinity degree in 1526. Not much is known about Cranmer's thoughts and experiences during his three decades at Cambridge. Traditionally, he has been portrayed as
3152-665: A law library on the ground floor. The Old Library was in regular use until 1912. It still contains over 9,000 books and is available to private researchers upon appointment. The Old Library includes the Malthus Collection, being the family collection of alumnus Thomas Malthus , famous for his study An Essay on the Principle of Population which influenced Charles Darwin . Jesus College has large sporting grounds on-site. These include football, rugby, cricket, tennis, squash, basketball and hockey pitches. The Jesus College Boat House
3349-482: A long letter arguing that it was for Parliament, with the royal assent, to decide any changes in the liturgy. On 22 October, the council decided to keep the liturgy as it was and to add the so-called Black Rubric , which explained that no adoration was intended when kneeling at communion. The origins of the statement which eventually became the Forty-two Articles are equally obscure. As early as December 1549,
3546-420: A natural and humble obedience. This declared England an independent country in every respect. English historian Geoffrey Elton called this act an "essential ingredient" of the "Tudor revolution" in that it expounded a theory of national sovereignty . Cranmer was now able to grant an annulment of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required, pronouncing on 23 May the judgment that Henry's marriage with Catherine
3743-569: A political affair than a theological dispute. In 1527, Henry VIII requested an annulment of his marriage, but Pope Clement VII refused. In response, the Reformation Parliament (1529–1536) passed laws abolishing papal authority in England and declared Henry to be head of the Church of England . Final authority in doctrinal disputes now rested with the monarch. Though a religious traditionalist himself, Henry relied on Protestants to support and implement his religious agenda. Ideologically,
3940-451: A politically prominent position, with no one else to shoulder the burden. Throughout the rest of Henry's reign, he clung to Henry's authority. The king had total trust in him and in return, Cranmer could not conceal anything from the king. At the end of June 1541, Henry with his new wife, Catherine Howard , left for his first visit to the north of England. Cranmer was left in London as a member of
4137-498: A religious minority until political events intervened. As heretics in the eyes of church and state, early Protestants were persecuted. Between 1530 and 1533, Thomas Hitton (England's first Protestant martyr ), Thomas Bilney, Richard Bayfield , John Tewkesbury , James Bainham , Thomas Benet , Thomas Harding , John Frith and Andrew Hewet were burned to death. William Tracy was posthumously convicted of heresy for denying purgatory and affirming justification by faith, and his corpse
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#17331156005774334-478: A second set of royal injunctions ordering the destruction of images to which pilgrimage offerings were made, the prohibition of lighting votive candles before images of saints, and the preaching of sermons against the veneration of images and relics. Afterwards, the shrine and bones of Thomas Becket , considered by many to have been martyred in defence of the church's liberties, were destroyed at Canterbury Cathedral. Jesus College, Cambridge Jesus College
4531-582: A small group of scholars. A large part of the original nave was replaced by College rooms, and subsequently part of the Master's Lodge. The misericords were created by the architect Augustus Pugin between 1849 and 1853. Pugin used fragments of the misericords dating from 1500, which had been preserved in the Master's Lodge as templates. Repairs were also undertaken by George Frederick Bodley between 1864 and 1867, who commissioned decorative schemes from Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. The same firm returned in
4728-423: Is 400 yards away, across Midsummer Common. The college frequently hosts exhibitions of sculpture by contemporary artists. It has hosted work by Sir Antony Gormley , Sir Eduardo Paolozzi , and Barry Flanagan . The college grounds also include a nature trail, inspired by poetry composed by Samuel Taylor Coleridge during his time as a student. Jesus College is one of the few colleges to allow anyone to walk on
4925-681: Is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge . The college's full name is The College of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Saint John the Evangelist and the glorious Virgin Saint Radegund, near Cambridge . Its common name comes from the name of its chapel, Jesus Chapel. Jesus College was established in 1496 on the site of the twelfth-century Benedictine nunnery of St Mary and St Radegund by John Alcock , then Bishop of Ely . The cockerel
5122-622: Is a gift from God received through faith . If Luther was correct, then the Mass, the sacraments, charitable acts, prayers to saints , prayers for the dead, pilgrimage , and the veneration of relics do not mediate divine favour. To believe otherwise would be superstition at best and idolatry at worst. Early Protestants portrayed Catholic practices such as confession to priests, clerical celibacy , and requirements to fast and keep vows as burdensome and spiritually oppressive. Not only did purgatory lack any biblical basis according to Protestants, but
5319-423: Is difficult to assess how Cranmer's theological views had evolved since his Cambridge days. There is evidence that he continued to support humanism; he renewed Erasmus' pension that had previously been granted by Archbishop Warham. In June 1533, he was confronted with the difficult tasks not only of disciplining a reformer, but also of seeing him burned at the stake. John Frith was condemned to death for his views on
5516-409: Is financial contribution. Besides paying obligatory tithes , English people voluntarily donated large amounts of money to their parish churches . Lollardy anticipated some Protestant teachings. This anticlerical movement originated from the teachings of theologian John Wycliffe (died 1384), and the Catholic Church considered it heretical . Lollards believed in the primacy of scripture and that
5713-403: Is no evidence that Cranmer resented his position as junior partner. Although he was an exceptional scholar, he lacked the political ability to outface even clerical opponents. Those tasks were left to Cromwell. On 29 January 1536, when Anne miscarried a son, the king began to reflect again on the biblical prohibitions that had haunted him during his marriage with Catherine of Aragon. Shortly after
5910-402: Is the main library of Jesus College and is open 24 hours a day. The library was designed by Eldred Evans and David Shalev in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the foundation of the college in 1996. Completion of the library was shortly followed by a new accommodation building in 2000, now known as Library Court. The Quincentenary Library has a particularly large law collection, housed in
6107-462: Is the symbol of Jesus College, after the surname of its founder. For the 300 years from 1560 to 1860, Jesus College was primarily a training college for Church of England clergy. Jesus College has assets of approximately £375m making it Cambridge's fourth-wealthiest college. The college is known for its particularly expansive grounds which include its sporting fields and for its proximity to its boathouse . Three members of Jesus College have received
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6304-503: The Homilies and other publications. After the accession of the Catholic Mary I, Cranmer was put on trial for treason and heresy . Imprisoned for over two years and under pressure from state and Church authorities, he made several recantations and reconciled himself with the Catholic Church. While this would have customarily absolved him, Mary wanted him executed, and he was burned at
6501-620: The Act in Restraint of Appeals , which outlawed appeals to Rome on ecclesiastical matters and declared that This realm of England is an Empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the Imperial Crown of the same, unto whom a body politic compact of all sorts and degrees of people divided in terms and by names of Spirituality and Temporality, be bounden and owe to bear next to God
6698-417: The Act of Supremacy did not define his role. This prompted Thomas Cromwell , the king's chief minister, to activate and to take the office of the vicegerent , the deputy supreme head of ecclesiastical affairs. He created another set of institutions that gave a clear structure to the royal supremacy. Hence, the archbishop was eclipsed by Vicegerent Cromwell in regard to the king's spiritual jurisdiction. There
6895-596: The Archbishop of Canterbury to act against the Pope's prohibition. Henry thus resolved to bully the priests . Having first charged eight bishops and seven other clerics with praemunire , the King decided in 1530 to proceed against the whole clergy for violating the 1392 Statute of Praemunire , which forbade obedience to the Pope or any foreign ruler. Henry wanted the clergy of Canterbury province to pay £100,000 for their pardon; this
7092-592: The Church of England broke away first from the authority of the Pope and bishops over the King and then from some doctrines and practices of the Catholic Church . These events were part of the wider European Reformation : various religious and political movements that affected both the practice of Christianity in Western and Central Europe and relations between church and state. The English Reformation began as more of
7289-524: The Council of Trent , the Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation . In March 1552, Cranmer invited the foremost Continental reformers, Bullinger, John Calvin , and Melanchthon, to come to England and to participate in an ecumenical council. The response was disappointing: Melanchthon did not respond, Bullinger stated that neither of them could leave Germany as it was riven by war between
7486-478: The Duke of Suffolk , were imprisoned. No action was taken against the archbishop. On 8 August, he led Edward's funeral according to the rites of the prayer book. During these months, he advised others, including Peter Martyr , to flee England, but he himself chose to stay. Reformed bishops were removed from office and conservative clergy, such as Edmund Bonner, had their old positions restored. Cranmer did not go down without
7683-505: The House of Lords created a committee with the customary religious balance between conservatives and reformers to examine and determine doctrine. The committee was given little time to do the detailed work needed for a thorough revision. On 16 May, the Duke of Norfolk noted that the committee had not agreed on anything, and proposed that the Lords examine six doctrinal questions—which eventually formed
7880-508: The International Court of Justice (ICJ), where he served as a Judge (1982–1991) and later as President (1991–1995). Professor James Crawford was also a Fellow of the college and later Whewhell Professor of International Law (1992–2014) before his appointment to the International Court of Justice in November 2014. Current Honorary Fellows include Lord Roger Toulson of the Supreme Court of
8077-585: The Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 . The medieval English church was part of the larger Catholic Church led by the Pope in Rome . The dominant view of salvation in the late medieval church taught that contrite persons should cooperate with God 's grace towards their salvation (see synergism ) by performing charitable acts , which would merit reward in Heaven . God's grace was ordinarily given through
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8274-508: The Treasons Act 1534 , which made it high treason punishable by death to deny royal supremacy. The following year, Thomas More and John Fisher were executed under this legislation. Finally, in 1536, Parliament passed the Act against the Pope's Authority , which removed the last part of papal authority still legal. This was Rome's power in England to decide disputes concerning Scripture . The break with Rome gave Henry VIII power to administer
8471-547: The Tudor dynasty . Before Henry's father ( Henry VII ) ascended the throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown. Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. Catherine of Aragon's only surviving child was Princess Mary . Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted in the eyes of God". Catherine had been his late brother 's wife, and it
8668-566: The Wycliffite Bible , an English translation of the Latin Vulgate . In 1401, Parliament passed the Suppression of Heresy Act , the first English law authorising the burning of unrepentant or reoffending heretics. In reaction to Lollardy, the 1409 Constitutions of Oxford prohibited vernacular Bible translations unless authorised by the bishops. This effectively became a total ban as
8865-426: The adoration of the elements. The letter was delivered to Cranmer by two Italian reformed theologians, Peter Martyr and Bernardino Ochino , who were invited to take refuge in England. Martyr also brought with him an epistle written allegedly by John Chrysostom , Ad Caesarium Monachum , which appeared to provide patristic support against the corporeal real presence. These documents influenced Cranmer's thoughts on
9062-441: The curate , thus dissociating the elements from any physical presence. The new book removed any possibility of prayers for the dead because such prayers implied support for the doctrine of purgatory. The Act of Uniformity 1552 , which authorised the book's use, specified that it be exclusively used from 1 November. The final version was officially published at almost the last minute, owing to Dudley's intervention. While travelling in
9259-460: The diocese of London . At the same time, John Ponet took Ridley's former position. Incumbent conservatives were uprooted and replaced with reformers. The first result of cooperation and consultation between Cranmer and Bucer was the first Edwardine Ordinal , the liturgy for the ordination of priests. This was missing in the first prayer book and was not published until 1550. Cranmer adopted Bucer's draft and created three services for commissioning:
9456-447: The humanists Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples and Erasmus . He finished the course in three years. Shortly after receiving his Master of Arts degree in 1515, he was elected to a fellowship of Jesus College. Sometime after Cranmer took his MA, he married a woman named Joan. Although he was not yet a priest, he was obliged to give up his fellowship, resulting in losing his residence at Jesus College. To support himself and his wife, he took
9653-499: The sceptre and rod . Pope Clement VII was furious at this defiance, but he could not take decisive action as he was pressured by other monarchs to avoid an irreparable breach with England. On 9 July he provisionally excommunicated Henry and his advisers (who included Cranmer) unless he repudiated Anne by the end of September. Henry kept Anne as his wife and, on 7 September, Anne gave birth to Elizabeth . Cranmer baptised her immediately afterwards and acted as one of her godparents. It
9850-409: The 15th century, the parish was renamed after the college as Jesus parish, with the churchyard still being used for burials. This was short-lived, as by the middle of the 16th century Jesus' parish was absorbed into that of All Saints . Significant alterations were carried out to the church under Alcock, transforming the cathedral-sized church, which was the largest in Cambridge into a College chapel for
10047-482: The 1870s to install stained glass. Said and sung services are held every day during term. Choral Evensong takes place four times a week (Tuesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays, and Sundays), and sung Eucharist on Sunday mornings. There are also Compline twice a term, as well as Masses on major holy days. The chapel, famed for its warm but clean acoustics, is also a much sought-after space for concerts and recitals, as well as recordings. Jesus College maintains two choirs,
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#173311560057710244-534: The 27th day of May in the year of our lord 1501, on whose soul may God look upon with mercy"). The arms of the Cranmer and Aslockton families are displayed. The figure is that of a man with flowing hair and gown and a purse on his right side. Their oldest son, John Cranmer, inherited the family estate, while Thomas and his younger brother, Edmund, were placed on the path to clerical careers. Historians know nothing definite about Cranmer's early schooling. He probably attended
10441-604: The Advancement of True Religion, which abolished "erroneous books" and restricted the reading of the Bible in English to those of noble status. Reformers were examined, forced to recant, or imprisoned from May to August. For five months, Henry took no action on the accusations against his archbishop. The conspiracy was finally revealed to Cranmer by the king himself. According to Cranmer's secretary, Ralph Morice , sometime in September 1543,
10638-539: The Anglican Church broke away from Catholicism, in part because the title was re-conferred by Parliament in 1544, after the split.) Wolsey's enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas, among whom was the attractive, charismatic Anne Boleyn . Anne arrived at court in 1522 as maid of honour to Queen Catherine, having spent some years in France being educated by Queen Claude of France. She
10835-526: The Archbishop of Canterbury. This Act also reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope. The First Act of Supremacy made Henry Supreme Head of the Church of England and disregarded any "usage, custom, foreign laws, foreign authority [or] prescription". In case this should be resisted, Parliament passed
11032-477: The Bible should be available in the vernacular languages for the benefit of the laity . They prioritised preaching scripture over the sacraments and did not believe in transubstantiation. In addition, they condemned prayers for the dead and denied that confession to a priest was necessary for salvation. Lollards believed the Catholic Church was a false church, but they outwardly conformed to Catholicism to evade persecution. When Lollards gathered together, they read
11229-521: The Bible that was first published in April 1539 under the direction of Cromwell. The preface was in the form of a sermon addressed to readers. As for Cromwell, he was delighted that his plan of a royal marriage between Henry and Anne of Cleves , the sister of a German prince was accepted by the king. In Cromwell's view, the marriage could potentially bring back contacts with the Schmalkaldic League . Henry
11426-520: The Catholic Church from Martin Luther's accusations of heresy in a book he wrote—probably with considerable help from the conservative Bishop of Rochester John Fisher —entitled The Defence of the Seven Sacraments , for which he was awarded the title "Defender of the Faith" ( Fidei Defensor ) by Pope Leo X . (Successive English and British monarchs have retained this title to the present, even after
11623-506: The Church due to power struggles between religious conservatives and reformers. He published the first officially authorised vernacular service, the Exhortation and Litany . When Edward, who was devout and had been raised in the tenants of a reformed Church came to the throne, Cranmer was able to promote faster changes. He wrote and compiled the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer ,
11820-456: The Church of England became markedly Protestant during the reign of Henry's son Edward VI (1547–1553) largely along lines laid down by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer . Under Mary I (1553–1558), Catholicism was briefly restored. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement reintroduced the Protestant religion but in a more moderate manner. Nevertheless, disputes over the structure, theology, and worship of
12017-508: The Church of England continued for generations. The English Reformation is generally considered to have concluded during the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603), but scholars also speak of a "Long Reformation" stretching into the 17th and 18th centuries. This time period includes the violent disputes over religion during the Stuart period , most famously the English Civil War which resulted in
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#173311560057712214-410: The Church. Cranmer left Mantua on 19 November and arrived in England at the beginning of January. Henry personally financed the papal bulls necessary for Cranmer's promotion to Canterbury. The bulls were easily acquired because the papal nuncio was under orders from Rome to please the English in an effort to prevent a final breach. The bulls arrived around 26 March 1533 and Cranmer was consecrated as
12411-628: The Clergy . (Parliament subsequently gave this statutory force with the Submission of the Clergy Act .) The next day, More resigned as lord chancellor. This left Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. (Cromwell never became chancellor. His power came—and was lost—through his informal relations with Henry.) Archbishop Warham died in August 1532. Henry wanted Thomas Cranmer —a Protestant who could be relied on to oppose
12608-610: The College Choir and the Chapel Choir. Between September 2009 and December 2016 Mark Williams , former assistant organist at St Paul's Cathedral , served as director of music, being succeeded by Richard Pinel, former assistant organist at St George's Chapel, Windsor and Organ Scholar at Magdalen College, Oxford , in January 2017. After Pinel's departure at the end of the 2022 academic year, Peter Wright served as acting director until
12805-721: The Continental reformers. He struck up a friendship with Cranmer and after his return to Basel, he wrote about Cranmer to the German reformer Martin Bucer in Strasbourg . Grynaeus' early contacts initiated Cranmer's eventual relationship with the Strasbourg and Swiss reformers. In January 1532, Cranmer was appointed the resident ambassador at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor , Charles V . As
13002-556: The Emperor and the Lutheran princes, and while Calvin showed some enthusiasm, he said he was unable to come. Cranmer acknowledged Calvin and replied, "Meanwhile, we will reform the English Church to the utmost of our ability and give our labour that both its doctrines and laws will be improved after the model of holy scripture." One partial manuscript of the project survived that was annotated with corrections and comments by Cranmer and Martyr. When
13199-468: The English Church, tax it, appoint its officials, and control its laws. It also gave him control over the church's doctrine and ritual. While Henry remained a traditional Catholic, his most important supporters in breaking with Rome were the Protestants. Yet, not all of his supporters were Protestants. Some were traditionalists, such as Stephen Gardiner , opposed to the new theology but felt papal supremacy
13396-539: The English population, especially among academics and merchants with connections to continental Europe. Protestant thought was better received at Cambridge University than Oxford . A group of reform-minded Cambridge students (known by moniker "Little Germany") met at the White Horse tavern from the mid-1520s. Its members included Robert Barnes , Hugh Latimer , John Frith , Thomas Bilney , George Joye and Thomas Arthur . Those who held Protestant sympathies remained
13593-478: The English side was evenly balanced between conservatives and reformers. The talks dragged on with the Germans becoming weary despite the Archbishop's strenuous efforts. The negotiations were fatally neutralised by an appointee of the king. Cranmer's colleague, Edward Foxe, who sat on Henry's Privy Council , had died earlier in the year. The king chose as his replacement Cranmer's conservative rival, Cuthbert Tunstall, who
13790-461: The Eucharist. In March 1549, Strasbourg forced Martin Bucer and Paul Fagius to leave. Cranmer immediately invited the men to England and promised they would be placed in English universities. When they arrived on 25 April, Cranmer was delighted to meet Bucer face to face after eighteen years of correspondence. He needed these scholarly men to train a new generation of preachers as well as to assist in
13987-527: The German Lutheran princes of the Schmalkaldic League . There also seemed to be a possibility that Emperor Charles V might act to avenge his rejected aunt (Queen Catherine) and enforce the Pope's excommunication. The negotiations did not lead to an alliance but did bring Lutheran ideas to England. In 1536, Convocation adopted the first doctrinal statement for the Church of England, the Ten Articles . This
14184-487: The King as a petition for reform on 18 March. On 26 March, the Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates mandated the clergy pay no more than five percent of their first year's revenue ( annates ) to Rome. On 10 May, the King demanded of Convocation that the church renounce all authority to make laws. On 15 May, Convocation renounced its authority to make canon law without royal assent—the so called Submission of
14381-448: The King's nomination for bishop, they would be liable to punishment by praemunire. The Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown. The Act Concerning Peter's Pence and Dispensations outlawed the annual payment by landowners of Peter's Pence to the Pope, and transferred the power to grant dispensations and licences from the Pope to
14578-489: The Lutheran princes arrived to build on Melanchthon's exhortations. Cromwell wrote a letter to the king in support of the new Lutheran mission. The king had begun to change his stance and concentrated on wooing conservative opinion in England rather than reaching out to the Lutherans. On 28 April 1539, Parliament met for the first time in three years. Cranmer was present, but Cromwell was unable to attend due to ill health. On 5 May
14775-712: The Pardon to Clergy Act 1531. By 1532, Cromwell was responsible for managing government business in the House of Commons. He authored and presented to the Commons the Supplication against the Ordinaries , which was a list of grievances against the bishops, including abuses of power and Convocation's independent legislative authority. After passing the Commons, the Supplication was presented to
14972-400: The Pope, I refuse him, as Christ's enemy, and Antichrist with all his false doctrine." He was pulled from the pulpit and taken to where Latimer and Ridley had been burnt six months previously. As the flames drew around him, he fulfilled his promise by placing his right hand into the heart of the fire, calling it "that unworthy hand". His dying words were, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit. I see
15169-510: The Privy Council arrested Cranmer at the end of November, the nobles were hampered by the symbol of the king's trust in him. Cranmer's victory ended with two second-rank leaders imprisoned and Germain Gardiner executed. With the atmosphere in Cranmer's favour, he pursued quiet efforts to reform the Church, particularly the liturgy. On 27 May 1544, the first officially authorised vernacular service
15366-802: The Privy Council selected him to be the Bishop of Gloucester on 15 May 1550, he laid down conditions for not wearing the required vestments. He found an ally among the Continental reformers in Jan Łaski, who had become a leader of the Stranger church in London, a designated place of worship for Continental Protestant refugees. His church's forms and practices had taken reforms much further than Cranmer would have liked. Bucer and Peter Martyr, while they sympathised with Hooper's position, supported Cranmer's arguments of timing and authority. Cranmer and Ridley stood their ground. This led to Hooper's imprisonment, and he eventually gave in. He
15563-482: The Privy Council. Cranmer complained about this to the council, but the authorities noted that the articles were developed during the Convocation (hence evading giving a direct answer). The council gave Cranmer the unhappy task of requiring the bishops to subscribe to the articles, many of whom opposed them and pointed out the anomaly of the title page. While Cranmer was carrying out this duty, events unfolded that rendered
15760-599: The Protestant party had difficulty in making use of the event, given Cranmer's recantations. The exiles ' propaganda concentrated on publishing various specimens of his writings. Eventually John Foxe put Cranmer's story to effective use in 1559, and it featured prominently in his Acts and Monuments when it was first printed in 1563. English Reformation Electors of Saxony Holy Roman Emperors Building Literature Theater Liturgies Hymnals Monuments Calendrical commemoration The English Reformation took place in 16th-century England when
15957-533: The Schmalkaldic League. Cranmer and Bucer's relationship became ever closer owing to Charles V's victory over the League at Mühlberg , which left England as the sole major nation that gave sanctuary to persecuted reformers. Cranmer wrote a letter to Bucer (now lost) with questions on eucharistic theology. In Bucer's reply dated 28 November 1547, he denied the human real presence and condemned transubstantiation and
16154-477: The annulment and other grievances against the church. The Catholic Church was a powerful institution in England with a number of privileges. The King could not tax or sue clergy in civil courts. The church could also grant fugitives sanctuary , and many areas of the law―such as family law―were controlled by the church. For centuries, kings had attempted to reduce the church's power, and the English Reformation
16351-533: The annulment of his aunt's marriage. While Cranmer was following Charles through Italy, he received a royal letter dated 1 October 1532 informing him that he had been appointed the new Archbishop of Canterbury, following the death of archbishop William Warham . Cranmer was ordered to return to England. The appointment had been secured by the family of Anne Boleyn , who was being courted by Henry. When Cranmer's promotion became known in London, it caused great surprise as Cranmer had previously held only minor positions in
16548-601: The annulment proceedings in addition to his duties as a Cambridge don. In mid-1529, Cranmer stayed with relatives in Waltham Holy Cross to avoid an outbreak of the plague in Cambridge. Two of his Cambridge associates, Stephen Gardiner and Edward Foxe , joined him. The three discussed the annulment issue and Cranmer suggested putting aside the legal case in Rome in favour of a general canvassing of opinions from university theologians throughout Europe. Henry showed much interest in
16745-571: The appointment of the current director Benjamin Sheen, who took up the post in January 2023. Former Organ Scholars include Malcolm Archer , who (until 2018) was the Organist and Director of Chapel Music at Winchester College , James O'Donnell , Organist and Master of the Choristers of Westminster Abbey , and Charles Harrison , Organist and Master of the Choristers of Chichester Cathedral . Sonita Alleyne
16942-410: The archbishop demanded that his bishops subscribe to certain doctrinal articles. In 1551, Cranmer presented a version of a statement to the bishops, but its status remained ambiguous. Cranmer did not devote much effort to developing the articles, most likely owing to work on the canon law revision. He became more interested once the hope for an ecumenical council faded. By September 1552, draft versions of
17139-496: The argument that the king exercised supreme jurisdiction within his realm. Cranmer's first contact with a Continental reformer was with Simon Grynaeus , a humanist based in Basel , Switzerland, and a follower of the Swiss reformers, Huldrych Zwingli and Johannes Oecolampadius . In mid-1531, Grynaeus took an extended visit to England to offer himself as an intermediary between the king and
17336-532: The articles against Cranmer that night. The archbishop appeared unaware that an attack on his person was made. His commissioners in Lambeth dealt specifically with Turner's case where he was acquitted, much to the fury of the conservatives. While the plot against Cranmer proceeded, the reformers were attacked on other fronts. On 20 April, the Convocation reconvened to consider revising the Bishops' Book. Cranmer presided over
17533-520: The articles were being worked on by Cranmer and John Cheke , his scholarly friend, commissioned to translate them into Latin. When the Forty-two Articles were finally published in May 1553, the title page declared that the Convocation agreed upon the articles, which were published by the king's authority. This was not the case and the mistake was likely caused by miscommunications between the archbishop and
17730-401: The authority of the king and queen and recognised the Pope as head of the Church. On 14 February 1556, he was degraded from holy orders and returned to Bocardo. He had conceded very little and Edmund Bonner was not satisfied with these admissions. On 24 February, a writ was issued to the mayor of Oxford and the date of Cranmer's execution was set for 7 March. Two days after the writ was issued,
17927-508: The authority of the papacy above the Crown) and Wolsey's subsequent death in November 1530 on his way to London to answer a charge of high treason left Henry open to both the influences of the supporters of the queen and the opposing influences of those who sanctioned the abandonment of the Roman allegiance, for whom an annulment was but an opportunity. In 1529, the King summoned Parliament to deal with
18124-780: The basis of the Six Articles . They affirmed the conservative interpretation of doctrines such as the real presence, clerical celibacy, and the necessity of auricular confession, the private confession of sins to a priest. As the Act of the Six Articles neared passage in Parliament, Cranmer moved his wife and children out of England to safety. Up until this time, the family was kept quietly hidden, most likely in Ford Palace in Kent . The Act passed Parliament at
18321-594: The biblical prohibition (in Leviticus 18 and 20) against marriage to a brother's wife. The couple married in 1509, and after a series of miscarriages, a daughter, Mary , was born in 1516. By the 1520s, Henry still did not have a son to name as heir, and he took this as a sure sign of God's anger and made overtures to the Vatican about an annulment . He gave Cardinal Wolsey the task of prosecuting his case; Wolsey began by consulting university experts. From 1527, Cranmer assisted with
18518-488: The bishops never did authorise an official English translation. At the same time, the Bible was available in most other European languages. As literacy rates increased, a growing number of orthodox laity who could read English but not Latin resorted to reading the Wycliffite Bible. Lollards were forced underground and survived as a tiny movement of peasants and artisans. It "helped to create popular reception-areas for
18715-497: The church and further Protestant beliefs. Initially, Parliament passed minor legislation to control ecclesiastical fees, clerical pluralism , and sanctuary. In the matter of the annulment, no progress seemed possible. The Pope seemed more afraid of Emperor Charles V than of Henry. Anne, Cromwell and their allies wished simply to ignore the Pope, but in October 1530 a meeting of clergy and lawyers advised that Parliament could not empower
18912-538: The clergy were also accused of leveraging the fear of purgatory to make money from prayers and masses. The Catholics countered that justification by faith alone was a "licence to sin". The publication of William Tyndale 's English New Testament in 1526 helped to spread Protestant ideas. Printed abroad and smuggled into the country, the Tyndale Bible was the first English Bible to be mass produced; there were probably 16,000 copies in England by 1536. Tyndale's translation
19109-593: The college have been members of the Cambridge Apostles . The main entrance to Jesus College is a walled passage known as the "Chimney". The term is derived from the Middle French word cheminée , for "little path" or "little way". The Chimney leads directly to the Porter's Lodge and then into First Court. All the courts at the college, except for the cloister , are open on at least one side. The Quincentenary Library
19306-472: The council was working to persuade several judges to put on the throne Lady Jane Grey , Edward's cousin and a Protestant, instead of Mary, Henry and Catherine of Aragon's daughter and a Catholic. On 17 June 1553, the king made his will, noting Jane would succeed him, contravening the Third Succession Act . Cranmer tried to speak to Edward alone, but he was refused and his audience with Edward occurred in
19503-459: The council, but at the last moment, additional denunciations were added by Stephen Gardiner's nephew, Germain Gardiner . These new articles attacked Cranmer and listed his misdeeds back to 1541. This document and the following actions were the basis of the so-called Prebendaries' Plot . The articles were delivered to the Council in London and were probably read on 22 April 1543. The king most likely saw
19700-404: The day of his execution, 21 March 1556, he opened with a prayer and an exhortation to obey the king and queen, but he ended his sermon totally unexpectedly, deviating from the prepared script. He renounced the recantations that he had written or signed with his own hand since his degradation and he stated that, in consequence, his hand would be punished by being burnt first. He then said, "And as for
19897-429: The dead , which were made possible by the communion of saints . Religious guilds sponsored intercessory Masses for their members through chantries . The monks and nuns who lived in monasteries prayed for souls as well. By popular demand, "prayer for the dead dominated Catholic devotion in much of northern Europe." English Catholicism was strong and popular in the early 1500s. One measure of popular engagement
20094-467: The death of Martin Bucer in February 1551. Both Henry VIII and Cranmer had previously failed to convince Melanchthon to come; this time, the council made a serious effort by sending him an advance to cover his travel expenses. Cranmer sent a personal letter urging him to take the offer. Despite his plea, Melanchthon never made the voyage to England. While this effort to shore up the reformation was taking place,
20291-537: The debate. By 11 July, Cranmer, Cromwell, and the Convocation , the general assembly of the clergy, had subscribed to the Ten Articles . In late 1536, the north of England was convulsed in a series of uprisings collectively known as the Pilgrimage of Grace , the most serious opposition to Henry's policies. Cromwell and Cranmer were the primary targets of the protesters' fury. Cromwell and the king worked furiously to quell
20488-465: The doctrine of the corporeal real presence and believed that the Eucharistic presence was only spiritual. Parliament backed the publication of the prayer book after Christmas by passing the Act of Uniformity 1549 ; it then legalised clerical marriage. It is difficult to ascertain how much of the prayer book is Cranmer's personal composition. Generations of liturgical scholars have been able to track down
20685-490: The early Protestant leaders went through a humanist phase before embracing the new movement. A notable early use of the English word reformation came in 1512, when the English bishops were called together by King Henry VIII , notionally to discuss the extirpation of the rump Lollard heresy. John Colet (then working with Erasmus on the establishment of his school) gave a notoriously confrontational sermon on Romans 12:2 ("Be ye not conformed to this world, but be ye reformed in
20882-611: The emperor travelled throughout his realm, Cranmer had to follow him to his residence in Regensburg . He passed through the Lutheran city of Nuremberg and saw for the first time the effects of the Reformation . When the Imperial Diet was moved to Nuremberg, he met the leading architect of the Nuremberg reforms, Andreas Osiander . They became good friends, and during that July Cranmer took
21079-480: The end of June and it forced Latimer and Nicholas Shaxton to resign their dioceses given their outspoken opposition to the measure. The setback for the reformers was short-lived. By September, Henry was displeased with the results of the Act and its promulgators; the ever-loyal Cranmer and Cromwell were back in favour. The king asked his archbishop to write a new preface for the Great Bible , an English translation of
21276-416: The eucharist: he denied the real presence . Cranmer personally tried to persuade him to change his views without success. Although he rejected Frith's radicalism, by 1534 he clearly signalled that he had broken with Rome and that he had set a new theological course. He supported the cause of reform by gradually replacing the old guard in his ecclesiastical province with men such as Hugh Latimer who followed
21473-430: The final version was presented to Parliament, the breach between Cranmer and Dudley was complete and the regent effectively killed the canon law bill in the House of Lords. As with the first prayer book, the origins and participants in its revision are obscure, but it was clear that Cranmer led the project and steered its development. It had begun as early as the end of 1549 when the Convocation of Canterbury met to discuss
21670-468: The formation of a statement of doctrine. The original Catholic canon law that defined governance within the Church needed revision following Henry's break with Rome. Several revision attempts were made throughout Henry's reign, but these initial projects were shelved as the speed of reform outpaced the time required to revise. As the reformation stabilised, Cranmer formed a committee in December 1551 to restart
21867-463: The former abbey of Chertsey and in Windsor Castle in September 1548. The list of participants can be only partially reconstructed, but it is known that the members were balanced between conservatives and reformers. These meetings were followed by a debate on the Eucharist in the House of Lords which took place between 14 and 19 December. Cranmer publicly revealed in this debate that he had abandoned
22064-465: The groundwork for the subsequent Reformation was laid by Renaissance humanists who believed that the Scriptures were the best source of Christian theology and criticized religious practices which they considered superstitious. By 1520, Martin Luther's new ideas were known and debated in England, but Protestants were a religious minority and heretics under the law. The theology and liturgy of
22261-459: The heavens open and Jesus standing at the right hand of God." The Marian government produced a pamphlet with all six recantations plus the text of the speech Cranmer was to have made in the University Church. His subsequent withdrawal of his recantations was not mentioned, though what actually happened soon became common knowledge, undermining the effectiveness of Marian propaganda. Similarly,
22458-558: The idea when Gardiner and Foxe presented him with this plan. It is unknown whether the king or his new Lord Chancellor, Thomas More , explicitly approved the plan. Eventually, it was implemented, and Cranmer was requested to join the royal team in Rome to gather university opinions. Edward Foxe coordinated the research effort and the team produced the Collectanea Satis Copiosa ("The Sufficiently Abundant Collections") and The Determinations , historical and theological support for
22655-492: The king expressing his doubts about the queen's guilt, highlighting his own esteem for Anne. After it was delivered, Cranmer was resigned to the fact that the end of Anne's marriage was inevitable. On 16 May, he saw Anne in the Tower and heard her confession and the following day, he pronounced the marriage null and void. Two days later, Anne was executed; Cranmer was one of the few who publicly mourned her death. The vicegerency brought
22852-536: The king of many of the Germans' chief concerns. Although Cranmer begged the Germans to continue with the negotiations, using the argument "to consider the many thousands of souls in England" at stake, they left on 1 October without any substantial achievements. Continental reformer Philipp Melanchthon was aware that he was very much admired by Henry. In early 1539, Melanchthon wrote several letters to Henry criticising his views on religion, in particular his support of clerical celibacy. By late April another delegation from
23049-460: The king showed Cranmer a paper summarising the accusations against him. An investigation was to be mounted and Cranmer was appointed chief investigator. Surprise raids were carried out, evidence gathered, and ringleaders identified. Typically, Cranmer put the clergymen involved in the conspiracy through immediate humiliation, but he eventually forgave them and continued to use their services. To show his trust in Cranmer, Henry gave Cranmer his ring. When
23246-441: The king's health ebbed in his final months. Cranmer performed his final duties for the king on 28 January 1547 when he gave a reformed statement of faith while gripping Henry's hand instead of giving him his last rites . Cranmer mourned Henry's death, and it was later said that he demonstrated his grief by growing a beard. The beard was also a sign of his break with the past. Continental reformers grew beards to mark their rejection of
23443-549: The king, Audley and Seymour suggested that Cranmer inform Henry. Cranmer slipped a message to Henry during mass on All Saints Day . An investigation revealed the truth of the marital indiscretions and Catherine was executed in February 1542. In 1543, several conservative clergymen in Kent banded together to attack and denounce two reformers, Richard Turner and John Bland , before the Privy Council . They prepared articles to present to
23640-430: The king. A new statement of faith was delayed until 1543 with the publication of the King's Book. In 1538, the king and Cromwell arranged with Lutheran princes to have detailed discussions on forming a political and religious alliance. Henry had been seeking a new embassy from the Schmalkaldic League since mid-1537. The Lutherans were delighted by this and they sent a joint delegation from various German cities, including
23837-419: The king; Catherine did not appear or send a proxy. On 23 May Cranmer pronounced the judgement that Henry's marriage with Catherine was against the law of God. He even issued a threat of excommunication if Henry did not stay away from Catherine. Henry was now free to marry and, on 28 May, Cranmer validated Henry and Anne's marriage. On 1 June, Cranmer personally crowned and anointed Anne queen and delivered to her
24034-473: The laity, the restoration of prayers for souls in purgatory, and the rebuilding of abbeys. Cranmer wrote a strong response to these demands to the King in which he denounced the wickedness of the rebellion. On 21 July, Cranmer commandeered St Paul's Cathedral where he vigorously defended the official Church line. A draft of his sermon, the only extant written sample of his preaching from his entire career, shows that he collaborated with Peter Martyr on dealing with
24231-464: The law of Christ allows, supreme head of the English Church and clergy". When Warham requested a discussion, there was silence. Warham then said, "He who is silent seems to consent", to which a bishop responded, "Then we are all silent." The Convocation granted consent to the King's five articles and the payment on 8 March 1531. Later, the Convocation of York agreed to the same on behalf of the clergy of York province . That same year, Parliament passed
24428-506: The lawns of its courts, except First Court, Cloister Court and those that are burial sites for nuns from the original nunnery. A major addition to the College – the largest in modern times – is the West Court development, which was officially opened in October 2017 by HRH the Earl of Wessex. Its facilities include a 180-seat lecture theatre, medical teaching suite, guest and conference accommodation,
24625-561: The marriage, but the Pope refused. According to canon law , the Pope could not annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed. Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine's nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner. The combination of Henry's "scruple of conscience" and his captivation by Anne Boleyn made his desire to rid himself of his queen compelling. The indictment of his chancellor Cardinal Wolsey in 1529 for praemunire (taking
24822-455: The mass. Cranmer's burning was postponed and, under the normal practice of canon law, he should have been absolved. Mary, however, decided that no further postponement was possible. His last recantation was issued on 18 March. It was a sign of a broken man, a sweeping confession of sin. Despite the stipulation in canon law that recanting heretics be reprieved, Mary was determined to make an example of Cranmer, arguing that "his iniquity and obstinacy
25019-410: The matter. Late in 1550, the opinions of Martyr and Bucer were sought on how the liturgy might be improved, and they influenced the revision significantly. The view of the spiritual presence was clarified by the use of entirely different words at the offering of the bread and the wine to the communicants. New rubrics noted that any bread could be used, and any bread or wine that remained could be used by
25216-502: The miscarriage, the king started to take an interest in Jane Seymour . By 24 April, he had commissioned Cromwell to prepare the case for a divorce. Unaware of these plans, Cranmer had continued to write letters to Cromwell on minor matters up to 22 April. Anne was sent to the Tower of London on 2 May, and Cranmer was urgently summoned by Cromwell. On the very next day, Cranmer wrote a letter to
25413-608: The new thinking. He intervened in religious disputes, supporting reformers, to the disappointment of religious conservatives who desired to maintain the link with Rome. Cranmer was not immediately accepted by the bishops within his province. When he attempted a canonical visitation , he had to avoid locations where a resident conservative bishop might make an embarrassing personal challenge to his authority. In 1535, Cranmer had difficult encounters with several bishops, John Stokesley , John Longland , and Stephen Gardiner among others. They objected to Cranmer's power and title and argued that
25610-524: The newly imported Lutheranism". Some Renaissance humanists , such as Erasmus (who lived in England for a time), John Colet and Thomas More , called for a return ad fontes ("back to the sources") of Christian faith—the scriptures as understood through textual, linguistic, classical and patristic scholarship —and wanted to make the Bible available in the vernacular. Humanists criticised so-called superstitious practices and clerical corruption, while emphasising inward piety over religious ritual. Some of
25807-431: The newness of your minds") saying that the first to reform must be the bishops themselves, then the clergy, and only then the laity. The Protestant Reformation was initiated by Martin Luther , a German friar . By the early 1520s, Luther's views were known and disputed in England. The main plank of Luther's theology was justification by faith alone rather than by faith with good works. In other words, justification
26004-541: The north of the country, he met the Scots reformer John Knox , who was based in Newcastle . Impressed by his preaching, Dudley selected him as a royal chaplain and brought him south to participate in the reform projects. In a sermon before the king, Knox attacked the practice of kneeling during communion. On 27 September 1552, the Privy Council stopped the printing of the new prayer book and told Cranmer to revise it. He responded with
26201-406: The old Church, and this significance of clerical beards was well understood in England. On 31 January, he was among the executors of the king's final will that nominated Edward Seymour as Lord Protector and welcomed the boy king, Edward VI . Under the regency of Seymour, the reformers became part of the establishment. A royal visitation of the provinces took place in August 1547, and each parish
26398-572: The pace of reforms under the control of the king. A balance was instituted between the conservatives and the reformers and this was seen in the Ten Articles , the first attempt at defining the beliefs of the Henrician Church. The articles had a two-part structure. The first five articles showed the influence of the reformers by recognising only three of the former seven sacraments : baptism, eucharist, and penance . The last five articles concerned
26595-429: The papacy—to replace him. The Pope reluctantly approved Cranmer's appointment, and he was consecrated on 30 March 1533. By this time, Henry was secretly married to a pregnant Anne. The impending birth of an heir gave new urgency to annulling his marriage to Catherine. Nevertheless, a decision continued to be delayed because Rome was the final authority in all ecclesiastical matters. To address this issue, Parliament passed
26792-664: The people to give to the poor rather than make offerings to images. The clergy were also ordered to place Bibles in both English and Latin in every church for the people to read. This last requirement was largely ignored by the bishops for a year or more due to the lack of any authorised English translation. The only complete vernacular version was the Coverdale Bible finished in 1535 and based on Tyndale's earlier work. It lacked royal approval, however. Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch in his study of The Later Reformation in England, 1547–1603 argues that after 1537, "England's Reformation
26989-498: The presence of the councillors. Edward told him that he supported what he had written in his will. Cranmer's decision to support Jane must have occurred before 19 June, when royal orders were sent to convene the Convocation for the recognition of the new succession. By mid-July, there were serious provincial revolts in Mary's favour and support for Jane in the council fell. As Mary was proclaimed queen, Dudley, Ridley, Cheke, and Jane's father,
27186-575: The priest offered to God the same sacrifice of Christ on the cross that provided atonement for the sins of humanity. The Mass was also an offering of prayer by which the living could help souls in purgatory . While genuine penance removed the guilt attached to sin, Catholicism taught that a penalty could remain in the case of imperfect contrition . It was believed that most people would end their lives with these penalties unsatisfied and would have to spend "time" in purgatory. Time in purgatory could be lessened through indulgences and prayers for
27383-483: The prioress, which became the Master's Lodge. This set of buildings remains the core of the college to this day and this accounts for its distinctly monastic architectural style, which sets it apart from other Cambridge colleges. A library was soon added, and the chapel was considerably modified and reduced in scale by Alcock. At its foundation, the college had a master, six fellows and six scholars. Jesus College admits undergraduate and graduate students to all subjects at
27580-459: The range of good works considered necessary and reinforced the importance of faith. In each parish visited, injunctions were put in place that resolved to "...eliminate any image which had any suspicion of devotion attached to it." Cranmer's eucharistic views, which had already moved away from official Catholic doctrine, received another push from Continental reformers. Cranmer had been in contact with Martin Bucer since initial contacts were made with
27777-434: The rebellion, while Cranmer kept a low profile. After it was clear that Henry's regime was safe, the government took the initiative to remedy the evident inadequacy of the Ten Articles . The outcome after months of debate was The Institution of a Christian Man informally known from the first issue as the Bishops' Book. The book was initially proposed in February 1537 in the first vicegerential synod, ordered by Cromwell, for
27974-494: The rebellion. The Prayer Book Rebellion and other events harmed the Seymour regency . The Privy Council became divided when several dissident Councillors joined behind John Dudley to oust Seymour. Cranmer and two other Councillors, William Paget , and Thomas Smith initially rallied behind Seymour. After a flurry of letters passed between the two sides, a bloodless coup d'état ended Seymour's Protectorship on 13 October 1549. Despite
28171-479: The reform of liturgy and doctrine. Others who accepted his invitations included the Polish reformer, Jan Łaski , but Cranmer could not convince Osiander and Melanchthon that they should come to England. As the use of English in worship services spread, the need for a complete uniform liturgy for the Church became evident. Initial meetings to start what would eventually become the 1549 Book of Common Prayer were held in
28368-450: The religious leaders of the reformation. On 8 March 1554, the Privy Council ordered Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer to be transferred to Bocardo prison in Oxford to await a second trial for heresy. During this time, Cranmer was able to smuggle out a letter to Martyr, who had fled to Strasbourg, the last surviving document written in his own hand. He stated that the desperate situation of the church
28565-464: The role of grace-giving sacraments. His choice of love rather than charity to translate agape de-emphasized good works. When rendering the Greek verb metanoeite into English, Tyndale used repent rather than do penance . The former word indicated an internal turning to God, while the latter translation supported the sacrament of confession. The Protestant ideas were popular among some parts of
28762-461: The roles of images , saints , rites and ceremonies, and purgatory , and they reflected the views of the traditionalists. Two early drafts of the document have been preserved and show different teams of theologians at work. The competition between the conservatives and reformers is revealed in rival editorial corrections made by Cranmer and Cuthbert Tunstall , the bishop of Durham . The end product had something that pleased and annoyed both sides of
28959-433: The roots of the weeds were transubstantiation, the corporeal real presence, and the sacrificial nature of the mass. Although Bucer assisted in the development of the English Reformation, he was still quite concerned about the speed of its progress. Both Bucer and Fagius had noticed that the 1549 prayer book was not a remarkable step forward. However, Cranmer assured Bucer that it was only a first step and that its initial form
29156-601: The rule of Puritan Oliver Cromwell . After the Stuart Restoration and the Glorious Revolution , the Church of England remained the established church , but a number of nonconformist churches now existed whose members suffered various civil disabilities until these were removed many years later. A substantial but dwindling minority of people from the late 16th to early 19th centuries remained Catholics in England – their church organization remained illegal until
29353-596: The same month the Ten Articles were published, Cromwell issued a set of Royal Injunctions to the clergy. Minor feast days were changed into normal work days, including those celebrating a church's patron saint and most feasts during harvest time (July through September). The rationale was partly economic as too many holidays led to a loss of productivity and were "the occasion of vice and idleness". In addition, Protestants considered feast days to be examples of superstition. Clergy were to discourage pilgrimages and instruct
29550-463: The same period, the most influential conservative bishop, Stephen Gardiner, was sent to France on a diplomatic mission and thus removed from an active role in English politics for three years. Cromwell's programme, assisted by Anne Boleyn's influence over episcopal appointments, was not merely against the clergy and the power of Rome. He persuaded Henry that safety from political alliances that Rome might attempt to bring together lay in negotiations with
29747-547: The separation of the English Church from union with the Holy See . Along with Thomas Cromwell , he supported the principle of royal supremacy , in which the king was considered sovereign over the Church within his realm and protector of his people from the abuses of Rome. During Cranmer's tenure as Archbishop of Canterbury, he established the first doctrinal and liturgical structures of the reformed Church of England . Under Henry's rule, Cranmer did not make many radical changes in
29944-496: The seven sacraments — Baptism , Confirmation , Marriage , Holy Orders , Anointing of the Sick , Penance and the Eucharist . The Eucharist was celebrated during the Mass , the central act of Catholic worship. In this service, a priest consecrated bread and wine to become the body and blood of Christ through transubstantiation . The church taught that, in the name of the congregation,
30141-470: The sources that he used, including the Sarum Rite , writings from Hermann von Wied , and several Lutheran sources including Osiander and Justus Jonas . It is more problematic to determine how Cranmer worked on the book and with whom he worked. Where information about his possible helpers is lacking, he is given the credit for the editorship and the overall structure of the book. The use of the new prayer book
30338-585: The stake on 21 March 1556; on the day of his execution, he withdrew his recantations, to die a heretic to Catholics and a martyr for the principles of the English Reformation. Cranmer's death was immortalised in Foxe's Book of Martyrs and his legacy lives on within the Church of England through the Book of Common Prayer and the Thirty-Nine Articles , an Anglican statement of faith derived from his work. Cranmer
30535-517: The stake. Powerful reform-minded nobles Edward Seymour and John Dudley returned to England from overseas and turned the tide against the conservatives. Two incidents tipped the balance. Gardiner was disgraced before the king when he refused to agree to exchange episcopal estates, and the son of the Duke of Norfolk was charged with treason and executed. There is no evidence that Cranmer played any part in these political games, and there were no further plots as
30732-399: The sub-committees, but the conservatives were able to overturn many reforming ideas, including justification by faith alone . On 5 May, the new revision called A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian Man or the King's Book was released. Doctrinally, it was far more conservative than the Bishops' Book. On 10 May, the reformers received another blow. Parliament passed the Act for
30929-454: The subscriptions futile. Edward VI became seriously ill and the councillors were told that he did not have long to live. In May 1553, the council sent several letters to Continental reformers assuring them that Edward's health was improving. Among the letters was one addressed to Melanchthon inviting him to come to England to take up the Regius Chair in Cambridge which had been vacant since
31126-430: The support of religiously conservative politicians behind Dudley's coup, the reformers managed to maintain control of the new government, and the English Reformation continued to consolidate gains. Seymour was initially imprisoned in the Tower but was shortly released on 6 February 1550 and returned to the council. The archbishop was able to transfer his former chaplain, Nicholas Ridley , from the minor see of Rochester to
31323-456: The surprising action of marrying Margarete , the niece of Osiander's wife. He did not take her as his mistress, as was the prevailing custom with priests for whom celibacy was too rigorous. Scholars note that Cranmer had moved, however moderately at this stage, into identifying with certain Lutheran principles. This progress in his personal life was not matched in his political life as he was unable to persuade Charles, Catherine's nephew, to support
31520-472: The university though typically accepts a larger number of students for engineering, medicine, law, natural sciences, mathematics, economics, history, languages, and human, social and political sciences. The college offers a wide range of scholarships. The college consistently performs well in the informal Tompkins Table , which ranks Cambridge colleges by undergraduate results. Along with students from Trinity , King's , Christ's and St John's , students of
31717-443: The whole Church. Cromwell opened the proceedings, but as the synod progressed, Cranmer and Foxe took on the chairmanship and the co-ordination. Foxe did most of the final editing and the book was published in late September. Even after publication, the book's status remained vague because the king had not given his full support to it. In a draft letter, Henry noted that he had not read the book, but supported its printing. His attention
31914-408: The work. He recruited Peter Martyr to the committee and he also asked Łaski and Hooper to participate, showing his habitual ability to forgive past actions. Cranmer and Martyr realised that a successful enactment of a reformed ecclesiastical law code in England would have international significance. Cranmer planned to draw together all the reformed churches of Europe under England's leadership to counter
32111-529: Was a Fellow from 1957 to 1978. The Glanville Williams Society, consisting of current and former members of Jesus College, meets annually in his honour. Justice David Hayton , editor of Underhill and Hayton's Law of Trusts and Trustees and current judge of the Caribbean Court of Justice was a Fellow from 1973 to 1987. Professor Robert Jennings was a Fellow of the college and later Whewhell Professor of International Law (1955–1982) before his appointment to
32308-635: Was a continuation of this power struggle. The Reformation Parliament sat from 1529 to 1536 and brought together those who wanted reform but who disagreed what form it should take. There were common lawyers who resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their ecclesiastical courts , and there were those who had been influenced by Lutheranism and were hostile to the theology of Rome. Henry's chancellor, Thomas More , successor to Wolsey, also wanted reform: he wanted new laws against heresy. Lawyer and member of Parliament Thomas Cromwell saw how Parliament could be used to advance royal supremacy over
32505-441: Was a sum equal to the Crown's annual income. This was agreed by the Convocation of Canterbury on 24 January 1531. It wanted the payment spread over five years, but Henry refused. The convocation responded by withdrawing their payment altogether and demanded Henry fulfil certain guarantees before they would give him the money. Henry refused these conditions, agreeing only to the five-year period of payment. On 7 February, Convocation
32702-404: Was a woman of "charm, style and wit, with will and savagery which made her a match for Henry". Anne was a distinguished French conversationalist, singer, and dancer. She was cultured and is the disputed author of several songs and poems. By 1527, Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled . She had not produced a male heir who survived longer than two months, and Henry wanted a son to secure
32899-656: Was against the law of God. The Pope responded by excommunicating Henry on 11 July 1533. Anne gave birth to a daughter, Princess Elizabeth , on 7 September 1533. In 1534, Parliament took further action to limit papal authority in England. A new Heresy Act ensured that no one could be punished for speaking against the Pope and also made it more difficult to convict someone of heresy; however, sacramentarians and Anabaptists continued to be vigorously persecuted. The Act in Absolute Restraint of Annates outlawed all annates to Rome and also ordered that if cathedrals refused
33096-417: Was arrested on 10 June. He immediately lost the support of all his friends, including Cranmer. As Cranmer had done for Anne Boleyn, he wrote a letter to the king defending the past work of Cromwell. Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves was quickly annulled on 9 July by the vice-gerential synod, now led by Cranmer and Gardiner. Following the annulment, Cromwell was executed on 28 July. Cranmer now found himself in
33293-413: Was asked to agree to five articles that specified that: In Parliament, Bishop Fisher championed Catherine and the clergy, inserting into the first article the phrase "as far as the word of God allows". On 11 February, William Warham , Archbishop of Canterbury, presented the revised wording to Convocation. The clergy were to acknowledge the King to be "singular protector, supreme lord and even, so far as
33490-575: Was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1978). He became an Honorary Fellow in 1979. Eric Maskin was a joint winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2007. Maskin was a research fellow from 1976 to 1977 and has been an Honorary Fellow since 2009. Several prominent figures in the law have been fellows of the college. Professor Glanville Williams , described as Britain's foremost scholar of criminal law,
33687-743: Was born in 1489 at Aslockton in Nottinghamshire , England. He was a younger son of Thomas Cranmer by his wife Agnes Hatfield. Thomas Cranmer was of modest wealth but was from a well-established armigerous gentry family which took its name from the manor of Cranmer in Lincolnshire. A ledger stone to one of his relatives in the Church of St John of Beverley, Whatton , near Aslockton is inscribed as follows: Hic jacet Thomas Cranmer, Armiger, qui obiit vicesimo septimo die mensis Maii, anno d(omi)ni. MD centesimo primo, cui(us) a(n)i(ma)e p(ro)p(i)cietur Deus Amen ("here lies Thomas Cranmer, Esquire, who died on
33884-436: Was characterized by its hatred of images, as Margaret Aston 's work on iconoclasm and iconophobia has repeatedly and eloquently demonstrated." In February 1538, the famous Rood of Grace was condemned as a mechanical fraud and destroyed at St Paul's Cross . In July, the statues of Our Lady of Walsingham , Our Lady of Ipswich , and other Marian images were burned at Chelsea on Cromwell's orders. In September, Cromwell issued
34081-469: Was chosen for an embassy to the Holy Roman Emperor. His supposed participation in an earlier embassy to Spain mentioned in the older literature, has proved to be spurious. Henry VIII's first marriage arose from the death of his older brother, Arthur , in 1502. Their father, Henry VII , betrothed Arthur's widow, Catherine of Aragon , to the future king. The marriage immediately raised questions about
34278-402: Was consecrated on 8 March 1551 according to the ordinal and preached before the king in his episcopal garments. Cranmer's vision of reform was maintained through careful steps under the government's authority. Cranmer's role in politics was diminishing when, on 16 October 1551, Seymour was arrested on charges of treason. In December, Seymour was put on trial, and although acquitted of treason, he
34475-469: Was disinterred and burned. Henry VIII acceded to the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17. He made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon , widow of his brother Arthur , in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummer's Day . Unlike his father , who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability. An observant Catholic, he heard up to five masses
34672-472: Was dismayed with Anne when they first met on 1 January 1540 but married her reluctantly on 6 January in a ceremony officiated by Cranmer. The marriage ended in disaster as Henry decided that he would request a royal divorce. This resulted in Henry being placed in an embarrassing position and Cromwell suffered the consequences. His old enemies, including the Duke of Norfolk, took advantage of the weakened Cromwell and he
34869-399: Was dissolved by Bishop John Alcock . The original structure of the chapel was cruciform in shape and the nave had both north and south aisles. A high, pitched roof was surmounted by a belfry and steeple; this collapsed in 1277. The chapel was also used as the parish church of St Radegund. Twice the chapel was ravaged by fire, in 1313 and 1376. When the college took over the precincts during
35066-530: Was elected master of the college in 2019. She was preceded by Ian White , former Van Eck Professor of Engineering at the university. Previous masters of the college include: Three members of the college have received Nobel Prizes . Philip W. Anderson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (1977). Anderson was a fellow from 1969 to 1975 while he held a visiting professorship at the Cavendish Laboratory and has been an Honorary Fellow since 1978. Peter D. Mitchell , an undergraduate and later research student,
35263-426: Was followed by the Bishops' Book in 1537. These established a semi-Lutheran doctrine for the church. Justification by faith, qualified by an emphasis on good works following justification, was a core teaching. The traditional seven sacraments were reduced to three only—baptism, Eucharist and penance. Catholic teaching on praying to saints, purgatory and the use of images in worship was undermined. In August 1536,
35460-404: Was founded at the beginning of the 12th century. The chapel is the oldest university building in Cambridge still in use and predates the foundation of the college by 350 years; it also predates the university by half a century. The Benedictine Convent, upon dissolution, included the chapel and the cloister attached to it; the nuns' refectory, which became the college hall; and the former lodging of
35657-418: Was highly influential, forming the basis of all subsequent English translations until the 20th century. An attack on traditional religion, Tyndale's translation included an epilogue explaining Luther's theology of justification by faith, and many translation choices were designed to undermine traditional Catholic teachings. Tyndale translated the Greek word charis as favour rather than grace to de-emphasize
35854-425: Was instructed to obtain a copy of the Homilies . This book consisted of twelve homilies, four of which were written by Cranmer. His reassertion of the doctrine of justification by faith elicited a strong reaction from Gardiner. In the "Homily of Good Works annexed to Faith," Cranmer attacked monasticism and the importance of various personal actions involved in liturgical recitations and ceremonies. Hence, he narrowed
36051-423: Was introduced to curb the effects of the Act of the Six Articles and the Act for the Advancement of True Religion. In 1546, the conservatives in a coalition including Gardiner, the Duke of Norfolk, the Lord Chancellor Wriothesley , and the bishop of London, Edmund Bonner , made one last attempt to challenge the reformers. Several reformers with links to Cranmer were targeted. Some, such as Lascelles, were burned at
36248-401: Was judged guilty of felony and was put to death on 22 January 1552. This began the breach between Cranmer and Dudley. It was aggravated during the year by the regency's gradual appropriation of ecclesiastical property. Throughout this political turmoil, Cranmer worked simultaneously on three major projects in his reform programme: the revision of canon law , the revision of the prayer book, and
36445-414: Was made vicegerent in spirituals. Effectively the King's vicar general , Cromwell's authority was greater than that of bishops, even the Archbishop of Canterbury. Largely due to Anne Boleyn's influence, a number of Protestants were appointed bishops between 1534 and 1536. These included Latimer, Thomas Goodrich , John Salcot , Nicholas Shaxton , William Barlow , John Hilsey and Edward Foxe . During
36642-427: Was made compulsory on 9 June 1549. This triggered a series of protests in Devon and Cornwall where the English language was not yet in common usage, now known as the Prayer Book Rebellion . By early July, the uprising had spread to other parts in the east of England. The rebels made a number of demands including the restoration of the Six Articles, the use of Latin for the mass with only the consecrated bread given to
36839-632: Was most likely occupied by the pregnancy of Jane Seymour and the birth of the male heir, Edward , that Henry had sought for so long. Jane died shortly after giving birth and her funeral was held on 12 November. That month Henry started to work on the Bishops' Book; his amendments were sent to Cranmer, Sampson, and others for comment. Cranmer's responses to the king were far more confrontational than his colleagues' and he wrote at much greater length. They reveal unambiguous statements supporting reformed theology such as justification by faith or sola fide (faith alone) and predestination . His words did not convince
37036-483: Was not essential to the Church of England's identity. The King relied on Protestants, such as Thomas Cromwell and Thomas Cranmer, to carry out his religious programme and embraced the language of the continental Reformation, while maintaining a middle way between religious extremes. What followed was a period of doctrinal confusion as both conservatives and reformers attempted to shape the church's future direction. The reformers were aided by Cromwell, who in January 1535
37233-522: Was ordered to stand before the council in the Star Chamber on 14 September and on that day he said his final goodbye to Martyr. Cranmer was sent straight to the Tower to join Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley. On 13 November 1553, Cranmer and four others were brought to trial for treason, found guilty, and condemned to death. Numerous witnesses testified that Cranmer had encouraged heresy and had written heretical works. Through February 1554, Jane Grey and other rebels were executed, and attention then turned to
37430-558: Was placed before him, but he denied any treachery, disobedience, or heresy. The trial of Latimer and Ridley started shortly after Cranmer's but their verdicts came almost immediately and they were burned at the stake on 16 October. Cranmer was taken to a tower to watch the proceedings. On 4 December, Rome decided Cranmer's fate by depriving him of the archbishopric and giving permission to the secular authorities to carry out their sentence. In his final days, Cranmer's circumstances changed, which led to several recantations . On 11 December, he
37627-404: Was proof that it would eventually be delivered and wrote, "I pray that God may grant that we may endure to the end!" Cranmer remained isolated in Bocardo prison for seventeen months before the trial started on 12 September 1555. Although it took place in England, the trial was under papal jurisdiction and the final verdict would come from Rome. Under interrogation, Cranmer admitted to every fact that
37824-414: Was published, the processional service of intercession known as the Exhortation and Litany . It survives today with minor modifications in the Book of Common Prayer . The traditional litany uses invocations to saints, but Cranmer thoroughly reformed this aspect by providing no opportunity in the text for such veneration . Additional reformers were elected to the House of Commons , and new legislation
38021-404: Was so great against God and your Grace that your clemency and mercy could have no place with him", and pressed ahead with his execution. Cranmer was told that he would be able to make a final recantation, but that this time it was to be in public during a service at the University Church in Oxford. He wrote and submitted the speech in advance and it was published after his death. At the pulpit on
38218-441: Was taken out of Bocardo and placed in the house of the Dean of Christ Church . This new environment was very different from that of his two years in prison. He was in an academic community and treated as a guest. Approached by a Dominican friar, Juan de Villagarcía , he debated the issues of papal supremacy and purgatory. In his first four recantations, produced between the end of January and mid-February, Cranmer submitted himself to
38415-444: Was temporary. By late 1550, Bucer was becoming disillusioned. Cranmer ensured he did not feel alienated and kept in close touch with him. This attention paid off during the vestments controversy . This incident was initiated by John Hooper , a follower of Heinrich Bullinger who had recently returned from Zürich . Hooper was unhappy with Cranmer's prayer book and ordinal and particularly objected to using ceremonies and vestments. When
38612-402: Was therefore against biblical teachings for Henry to have married her ( Leviticus 20:21); a special dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding in the first place. Henry argued the marriage was never valid because the biblical prohibition was part of unbreakable divine law, and even popes could not dispense with it. In 1527, Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul
38809-408: Was told to stay near Henry to give advice. On 5 August, when the German delegates sent a letter to the king regarding three items that particularly worried them (compulsory clerical celibacy, the withholding of the chalice from the laity, and the maintenance of private masses for the dead), Tunstall was able to intervene for the king and to influence the decision. The result was a thorough dismissal by
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