102-632: The Book of Leviticus ( / l ɪ ˈ v ɪ t ɪ k ə s / , from Ancient Greek : Λευιτικόν , Leuïtikón ; Biblical Hebrew : וַיִּקְרָא , Wayyīqrāʾ , 'And He called'; Latin : Liber Leviticus ) is the third book of the Torah (the Pentateuch) and of the Old Testament , also known as the Third Book of Moses . Many hypotheses presented by scholars as to its origins agree that it developed over
204-537: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in
306-404: A common name for Tinea pedis (athlete's foot) was Cantlie's foot tetter. In addition, verses 18–23 describe infections after scald , and verses 24–28 describe infections after burn . Through sacrifice, the priest "makes atonement" for sin and the offeror receives forgiveness (but only if Yahweh accepts the sacrifice). Atonement rituals involve the pouring or sprinkling of blood as the symbol of
408-622: A grammatical plural form, refers to a singular abstract concept. Beginning in the classical period, the singular form kippur began to be used in piyyut , for example in Unetanneh Tokef , alongside the standard plural form kippurim . Use of kippur spread in the medieval period, with Yom Kippur ( יום כיפור ) becoming the holiday's name in Yiddish and Kippur ( כיפור ) in Ladino . In modern Hebrew, Yom Kippur or simply Kippur
510-472: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and
612-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in
714-402: A long list of sexual contacts and also child sacrifice. The "holiness" injunctions which give the code its name begin with the next section: there are penalties for the worship of Molech , consulting mediums and wizards, cursing one's parents and engaging in unlawful sex. Priests receive instruction on mourning rituals and acceptable bodily defects. The punishment for blasphemy is death, and there
816-531: A long period of time, reaching its present form during the Persian Period , from 538 to 332 BC, although this is disputed. Most of its chapters (1–7, 11–27) consist of God 's speeches to Moses , which he tells Moses to repeat to the Israelites. This takes place within the story of the Israelites' Exodus after they escaped Egypt and reached Mount Sinai (Exodus 19:1). The Book of Exodus narrates how Moses led
918-528: A more aggadic one ( Vayikra Rabbah ). The New Testament , particularly the Epistle to the Hebrews , uses ideas and images from Leviticus to describe Jesus as the high priest who offers his own blood as a sin offering . Therefore, Christians do not make animal offerings either, because as Gordon Wenham summarized: "With the death of Christ the only sufficient 'burnt offering' was offered once and for all, and therefore
1020-419: A person and his fellow until he has appeased his fellow." Thus, it is common practice on Erev Yom Kippur to request forgiveness from other individuals for misdeeds one has done to them. The Talmud records no less than 14 stories attesting to the importance of the day for repairing relationships with one's spouses, parents, children, coworkers, the poor, and other individuals. The day before a major Jewish holiday
1122-543: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment
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#17328453914951224-518: A remnant of struggles between different priestly factions in First Temple times, finding resolution by the Second Temple into a hierarchy of Aaronite altar-priests and lower-level Levites, including singers, gatekeepers and the like.) In chapter 10, God kills Nadab and Abihu , the oldest sons of Aaron, for offering "strange incense". Aaron has two sons left. Commentators have read various messages in
1326-539: A result, Israel had to maintain its own holiness in order to live safely alongside God. The need for holiness is for the possession of the Promised Land ( Canaan ), where the Jews will become a holy people: "You shall not do as they do in the land of Egypt where you dwelt, and you shall not do as they do in the land of Canaan to which I am bringing you [...] You shall do my ordinances and keep my statutes [...] I am
1428-671: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek , and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in a wider sense. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek
1530-609: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c. 300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as
1632-534: A time. Fasting, along with the other restrictions, begins at sundown , and ends after nightfall the following day. One should add a few minutes to the beginning and end of the day, called tosefet Yom Kippur , lit. 'addition to Yom Kippur'. Yom Kippur is one of the only occasions when fasting is permitted on Shabbat . A number of different interpretations of these restrictions have been suggested. In one approach, fasting replaces animal sacrifices. Fasting causes one's fat and blood to be diminished, just as
1734-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and
1836-556: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of
1938-503: Is a single portion to God—i.e., burnt to ashes. Chapters 8–10 describe how Moses consecrates Aaron and his sons as the first priests, the first sacrifices, and God's destruction of two of Aaron's sons for ritual offenses. The purpose is to underline the character of altar priesthood (i.e., those priests with power to offer sacrifices to God) as an Aaronite privilege, and the responsibilities and dangers of their position. With sacrifice and priesthood established, chapters 11–15 instruct
2040-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected
2142-477: Is also a tradition in which they are interpreted positively, as indications of closeness of God. Various sources compare the observances of Yom Kippur – fasting, barefootness (not wearing leather shoes), standing (in prayer), particular manners of prayer, even the peace that exists between Jews on this day – with the behavior of angels, suggesting that on Yom Kippur Jews become like angels in heaven, purified and close to God and not limited by physicality. Yom Kippur
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#17328453914952244-644: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to
2346-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in
2448-680: Is considered especially desirable during the Ten Days of Repentance between Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, and particularly on Yom Kippur itself. Thus, the Yom Kippur prayers contain extended confessions which list varieties of errors and sins, and to which one can add their own missteps, along with requests for forgiveness from God. According to the Talmud, "Yom Kippur atones for sins done against God ( bein adam leMakom ), but does not atone for sins done against other human beings ( bein adam lechavero ) until
2550-569: Is in God". According to Rabbi Akiva , this verse alludes to a ritual purification bath (also pronounced mikveh ), and thus on Yom Kippur God metaphorically becomes a mikveh in which Israel immerses and purifies itself. This idea is symbolized by immersion in an actual mikveh. In the Yom Kippur Temple service , the High Priest would immerse upon putting on and taking off his white Yom Kippur garments;
2652-412: Is in turn a variant of the rabbinic Hebrew torat kohanim , 'law of priests', as many of its laws relate to priests. In Hebrew the book is called Vayikra ( Hebrew : וַיִּקְרָא ), from the opening of the book , va-yikra "And He [ God ] called." The outlines from commentaries are similar, though not identical; compare those of Wenham, Hartley, Milgrom, and Watts. Chapters 1–5 describe
2754-478: Is not taking a series of actions for their own sake, but a means of maintaining the relationship between God, the world, and humankind. The main function of the priests is service at the altar, and only the sons of Aaron are priests in the full sense. (Ezekiel also distinguishes between altar-priests and lower Levites, but in Ezekiel the altar-priests are sons of Zadok instead of sons of Aaron; many scholars see this as
2856-617: Is often devoted towards preparing for that holiday (as with burning chametz before Passover or obtaining the Four Species before Sukkot ); for Yom Kippur, the appropriate preparation is to seek forgiveness from one's fellow man. Nevertheless, one should not ask forgiveness if this will cause further harm (for example, by bringing up an insult the victim was unaware of). According to halakha , one must eat on Erev Yom Kippur. A variety of reasons have been suggested for this requirement, among them: Kreplach are traditionally served at
2958-575: Is performed by some on Erev Yom Kippur as a means to enhance atonement. Prior to this day's morning prayer service ( Shacharit ), selichot prayers are recited, as they have been for the entire High Holiday period. In the afternoon prayer ( Mincha ), the long confession is recited, just as it is on Yom Kippur itself. This confession is recited before the last Erev Yom Kippur meal (the "Separation Meal" - in Hebrew se'udah hamafseket or aruha hamafseket ), in case one becomes intoxicated at this meal and
3060-473: Is the common name, while Yom HaKippurim ( יום הכיפורים ) is used in formal writing. In older English texts, the translation "Day of Atonement" is often used. The Torah calls the day Yom HaKippurim ( יוֹם הַכִּיפּוּרִים ), and decrees fasting ("affliction of the soul") and a strict prohibition of work on the tenth day of the seventh month, later known as Tishrei . The laws of Yom Kippur are commanded by God to Moses in three passages in
3162-678: Is the holiest day of the year in Judaism . It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei , corresponding to a date in late September or early October. For traditional Jewish people, it is primarily centered on atonement and repentance . The day's main observances consist of full fasting and asceticism , both accompanied by extended prayer services (usually at synagogue ) and sin confessions . Many Jewish denominations, such as Reconstructionist Judaism (vs. Reform , Conservative , Orthodox , etc.), focus less on sins and more on one's goals and accomplishments and setting yearly intentions. Alongside
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3264-423: Is the setting of rules for eating sacrifices; there is an explanation of the calendar, and there are rules for sabbatical and Jubilee years; there are rules for oil lamps and bread in the sanctuary; and there are rules for slavery . The code ends by telling the Israelites they must choose between the law and prosperity on the one hand, or, on the other, horrible punishments, the worst of which will be expulsion from
3366-507: Is translated as ' tetter ' or ' freckles ', likely because translators did not know what it meant at the time, and thus, translated it incorrectly. Later translations identify it as talking about vitiligo ; however, vitiligo is not an infectious disease. The disease, described as healing itself and leaving white patches after infection, is likely to be pityriasis versicolor (tinea versicolor). Tetter originally referred to an outbreak, which later evolved meaning ringworm-like lesions. Therefore,
3468-505: Is unable to confess properly afterwards, or else because a person might choke to death at that meal and die without confessing (seemingly an unlikely possibility, but one which reminds a person of their mortality). Nevertheless, some recommend repeating the Vidui immediately before Kol Nidrei if time allows. The Torah commands Jews to "afflict themselves" ( ve'initem et nafshoteichem ) on Yom Kippur. While these verses do not explicitly mention
3570-411: Is waived in the case of dangerous medical conditions ( pikuach nefesh ), and in such a case one is actually required to break the fast. Just as it is a mitzvah to fast on Yom Kippur, it may also be a mitzvah to eat or drink on Yom Kippur to safeguard a person's health. In such situations, though, it is preferable (if the medical situation allows for it) to consume only small amounts of food or drink at
3672-745: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect
3774-549: The Mishnah describes Yom Kippur as a day on which men and women would once meet each other in the vineyards in order to arrange marriages. While this story is surprising given the generally somber nature of the day, it is based on the Biblical episode where the oath against marrying Benjaminites was circumvented by allowing them to take women from the vineyards as wives, and thus indicates the day's theme of abandoning grudges in order for
3876-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)
3978-697: The 1st century AD, following the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 AD. As there was no longer a Temple at which to offer animal sacrifices, Judaism pivoted towards prayer and the study of the Torah, eventually giving rise to Rabbinic Judaism . Nevertheless, Leviticus constitutes a major source of Jewish law and is traditionally the first book children learn in the Rabbinic system of education. There are two main Midrashim on Leviticus—the halakhic one (Sifra) and
4080-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):
4182-490: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from
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4284-562: The Bible, after the golden calf sin, Moses descended from Mount Sinai and broke the Tablets of Stone , which contained the Ten Commandments and symbolized the covenant with God. After God agreed to forgive the people's sin, Moses was told to return to Mount Sinai for a second 40-day period, in order to receive a second set of tablets. According to rabbinic tradition, the date Moses descended with
4386-703: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs, Day of Atonement Yom Kippur ( / ˌ j ɒ m k ɪ ˈ p ʊər , ˌ j ɔː m ˈ k ɪ p ər , ˌ j oʊ m -/ YOM kip- OOR , YAWM KIP -ər, YOHM - ; Hebrew : יוֹם כִּפּוּר Yōm Kippūr [ˈjom kiˈpuʁ] , lit. ' Day of Atonement ' )
4488-570: The Days of Awe, a Jew reflects on the year, goals, and past actions, how his or her behavior has possibly hurt others and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God and against other human beings. Repentance in Judaism (Hebrew: Teshuva ), traditionally, consists of regretting having committed the sin, resolving not to commit that sin in the future, and confessing that sin before God. While repentance for one's sins can and should be done at any time, it
4590-478: The Hebrew Bible in various languages have never reached a consensus on these infectious diseases, or tzaraath ( צרעת ), and the translation and interpretation of the scriptures are not known for certain. The most common translation is that these infectious diseases are leprosy ; however, what is described in chapter 13 does not represent a typical manifestation of leprosy. Modern dermatology shows that many of
4692-693: The Holiness authors as editors who worked with the Priestly code and actually produced Leviticus as is now extant. Many scholars argue that the rituals of Leviticus have a theological meaning concerning Israel's relationship with its God. Jacob Milgrom was especially influential in spreading this view. He maintained that the priestly regulations in Leviticus expressed a rational system of theological thought. The writers expected them to be put into practice in Israel's temple, so
4794-517: The Israelites in building the Tabernacle (Exodus 35–40) with God's instructions (Exodus 25–31). In Leviticus, God tells the Israelites and their priests, Aaron and his sons, how to make offerings in the Tabernacle and how to conduct themselves while camped around the holy tent sanctuary. Leviticus takes place during the month or month-and-a-half between the completion of the Tabernacle (Exodus 40:17) and
4896-502: The Israelites' departure from Sinai (Numbers 1:1, 10:11). The instructions of Leviticus emphasize ritual, legal, and moral practices rather than beliefs. Nevertheless, they reflect the world view of the creation story in Genesis 1 that God wishes to live with humans. The book teaches that faithful performance of the sanctuary rituals can make that possible, so long as the people avoid sin and impurity whenever possible. The rituals, especially
4998-586: The Jewish people sinned in later eras, prophets would repeatedly quote the Thirteen Attributes to God as a reminder of God's commitment to mercy and forgiveness. This is continued to the present day, as recitation of the Thirteen Attributes remains an important part of the Yom Kippur prayers (in Maariv and Neilah ). While many of the observances of Yom Kippur (such as fasting and long prayers) can be difficult, there
5100-464: The Jewish people to be reunited. On the day preceding Yom Kippur, known as Erev Yom Kippur (lit. 'eve [of] day [of] atonement'), a number of activities are customarily performed in preparation for Yom Kippur. These activities generally relate to the themes of the holiday, but are forbidden or impractical to do on Yom Kippur itself. According to the Talmud , "Yom Kippur does not atone for sins between
5202-611: The Lord you shall be purified. There are two forms of impurity in Judaism (see Tumah and taharah ): ritual impurity (e.g. when one touches a corpse) and moral impurity (when one commits a serious sin). While the Yom Kippur Temple service did purify the Temple if it had become ritually impure, the emphasis of the day is on the Jewish people's purification from moral impurity. Leviticus 16:30 mentions purification twice. According to Netziv ,
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#17328453914955304-431: The Lord your God am holy." Holiness in ancient Israel and the Hebrew Bible had a different meaning than in contemporary usage: it might have been regarded as the essence of Yahweh, an invisible but physical and potentially dangerous force. Specific objects, or even days, can be holy, but they derive holiness from being connected with Yahweh—the seventh day, the tabernacle, and the priests all derive their holiness from him. As
5406-665: The Lord, your God." (Leviticus 18:3). Leviticus, as part of the Torah, became the law book of Jerusalem's Second Temple as well as of the Samaritan temple. Its influence is evident among the Dead Sea Scrolls , which included fragments of seventeen manuscripts of Leviticus dating from the 3rd to the 1st centuries BC. Many other Qumran scrolls cite the book, especially the Temple Scroll and 4QMMT . Jews and Christians have not observed Leviticus's instructions for animal offerings since
5508-412: The Torah, the Yom Kippur Temple service was commanded in wake of the deaths of Nadab and Abihu on the eighth day of the Tabernacle inauguration. Not only was this eighth day the occasion of the Yom Kippur command, but the eighth day was also similar in its nature to Yom Kippur, both in biblical texts (e.g. the sacrifices offered on each day) and in rabbinic interpretation. The purpose of the eighth day
5610-564: The Torah: Yom Kippur is mentioned briefly in another context: on Yom Kippur of the Jubilee year the shofar was to be blown. According to some, this is the source for the current custom of blowing the shofar at the conclusion of Yom Kippur. When the Temple in Jerusalem stood, Yom Kippur was the occasion of an elaborate sacrificial service, as commanded by Leviticus 16 . The rabbis summarized
5712-514: The animal sacrifices which foreshadowed Christ's sacrifice were made obsolete." Christians generally have the view that the New Covenant supersedes the Old Testament's ritual laws , which includes some of the rules in Leviticus. Christians, therefore, do not usually follow Leviticus' rules regarding diet purity, and agriculture. Christian teachings have differed, however, as to where to draw
5814-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has
5916-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in
6018-536: The book of Leviticus is Priestly literature. Most scholars see chapters 1–16 (the Priestly code ) and chapters 17–26 (the Holiness code ) as the work of two related schools, but while the Holiness material employs the same technical terms as the Priestly code, it broadens their meaning from pure ritual to the theological and moral, turning the ritual of the Priestly code into a model for the relationship of Israel to Yahweh: as
6120-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West
6222-617: The coming year into the Book of Life , and waits until Yom Kippur to "seal" the verdict. This process is described dramatically in the poem Unetanneh Tokef , which is recited on Rosh Hashanah in the Ashkenazic and Italian rites and on Yom Kippur in the Eastern Ashkenazic and Italian rites: A great shofar will be blown, and a small still voice will be heard. The angels will make haste, and be seized with fear and trembling, and will say: "Behold,
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#17328453914956324-431: The community. Uncleanliness threatens holiness; chapters 11–15 review the various causes of uncleanliness and describe the rituals which will restore cleanliness; one is to maintain cleanliness through observation of the rules on sexual behaviour, family relations, land ownership, worship, sacrifice, and observance of holy days. Yahweh dwells with Israel in the Tabernacle . All of the priestly ritual focuses on Yahweh and
6426-437: The construction and maintenance of a holy space, but sin generates impurity, as do everyday events such as childbirth and menstruation ; impurity pollutes the holy dwelling place. Failure to purify the sacred space ritually could result in God's leaving, which would be disastrous. In chapter 13, God instructs Moses and Aaron on how to identify infectious diseases and deal with them accordingly. The translators and interpreters of
6528-440: The covenant between God and Israel. Along with Tu B'Av , Yom Kippur was historically considered one of the two happiest days of the Jewish year, for on this day Jews receive forgiveness for their sins, and on this date the covenant with God was reestablished. In Leviticus 16:30 , the Torah summarizes the purpose of Yom Kippur as follows: For on this day atonement shall be made for you, to purify you; from all your sins before
6630-462: The day of judgment!"... On Rosh Hashanah it is written, and on the Yom Kippur fast it is sealed, how many will pass and how many will be created, who will live and who will die, who in his time and who not in his time... But repentance, prayer, and charity remove the evil of the decree... For You do not desire a person's death, but rather that he repent and live. Until the day of his death You wait for him; if he repents, You accept him immediately. During
6732-611: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of
6834-420: The encounter with God and the atonement may appear to be unrelated, in fact they are mutually dependent. On one hand, the priest is only worthy to approach God when in a state of purity, with the sins of the people being forgiven. On the other hand, only by approaching God with an intimate, personal request can God be persuaded to abandon justice for mercy, permitting the purification to take place. According to
6936-418: The expulsion man must work for food "by the sweat of [his] brow"; thus food and drink are refrained from on Yom Kippur, as well as washing, and the use of cosmetics to remove sweat or its odor. In Eden death was unknown and procreation unnecessary; similarly on Yom Kippur marital relations are avoided. According to Maimonides , the purpose of fasting (and the restriction on work) is to remove distractions from
7038-547: The fat and blood of a sacrifice were burned on the altar. Thus, the fast is a form of sacrifice which can atone for sin like the Temple sacrifices once did. Other approaches suggest that the prohibitions represent not suffering, but rather special holiness. For example, on Yom Kippur, Jews are said to become like angels. Just as angels do not need to eat, drink, or wear shoes, so too Jews do not engage on these activities on Yom Kippur. By detaching themselves from physical needs, Jews become purified and resemble angels. Similarly,
7140-434: The first mention is a promise that God will purify Israel on this day, while the second is a command, calling on Israel to purify themselves through repentance. Thus, on this day Jews do their utmost to repent. But if, by the end of the day, they have reached the limits of their ability and are still morally flawed, God extends them forgiveness and purification anyway. Jeremiah 17:13 states that "Israel's hope ( mikveh )
7242-482: The form of affliction, the phrase "afflicting oneself" frequently appears elsewhere in connection with fasting or lack of food, and public fast days for repentance were a common practice in Biblical times. According to the Jewish oral tradition , the Yom Kippur "affliction" consists of the following five prohibitions: In traditional custom, the fast is required of males over age 13 and females over age 12. However, fasting
7344-663: The forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c. 1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c. 1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c. 800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c. 500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been
7446-440: The handles of the bolt" ( Song of Songs 5:5 ) – "I rose up to open to my beloved" – this refers to Yotzer [the morning prayer ]; "My hands dripped with myrrh" – this refers to Mussaf ; "my fingers with flowing myrrh" – this refers to Mincha ; "upon the handles of the bolt" – this refers to Neilah . Using a similar metaphor, the Mishnah describes Yom Kippur as a wedding date, as on this date Moses returned having reestablished
7548-556: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from
7650-472: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to
7752-462: The incident: a reflection of struggles between priestly factions in the post-Exilic period (Gerstenberger); or a warning against offering incense outside the Temple, where there might be the risk of invoking strange gods (Milgrom). In any case, there has been a pollution of the sanctuary by the bodies of the two dead priests, leading into the next theme, holiness. Ritual purity is essential for an Israelite to be able to approach Yahweh and remain part of
7854-467: The infectious diseases in chapter 13 were likely dermatophytoses , a group of highly contagious skin diseases. The infectious disease of the chin described in verses 29–37 seems to be Tinea barbae in men or Tinea faciei in women; the infectious disease described in verses 29–37 (as resulting in hair loss and eventual baldness) seems to be Tinea capitis ( Favus ). Verses 1–17 seem to describe Tinea corporis . The Hebrew word bohaq in verses 38–39
7956-522: The land. Chapter 27 is a disparate and probably late addition telling about persons and things serving as dedication to the Lord and how one can redeem, instead of fulfill, vows. The majority of scholars have concluded that the Pentateuch received its final form during the Persian period (538–332 BC). Nevertheless, Leviticus had a long period of growth before reaching that form. The entire composition of
8058-635: The laws of this service in Mishnah tractate Yoma , and they appear in contemporary traditional Jewish prayer books for Yom Kippur, and are studied as part of a traditional Jewish Yom Kippur worship service. The Mussaf prayer on Yom Kippur includes a section known as the Avodah , where a poem is recited describing this Temple service. Yom Kippur is one of the two High Holy Days , or Days of Awe (Hebrew yamim noraim ), alongside Rosh Hashanah (which falls nine days previously). According to Jewish tradition, on Rosh Hashanah God inscribes each person's fate for
8160-415: The lay people on purity (or cleanliness). Eating certain animals produces uncleanliness, as does giving birth ; certain skin diseases (but not all) are unclean, as are certain conditions affecting walls and clothing ( mildew and similar conditions); and unusual bodily discharges, including female menses and male emissions ( gonorrhea ), are unclean. The reasoning behind the food rules are obscure; for
8262-399: The life of the victim: the blood has the power to wipe out or absorb the sin. The two-part division of the book structurally reflects the role of atonement: chapters 1–16 call for the establishment of the institution for atonement, and chapters 17–27 call for the life of the atoned community in holiness. The consistent theme of chapters 17–26 is in the repetition of the phrase, "Be holy, for I
8364-546: The line between ritual and moral regulations. In Homilies on Leviticus , the third century theologian, Origen , expounded on the qualities of priests as models for Christians to be perfect in everything, strict, wise and to examine themselves individually, forgive sins, and convert sinners (by words and by doctrine). For detailed contents, see: Online versions of Leviticus: Related article: Brief introduction Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes
8466-499: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which
8568-405: The other person has been appeased." Therefore, it is considered imperative to repair the harm that one has done to others before or during Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur is described in the prayers as "a day of creating love and brotherhood, a day of abandoning jealousy and strife". It is said that "if one does not remove hatred [from their heart] on Yom Kippur, their prayers are not heard". According to
8670-424: The people's sins were forgiven and purification achieved in that year. Yom Kippur is considered a day of Jewish unity. In Kol Nidre , in which vows are released, vows of excommunication against sinning Jews were similarly lifted and these "transgressors" were allowed to pray alongside other Jews. According to the Talmud, "Any fast in which Jewish sinners do not also participate is not a valid fast". Similarly,
8772-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c. 1450 BC ) are in
8874-410: The practical purpose of this cord was to distinguish the scapegoat from the goat which was to be slaughtered, it also symbolized the sin which the scapegoat was carrying away. Isaiah 1:18 promises that if the Jewish people repents, "if [their] sins are like crimson, they shall become white as snow." According to tradition, in some years the scapegoat's cord would miraculously turn white to indicate that
8976-402: The pre-fast meal. Also, it is common to ask for and receive lekach on Erev Yom Kippur. Many Orthodox men immerse themselves in a mikveh on this day. Opinions differ on whether this is a technical act to remove ritual impurity , or else a symbolic one to symbolize one's cleansing from sin on Yom Kippur. The kapparot ritual, in which either money or a chicken is given to charity,
9078-640: The prohibitions allude to the experience of Moses on Mount Sinai, who did not eat or drink while receiving the Torah and while receiving forgiveness for the people's sins. Similarly, the prohibitions have been interpreted as a return to the purity of the biblical Garden of Eden. Upon leaving Eden shoes became necessary for the first time ("thorns and thistles will grow in your way...the snake will raise its head (to bite you) and you will give your heel (to crush it)" ); thus on Yom Kippur Jews do not wear (leather) shoes. While in Eden food and drink were easily obtained, but after
9180-405: The rabbis counted no fewer than five immersions over the course of the day's service. Among modern-day Jews, too, there is a custom of immersion before Yom Kippur (though not on Yom Kippur itself, as bathing is forbidden in normal circumstances). When the scapegoat was selected on Yom Kippur to symbolically carry the people's sins to the desert, a crimson cord was tied around its horns. While
9282-477: The related holiday of Rosh Hashanah , Yom Kippur is one of the two components of the High Holy Days of Judaism. It is also the last of the Ten Days of Repentance . The formal Hebrew name of the holiday is Yom HaKippurim , 'day [of] the atonements'. This name is used in the Bible, Mishnah , and Shulchan Aruch . The word kippurim 'atonement' is one of many Biblical Hebrew words which, while using
9384-450: The rest the guiding principle seems to be that all these conditions involve a loss of "life force", usually but not always blood. Chapter 16 concerns the Day of Atonement (though that phrase appears first in 23:27). This is the only day on which the High Priest is to enter the holiest part of the sanctuary, the holy of holies . He is to sacrifice a bull for the sins of the priests, and a goat for
9486-426: The rituals would express this theology as well, as well as ethical concern for the poor. Milgrom also argued that the book's purity regulations (chapters 11–15) have a basis in ethical thinking. Many other interpreters have followed Milgrom in exploring the theological and ethical implications of Leviticus's regulations (e.g., Marx, Balentine), though some have questioned how systematic they really are. Ritual, therefore,
9588-565: The second set of tablets was Yom Kippur. On this day Moses announced to the people that they had been forgiven; as a result the Torah fixed this date as a permanent holiday of forgiveness. The new covenant, which God announced by proclaiming the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy to Moses, is textually similar to the covenant of the Ten Commandments except that God's nature is described as merciful and forgiving, rather than zealous. When
9690-557: The sin and guilt offerings, provide the means to gain forgiveness for sins (Leviticus 4–5) and purification from impurities (Leviticus 11–16) so that God can continue to live in the Tabernacle in the midst of the people. The English name Leviticus comes from the Latin Leviticus , which is in turn from the Ancient Greek : Λευιτικόν ( Leuitikon ), referring to the priestly tribe of the Israelites, ' Levi '. The Greek expression
9792-504: The sins of the laypeople. The priest is to send a second goat into the desert to " Azazel ", bearing the sins of the whole people. Azazel's identity is unknown, with some Christian tradition linking him to a fallen angel, older English Bible translations like the King James Version translating it as "a scapegoat". Chapters 17–26 are the Holiness code . It begins with a prohibition on all ritual slaughter of animals, and then prohibits
9894-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies
9996-465: The tabernacle, which is apart from uncleanliness, becomes holy by the presence of Yahweh, so he will dwell among Israel when Israel receives purification (becomes holy) and separates from other peoples. The ritual instructions in the Priestly code apparently grew from priests giving instruction and answering questions about ritual matters; the Holiness code (or H) used to be a separate document, later becoming part of Leviticus, but it seems better to think of
10098-412: The various sacrifices from the sacrificers' point of view, although the priests are essential for handling the blood. Chapters 6–7 go over much the same ground, but from the point of view of the priest, who, as the one actually carrying out the sacrifice and dividing the "portions", needs to know how to do it. Sacrifices are between God, the priest, and the offers, although in some cases the entire sacrifice
10200-475: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,
10302-674: Was also unique as a time of closeness to God in the Yom Kippur Temple service . Yom Kippur was the only occasion on which the High Priest of Israel was allowed to enter the Holy of Holies , the innermost chamber of the Temple in Jerusalem , where God's presence was said to dwell. On Yom Kippur the High Priest entered the Holy of Holies several times, first to create a cloud of incense smoke in which (the Bible promises) God would reveal Himself without being seen, and later to offer sacrifices of atonement. While
10404-573: Was the revelation of God's presence to the people; similarly, the Yom Kippur service was a unique opportunity for the people's representative to obtain closeness with God. A midrash compares the Yom Kippur prayers to a verse from the Song of Songs , describing a woman who rises from bed at night to begin a romantic encounter with her lover. With each Yom Kippur prayer, it is implied, Jews approach closer to God: "I rose up to open to my beloved. My hands dripped with myrrh , my fingers with flowing myrrh, upon
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