124-685: The Thames Discovery Programme is a community archaeology project, focusing on the archaeology of the River Thames on the Tideway . The Thames Discovery Programme (TDP) was launched in October 2008 and until September 2011, the project was supported by the National Lottery and a grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund . The project is designed to communicate an understanding and informed enjoyment of
248-588: A broad sense as the production and consumption of archaeological "commodities". In the United States community archaeology can broadly be separated into three distinct types: projects that collaborate with indigenous peoples , projects that collaborate with other local and descendant communities, and outreach specifically for public education . Archaeologists have a long history of excavating indigenous sites without consulting or collaborating with indigenous peoples. Points of tension include, but are not limited to,
372-461: A cable layer in exchange for shares in cable companies, ensuring that if Great Eastern succeeded in laying cables, the unprofitable ship could be personally lucrative for her owners. In May 1865, Great Eastern steamed to Sheerness to take on wire for the laying of the Transatlantic telegraph cable . In return for using the ship, her owners wanted $ 250,000 in telegraph company stock, but only on
496-493: A combination of a single screw and paddle wheels , with auxiliary sail power. Although Brunel had pioneered the screw propeller on a large scale with Great Britain , he did not believe that it was possible to build a single propeller and shaft (or, for that matter, a paddleshaft) that could transmit the required power to drive his giant ship at the required speed. Brunel showed his idea to John Scott Russell , an experienced naval architect and ship builder whom he had first met at
620-468: A community is a common long-term goal for many community archaeology projects, and one achieved with increasing frequency. Museums have become hubs for public outreach and collaboration to both local and non-local communities. One well known example of a museum created by a collaboration between American Indians and archaeologists is the Mashantucket Pequot Museum and Research Center , which
744-517: A community. For example, archaeologists in the United States must contact the Tribal Historic Preservation Officer (THPO) before attempting collaboration with federally recognized tribes. In places where the appropriate contacts and stakeholders are less obvious, community archaeologists attempt to identify as many interest groups as possible and contact them before research begins. A top-down approach to community archaeology
868-490: A dock engineer (Frederick Appleby) was able to build a dock around her, using the ship's massive hulk as a station for driving pylons. During her 11 years moored in Milford, she accrued a large amount of biofouling on her hull. Early marine naturalist Henry Lee (best known at the time for his skepticism towards sea monsters) conducted an extensive study of her hull, calculating she had ~300 tons of marine life attached to her. She
992-464: A floating music hall and advertising hoarding (for the department store Lewis's ) in Liverpool , she was broken up on Merseyside in 1889. After his success in pioneering steam travel to North America with Great Western and Great Britain , Brunel turned his attention to a vessel capable of making longer voyages as far as Australia. With a planned capacity of 15,000 tons of coal, Great Eastern
1116-461: A high standard, reflecting the amount of time and effort local people are willing to put into local projects they themselves initiated. Increasingly, over the last two decades, public participation has been pushed aside by developer-led, commercial archaeology, with the bulk of work going to contracting units. The reasons behind this relate to the professionalization of the discipline and the implementation of PPG16, as discussed by Faulkner who proposed
1240-578: A livestock pen on deck. After reaching Virginia, the ship steamed back to New York, and from there sailed south again for an excursion cruise in the Chesapeake bay. The ship departed for Annapolis, where it was given 5,000 tons of coal by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . Great Eastern remained in Annapolis for several days, where she was toured by several thousand visitors and President James Buchanan . During
1364-637: A long history of community archaeology, with established disciplines and laws. In her review of community archaeology, Marshall found that there is an "antipodean dominance" in field community archaeology, suggesting that Australian community archaeology may be more established as a discipline than in other countries. This is reflected in anthologies on community archaeology in Harrison and Williamson and Sarah Colley . Generally Australian community archaeology projects have involved collaboration between archaeologists and aboriginal tribes similar to archaeologists in
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#17328444316501488-500: A long-term relationship is necessary to develop a rapport and mutual respect with the local community, and argue that to succeed at collaboration archaeologists must make a long-term commitment in order to understand the dynamics of the social context of their research. Without this depth of knowledge archaeologists risk making decisions with unintended consequences. For example, collaborations and repatriations have been more successful where archaeologists and American Indians have met on
1612-579: A means for identifying unethical and violent aspects of archaeological projects. Public outreach , in archaeology, is a form of science outreach that attempts to present archaeological findings to non-archaeologists. Public outreach is usually a crucial aspect of most community archaeology projects. Public outreach can take many forms, from a onetime presentation to a local school to long-term agreements with local communities in developing intricate public outreach programs. Many feel that archaeology and archaeological findings have been greatly distorted by
1736-635: A means to "break down barriers" between American Indians and archaeologists, and that in collaboration "[e]ach side learns something from the other." There are many unique ways archaeological collaboration can benefit indigenous peoples. Kerber reports that: . . . archaeology benefits American Indians and First People of Canada, respectively, by contributing important historical information; assisting in land claims; managing cultural resources and burial for protection from current and future impacts; promoting sovereignty; offering employment opportunities through field work, interpretive centers, and tourism; educating
1860-499: A metaphorical mirror, and includes attempts to make explicitly make visible the violence—such as colonization—archaeology has been implicitly part of. Self-reflexivity in archaeology can be part of community presentation, as a means of breaking down imbalanced power dynamics between non-academic communities and archaeologists. Self-reflection amongst archaeologists—such as discussion with community members, writing field journals, and professional writings about self-reflection—can also be
1984-545: A public house bar, while one mistress at a Lancashire boarding school acquired the ship's deck caboose for use as a children's playhouse. An early example of breaking-up a structure by use of a wrecking ball , she was scrapped near the Sloyne , at New Ferry on the River Mersey by Henry Bath & Son Ltd in 1889–1890—it took 18 months to take her apart, with her double hull being particularly difficult to salvage. The breaking of
2108-434: A reduced sense, communities are aggregations of people that "are seldom, if ever, monocultural and are never of one mind." "For understanding the goals of community archaeology projects it is helpful to classify these communities into three broad and overlapping types. That is local communities, local descent communities, and non-local descent communities or diasporas ." Descent communities are those ancestrally linked to
2232-431: A regular basis and developed both friendship and mutual respect. Versaggi found that "allowing the process to take time is what matters." Many community archaeologists now plan on conducting long-term collaborations from the outset of their project. As a method for knowing the community, archaeologists have advocated the use of ethnographic methods in community archaeology projects. While most scholars feel that it
2356-501: A return to community-led archaeology in his article entitled "Archaeology from below". A recent investigation carried out by the Council for British Archaeology identified the main perceived barriers to public participation, gave examples of good practice in encouraging public participation, and made several recommendations for future improvements. Its first recommendation was the establishment of full-time Community Archaeologist posts across
2480-419: A shifting sand shoal, and after a bilge check Great Eastern continued onto New York without incident. While in port, however, it was noticed that the ship had acquired a slight list to starboard, and so a diver was sent in to inspect the hull. After several days of inspection, the diver reported the large hole in the ship's outer hull, a major issue as no drydock in the world could fit the ship. The ship's hull
2604-500: A site. Descent communities located within proximity of the site are local descent communities, and non-local descent communities "are groups that are linked to a site, but that live in another location, potentially hundreds or even thousands of miles away." Archaeological collaborations with local descent communities include those that focus on proto-historic sites and collaborate with American Indians ancestrally linked to them, or plantation excavations that incorporate collaborations with
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#17328444316502728-501: A sketch of a steamship in his diary and wrote beneath it: "Say 600 ft x 65 ft x 30 ft" (180 m x 20 m x 9.1 m). These measurements were six times larger by volume than any ship afloat; such a large vessel would benefit from economies of scale and would be both fast and economical, requiring fewer crew than the equivalent tonnage made up of smaller ships. Brunel realised that the ship would need more than one propulsion system; since twin screws were still very much experimental, he settled on
2852-490: A toll based on ship tonnage – given the size of the ship, the lighthouse levied a toll of $ 1,750 on Great Eastern . Infuriated by the size of the toll, a party went ashore to request that the toll be waived, but the governor of Halifax denied this request. Angered by the refusal, the captain and company leadership ordered the ship to return to Britain immediately, and as such no passengers or visitors were taken on in Halifax. With
2976-420: A topsail schooner with a main gaff sail ( fore-and-aft sail) on each mast, one "jib" on the fore mast and three square sails on masts no. 2 and no. 3 (Tuesday & Wednesday); for a time mast no. 4 was also fitted with 3 yards. In later years, some of the yards were removed. According to some sources she would have carried 5,435 m (58,500 sq ft) in sails. Setting sails turned out to be unusable at
3100-667: A turnaround of only 11 days. However, as noted by sources, the ship's owners struggled to sustain this profitability as they were heavily focused on upper and middle class passenger service. As such, the ship was not used to transport large groups of immigrants travelling to the United States, nor did it take full advantage of the major downturn in the American clipper industry during the American Civil War. On 17 August 1862, Great Eastern departed from Liverpool for New York, carrying 820 passengers and several thousand tons of cargo – given
3224-561: Is archaeology by the people for the people. The field is also known as public archaeology . There is debate about whether the terms are interchangeable; some believe that community archaeology is but one form of public archaeology, which can include many other modes of practice, in addition to what is described here. The design, goals, involved communities, and methods in community archaeology projects vary greatly, but there are two general aspects found in all community archaeology projects. First, community archaeology involves communities "in
3348-687: Is "the largest Native American owned museum in the United States", has multiple laboratories and collections for scientific research, and a staff that includes five full-time archaeologists. Another method in community archaeology for the sharing and distribution of archaeological knowledge is the publication or presentation of materials specifically for the community. This includes books, pamphlets, children's stories, school-oriented workbooks, comic books, websites, public lectures, radio programs, television shows and news coverage, dramatic reenactments, artistic and literary creations, open access publications, and other forms. Participatory action research
3472-467: Is about people and the discovery of the past. As a subject, archaeology in the United Kingdom has been increasingly brought into the public eye in recent years. The most common form of community archaeology in the United Kingdom has come from the grass roots level. Local groups are smaller than the large, county societies, and operate in their own area and at their own pace. The work produced is often of
3596-403: Is another method archaeologists have used in community archaeology projects. In community archaeology, by definition decisions cannot be made based on the information from only a handful of members from a given community. Although the number of consultants needed will vary, it is rare that a small subgroup can speak for the community as a whole. Sometimes it is clear who should be contacted in
3720-587: Is not necessary for all archaeologists to become trained ethnographers, a degree of ethnographic knowledge is needed before initiating a project. Some community archaeology projects rely on ethnographic data conducted by members of their research team, while others have had some success beginning with published sources or collaborating with professionals already established in the focal community. The construction of museums or other institutions as education centers, repositories for archaeological materials and, centers for scientific and socio-cultural collaboration with
3844-754: Is only new "from the perspective of the dominant culture" and that "American Indian people have been cooperating and collaborating with their neighbors and visitors for hundreds of years." Some have argued that archaeologists should attempt to collaborate and repatriate materials to non-federally recognized tribes in addition to federally recognized ones. Blume has contended that when collaborating with indigenous peoples, projects should design "forms of public outreach specifically for" those audiences. Many recognized and non-recognized tribes have explicitly asked archaeologists for consolation and collaboration. Two particularly well known examples of indigenous collaboration are Janet Spector 's book What does this Awl Mean and
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3968-420: Is to decolonize archaeology. In decolonizing archaeology, archaeologists are trying to give communities more control over every stage in the archaeological process. For example, some programs have begun attempting to bring Indigenous leaders together globally to discuss shared methods for decolonization through archaeological collaboration. Community archaeology, the sharing of archaeological knowledge, and
4092-455: Is when archaeologists decide before consultation what the goals of the project will be, or what benefits will be provided to the community is not really community archaeology at all. The top-down approach creates a one-sided exchange of information from the archaeologists to the community and precludes real collaboration. Blume found the "archaeologist-informant relationship [to be] essentially exploitative and patronizing because it takes place on
4216-729: The Ozette Indian Village Archeological Site . Collaborations have occurred throughout the United States, including with indigenous peoples in Alaska . Many tribes have also begun hiring full-time tribal archaeologists. Many other community archaeology projects occur in the United States aside from those with indigenous peoples of the Americas. These projects focus on local communities , descendant communities, and descendant diasporas . A goal of some of these projects has been to recover and publicly present forgotten aspects of
4340-598: The SS Great Eastern , the last project of engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel . In July 2010, the TDP team and the FROG worked on the foreshore at the Tower of London , undertaking survey and recording of an area normally closed to the public. Sections of the riverside wall were recorded and data collected to create a contour survey of the foreshore surface. The team also worked with members of
4464-742: The Tower of London and Southwark Cathedral . The project also featured in the Archaeology in Action gallery at the Museum of London . Thousands of members of the public have visited the foreshore and attended other events, particularly during the two-week Festival of British Archaeology coordinated by the Council for British Archaeology in July each year. In July 2009, the Thames Discovery Programme celebrated
4588-466: The 'stack', we have also discovered a slipway constructed of reused ship and boat timbers, as well as the remains of at least three smaller vessels. During the 2009 Summer Season, teams worked at Alderman Stairs (near St Katharine Docks ), Putney and Bermondsey . In November 2009, the first FROG-led project at Carrara Wharf in Fulham recorded part of the 1729 bridge to Putney , while a TDP survey earlier in
4712-466: The Eighteen-Fifties and Sixties , Alfred Rosling Bennett writes about the skeleton that "it was then remembered that while on the stocks building a pay-clerk had disappeared with a large sum of money... and was supposed to have fled with it", and questions if the remains could have been deposited by workmen who had murdered the man. Brian Dunning wrote about the legend in 2020, noting that while it
4836-595: The Festival at Fulham Palace and on the foreshore and in 2010 the team were at the Tower of London , Hall Place and the Museum of London. A detailed report on the events, activities and fieldwork undertaken by the Thames Discovery Programme during the Heritage Lottery Funded phase of the project (October 2008-September 2011) is available on the project website. In 2017 a book entitled The river’s tale: archaeology on
4960-557: The Great Exhibition . Scott Russell examined Brunel's plan and made his own calculations as to the ship's feasibility. He calculated that it would have a displacement of 20,000 tons and would require 8,500 horsepower (6,300 kW) to achieve 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph), but believed it was possible. At Scott Russell's suggestion, they approached the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company with
5084-472: The Panama canal by ramming her into the isthmus. She was, again, sold at auction in 1888, fetching £16,000 for her value as scrap. Many pieces of the ship were bought by private collectors, former passengers, and friends of the crew – various fixtures, lamps, furniture, paneling, and other artifacts were kept. Parts of Great Eastern were repurposed for other uses; one ferry company converted her wood paneling into
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5208-724: The Society of Thames Mudlarks and the Portable Antiquities Scheme to record artefacts found on the surface. The TDP field team then moved to Greenwich where the riverside wall was again examined, together with parts of a Tudor timber jetty and a newly discovered medieval structure. The project also featured on the BBC's Digging for Britain . During late August 2010, work was undertaken at two sites in West London, while in September, fieldwork
5332-447: The TDP worked at Brentford , recording the remains of two vessels abandoned on the foreshore, and at Wapping , surveying the watermans' causeway and nautical remains. Further fieldwork was also undertaken at Greenwich and at the Tower of London foreshore. The Thames Discovery Programme runs a programme of events and activities designed to engage the public with the archaeology and history of
5456-718: The Thames Explorer Trust, the Museum of London , the Port of London Authority , English Heritage , and the University College London Institute of Archaeology . Using data generated by the Thames Archaeological Survey, the Thames Discovery Programme selected twenty key sites across the Greater London area for further recording and on-going monitoring during 2008 - 2011. The first site chosen
5580-604: The Thames foreshore in Greater London by Nathalie Cohen and Eliott Wragg was published by MOLA The TDP website won the award for the "Best Representation of Archaeology in the Media" at the 2010 British Archaeological Awards and in February 2011, the project was one of five from across Britain nominated by Current Archaeology as "Best Research Project of 2011". In July 2012, the project won
5704-500: The United Kingdom has existed for many years, although only recently has it come to be known by that name. The roots of archaeology in the United Kingdom lie in the tradition of antiquarian and amateur work, and many county or locally based archaeology and history societies founded over a century ago have continued to enable the involvement of local people in archaeology. Up until the 1970s volunteers often had opportunities to initiate or take part in archaeological investigations. Since then
5828-581: The United States collaborate with American Indians. Hundreds, if not thousands, of community archaeology projects have occurred throughout the world—including in Brazil, Canada, Egypt, Mexico, the People's Republic of Bangladesh, South Africa, Thailand (Praicharnjit 2006, www.archaeopen.com) and Turkey. Misplaced Pages would greatly appreciate if scholars, students, or members of communities affiliated with Community Archaeology projects would contribute to this page. In
5952-793: The University of East London, Thames Explorer Trust, Thames Estuary Partnership, the London Archaeological Archive and Research Centre, the Worshipful Company of Antiquarian Collectors, the Museum of London and Museum in Docklands . During 2010 and 2011, the team again worked with a number of different organisations including the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds at Rainham Marshes , Discover Greenwich, Historic Royal Palaces at
6076-480: The War Office discontinued the contract, and the ship returned to regular passenger service. In September 1861, Great Eastern was caught in a major hurricane two days out of Liverpool. The ship was trapped in the storm for three days and suffered major damage to her propulsion systems; both her paddle wheels were torn off, her sails stripped away, and her rudder had been bent to 200 degrees and subsequently torn up by
6200-552: The anchor off an American merchant on her way to her berth. The only fatal casualty of the cruise occurred in port when a man was killed by backspin off the helm. Damage caused by the storm and lost revenue from the trip amounted to $ 300,000. The ship continued a cycle of uneventful cruises, cargo loadings, and brief exhibitions from late 1861 to mid 1862. By July 1862, the ship was turning its first noteworthy profits, carrying 500 passengers and 8,000 tons of foodstuffs from New York to Liverpool, bringing in $ 225,000 in gross and requiring
6324-439: The archaeologist’s terms—the informant must address issues that the archaeologists understand—and it excludes participation by [community members] who are unable or unwilling to participate on those terms." To succeed at community archaeology, Archaeologists have begun to undertake more reflexive collaborations with indigenous communities. Some community archaeologists have had difficulty sticking to their original commitments to
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#17328444316506448-717: The award for "Best Community Archaeology Project" at the British Archaeological Awards. In 2013, TDP's then Project Director Gustav Milne was nominated as one of Current Archaeology's "Archaeologists of the Year" and the Thames Discovery Programme won the Archaeology Training Forum's Training Award, which was presented at the IfA Conference in Birmingham. Community archaeology Community archaeology
6572-406: The below major issues have been viewed as a crucial parts of decolonization. Publishing with open access licenses to enable anyone to read archaeological literature without financial barriers is another aspect of decolonization. Community archaeology can alleviate or prevent violence towards communities that archaeology may cause. Self-reflexivity in archaeology can be thought of as looking into
6696-553: The board of directors, who were then replaced by a third group of controlling stockholders. With the new board in place, the ship was recapitalized to raise an additional $ 50,000. The new board was determined to finish the ship, but also bet heavily on making large profits exhibiting the ship in North American seaports. To accomplish this, the company played major American and Canadian cities against each other, goading them into competition over which city would welcome Great Eastern ;
6820-520: The bowsprit of HMS Blenheim . She departed for New York in May 1861 (her other potential port, Baltimore, now considered too risky due to the outbreak of the American Civil War ), arriving in the port with little fanfare. Taking on a cargo of 5,000 tons of barrelled wheat and 194 passengers, she departed for Liverpool on 25 May, making an uneventful trip. Upon her return to Britain, it was announced that
6944-508: The building company already in debt, cost cutting measures were implemented; the ship was removed from Russell's shipyard, and many investors requested she be sold. As reported by the Times , one investor openly proposed that the ship be sold to the Royal Navy, noting if the navy employed Great Eastern as a ram, she would easily cleave through any warship afloat. These efforts had mixed success, with
7068-489: The cable end was lost mid-Atlantic in an accident, forcing the ship to return in 1866 with a new line. The ship's first officer, Robert Halpin , managed to locate the lost cable end and the unbroken cable made it to shore in Heart's Content, Newfoundland on 27 July 1866. Halpin became captain of Great Eastern , with the ship laying further cables. In early 1869 she laid a series of undersea cables near Brest. Later that year she
7192-483: The captain offering tickets to view the ship for 2 rupees apiece, distributing proceeds to the crew. Departing from Bombay before the onset of the Monsoon season, she proceeded north to lay a cable between Bombay and Aden. From Aden, she laid another cable to the island of Jabal al-Tair , where a second ship rendezvoused with her to take up the cable to Suez and then on to Alexandria. The Suez Canal , which opened in 1869,
7316-566: The city of Portland , Maine (with additional investment from the Grand Trunk Railway ) went so far as to build a $ 125,000 pier to accommodate the ship. Ultimately New York City – which had quickly dredged a berth for her alongside a lumber wharf – was decided on as the ship's first destination. After some delays, Great Eastern began her eleven-day maiden voyage on 17 June 1860 from Liverpool with 35 paying passengers, 8 company " dead heads " (passengers who do not pay) and 418 crew. Among
7440-408: The community is a quintessential aspect of community archaeology, and is viewed as an important aspect of "decolonizing archaeology" and giving non-archaeologists power to interpreting the past. Multiple community archaeologists have created projects that give the community a major role in the interpretation and dissemination of archaeological information. Community participation is not relegated to
7564-464: The community. Some have argued that ‘consulting’ archaeologists do not relinquish control over the process of interpretation, and that consulting is a ‘top-down’ approach to collaboration. Also, some definitions of the word ‘collaboration’ make allusions to opposed and/or warring parties cooperating with one another during tense or bellicose times. Dean has proposed that the word cooperate be used instead. SS Great Eastern SS Great Eastern
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#17328444316507688-421: The company had expected to take in $ 700,000. In addition, the company was facing a daily interest payment of $ 5,000, which ate into any profits the ship made. Hoping to net more profit before returning to Britain, the ship sailed from New York in mid August, bound for Halifax with 100 passengers. However, on approach to the port the ship was hailed by a local lighthouse service, which was empowered by law to collect
7812-419: The condition the wire laying succeeded. To accommodate the 22,450 kilometres (13,950 mi) of cable she was carrying, Great Eastern had some of her salons and rooms replaced with large tanks to hold the cable. In July the ship began laying the undersea cable near Valentia Island , gradually working her way west at a speed of 11 km/h (6 kn). The effort went relatively smoothly for several weeks, but
7936-475: The country, as it states, "such dedicated posts represent a very effective way of stimulating and guiding public participation at a local level." One of the longest running and most successful community archaeology projects is based in Leicestershire. Leicestershire County Council (which incorporates the museum service) established the project in 1976 and today they have 400 members within 20 local groups across
8060-558: The county. Peter Liddle (Keeper of Archaeology) is the Community Archaeologist and was probably the first to use the term ‘community archaeology’ as the title for his fieldworker's handbook. The Valletta Convention affects the work of non-official or amateur groups who have been, or are, investigating their local historic environment. The European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (Revised)
8184-599: The crowds, the crew established a bar on deck, spread sand to soak up tobacco juice, and prepared to receive thousands of visitors. However, relations between the crew and New Yorkers began to sour – the public was outraged by the $ 1 entry fee (similar excursion trips in New York charged 25 cents) and many would-be visitors decided to forego visiting the ship. Great Eastern left New York in late July, taking several hundred passengers on an excursion trip to Cape May and then to Old Point , Virginia. However, this too raised issues as
8308-612: The daily tides scour away the remaining archaeological features. The FROG is made up of volunteer members of the public, who are trained in foreshore recording techniques, the history and archaeology of the River Thames, health and safety and participation in digital media by the TDP team. The TDP currently has a small staff team and is hosted by Museum of London Archaeology . As at the start of 2019 this staff consists of four professional archaeologists. There are estimated to be around 150 active FROG volunteers. Partners and supporters include
8432-521: The dead (i.e., the 'Vulture Culture'). Most do not trust the system supposedly designed to protect their heritage." Also, any prehistoric archaeological excavation in the Americas will involve the material products left by the ancestors of indigenous peoples of the Americas. For these reasons, community archaeology projects with both federally and non-federally recognized indigenous peoples are different from those that collaborate with local and other descent communities. Some have found that collaboration can be
8556-413: The engineering success but financial failure of the 1860 trip, the ship's ownership company again attempted to turn Great Eastern profitable. During the winter of 1860, Scott Russell (who had recently won a $ 120,000 legal judgement against the ship company) refitted the ship and repaired damage sustained during its first year of operations; during the refit, she once broke free from her moorings and cut off
8680-582: The excavation and collection of human remains, the destruction and collections of sacred sites and objects, and archaeological interpretations that ignored or contradicted the opinions and beliefs of indigenous peoples. Even the so-called ‘father of American archaeology’ Thomas Jefferson excavated adults and sub-adults from a site still visited by indigenous people and Pilgrims plundered an indigenous grave days after anchoring at Cape Cod . Indeed, "American Indians tend to equate archaeologists with pothunters, grave looters, or, even worse, animals who feast off of
8804-467: The historic Thames to the widest possible audience, and to train and support members of the public (the Foreshore Recording and Observation Group or FROG) to monitor and record the archaeology of the foreshore during the lifetime of the project, and into the future. The project builds on initiatives pioneered by the Museum of London's Thames Archaeological Survey that took place from 1993 to 1999,
8928-754: The interpretation of discoveries but includes contributions to any aspect of archaeology—such as theory and project goals. Community involvement ends the exclusive control that archaeologists have had over the material past, and gives non-archaeologists a chance to interpret the past. Many archaeologists now argue that the incorporation of local knowledge is important to archaeology's survival as an academic discipline. The degree of interpretive control communities have in archaeological projects vary from using interpretations garnered from interviews and consultations, to academic publication written by community members based on community identified research questions. Ethnographers and development specialists have shown that
9052-405: The launch for January 1858, hoping to use the tide in the next launch attempt. In the leadup to the second launch, Brunel and Great Eastern 's backers gathered a significant number of chains, jacks, hydraulic rams, and windlasses to assist in launching the ship. Some were obtained from sympathetic engineers, others through returned favours, and yet more for increasing sums of money; so lucrative
9176-514: The local ancestors of slaves who worked at the plantation. Examples of community projects involving non-local descent communities include those where archaeologists set up museums for non-locals to come and visit. Local communities are simply communities that live "either on or close to a site" and non-descent local communities are those not believed ancestrally related to the site. This category includes landowners, local volunteers, local organizations, and local stakeholders. Some feel that many of
9300-475: The major issues in community archaeology are applicable to non-local descent communities, and that these collaborations are crucial for archaeologists seeking to understand the local social context of their work. Archaeology is a practice whose history is entrenched in colonialism , and many archaeologists and communities contend that archaeology has never escaped its colonial past . A major goal of many community archaeologists and community archaeology projects
9424-513: The massive Bronze Horseman had been erected in Saint Petersburg. High winds prevented the ship from being launched on 30 January, but the next morning a fresh attempt successfully launched the ship around 10:00 in the morning. Following her launch, Great Eastern spent a further 8 months being fitted out. However, the cost of the fitting out ($ 600,000) concerned many investors, who had already spent nearly $ 6,000,000 constructing her. With
9548-544: The mast was originally moved there by Everton F.C. , prior to their departure from Anfield in 1892. It still stands there today at the Kop end. In 2011, the Channel 4 programme Time Team found geophysical survey evidence to suggest that residual iron parts from the ship's keel and lower structure still reside in the foreshore. During 1859, when Great Eastern was off Portland conducting trials, an explosion aboard blew off one of
9672-404: The most number of people aboard a single ship to that point in history. The voyage was a success and the ship made it to Quebec, where it took two days for the city's steamers to ferry the passengers from the ship. The crossing was made in record-setting time, taking 8 days and 6 hours. Great Eastern 's durable design was praised by the military officers aboard, but soon after her return to Britain
9796-438: The new design plan. The James Watt Company would design the ship's screw, Professor Piazzi Smyth would design its gyroscopic equipment, and Russell himself would build the hull and paddle wheel. Brunel entered into a partnership with John Scott Russell , an experienced naval architect and ship builder, to build Great Eastern . Unknown to Brunel, Russell was in financial difficulties. The two men disagreed on many details. It
9920-540: The paddle engines measured 1.87 m (74 in) bore and 4.3 m (14 ft) stroke. The four cylinders for the screw engine measured 2.13 m (84 in) bore and 1.21 m (4.0 ft) stroke. Total power was estimated at 6,000 kilowatts (8,000 hp). She had six masts (said to be named after the days of a week – Monday being the fore mast and Saturday the spanker mast ), providing space for 1,686 square metres (18,150 sq ft) of sails (7 gaff and maximum 9 (usually 4) square sails), rigged similar to
10044-455: The passengers were two journalists, Zerah Colburn and Alexander Lyman Holley . Her first crossing went without incident, and the ship's seaworthiness was proven again when she easily survived a small gale. Great Eastern arrived in New York on 28 June and was successfully docked, though she did damage part of a wharf. The ship was received with great aplomb, with many vessels and tens of thousands of people crowding to see her. In preparation for
10168-643: The planning and carrying out of research projects that are of direct interest to them". Second, community archaeologists generally believe they are making an altruistic difference. Many scholars on the subject have argued that community collaboration does not have a pre-set method to follow. Although not found in every project, there are a number of recurring purposes and goals in community archaeology. Similarities are also found in different countries and regions—due to commonalities in archaeological communities, laws, institutions, and types of communities. It has also been suggested that public archaeology can be defined in
10292-432: The popular media and through western associations, and that public outreach is the only way non-archaeologists will be able to understand what archaeologists actually do and find. On another level, public participation can mean local people taking part in training excavations, and this type of involvement results in a hands-on learning experience in archaeological techniques. Interpretation of archaeological findings by
10416-418: The presidential visit, one member of the company board discussed sending the ship to Savannah to transport Southern cotton to English mills, but this idea was never followed up on. Upon its second return to New York, the company decided to sail from the United States. From a financial perspective, the American venture had been a disaster; the ship had taken in only $ 120,000 against a $ 72,000 overhead, whereas
10540-444: The race relations in local communities—such as histories of slavery and segregation. As a form of public outreach and collaboration, many archaeology projects in the United States have taken steps to present their work in schools and to children. These projects vary from a "one time" presentation to local schools, to long-term commitments in which public education is an intricate part of the research design. Community archaeology in
10664-512: The recognition that more investigations were required by the subsequent establishment of archaeological units eroded some of these opportunities; more significantly the introduction of archaeology to the legalities of the planning process through Planning Policy Guidance note 16 ( PPG16 ) and the full professionalization of archaeology, has made public participation in archaeology extremely limited. Archaeology (including historic buildings, landscapes and monuments, as well as ‘traditional’ archaeology)
10788-529: The remains of the Victorian 'Church Ferry' causeway . During low tides in June and July 2009, survey and recording at Charlton, London , formerly the location of Castle's Shipbreakers Yard focused on the 'stack' of very large ships timbers surviving at the top of the foreshore which represent the remains of one or more warship class vessels. Nautical remains are very well represented at this site where, in addition to
10912-491: The required curvature. Internally the hull was divided by two 107 m (351 ft 1 in) long, 18 m (59 ft 1 in) high, longitudinal bulkheads and further transverse bulkheads dividing the ship into nineteen compartments. Great Eastern was the first ship to incorporate a double-skinned hull, a feature which would not be seen again in a ship for 100 years, but which would later become compulsory for reasons of safety. To maximize her fuel capacity, stored coal
11036-482: The river. Outreach activities undertaken by the project including public lectures, small exhibitions, information stands, guided walks on the foreshore, observation of the FROG members in action on site and events for families and school groups, seminars, workshops and conferences. In 2009 the Thames Discovery Programme worked with a number of different organisations including Fulham Palace, Historic Royal Palaces, Gunnersbury Park Museum, Camden Young Archaeologists Club,
11160-439: The same time as the paddles and screw were under steam, because the hot exhaust from the five (later four) funnels would set them on fire. Her maximum speed was 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph). She was involved in a series of accidents during construction, with 6 workers being killed. Great Eastern was planned to be launched on 3 November 1857. The ship's massive size posed major logistical issues; according to one source,
11284-450: The ship and won it, thus acquiring personal control of the vessel. The group then allowed the ship company to go bankrupt, thus separating the ship from the now defunct shipping company and divesting many smaller stockholders. The ship was then contracted out to Cyrus West Field , an American financier, who intended to use it to lay underwater cables. The ship's owners developed a business model whereby they would rent out Great Eastern as
11408-426: The ship caused a minor labour dispute as workers – who were paid by the ton of ship scrapped – became frustrated with the slow pace of breaking and went on strike. After Great Eastern 's scrapping, rumours spread that the shipbreakers had found the remains of trapped worker(s) entombed in her double hull—likely inspired by tales spread by her crew of a phantom riveter who had been sealed in the ship's hull. The legend
11532-448: The ship did not have enough provisions (a burst pipe in a storeroom had ruined much of the ship's food) to make the short trip comfortable, while the ship's rudimentary bathrooms posed a sanitation issue. Duplicate tickets were sold for some berths, families were separated and remixed in improperly assigned cabins, and five plainclothes police officers (put on by New York Police Department to deter pickpockets) were discovered and chased into
11656-643: The ship eventually being sold to a new company for £800,000, equating to a loss of $ 3,000,000 for investors in the Eastern Steam Navigation Company. The new company modified parts of its predecessor's design, most notably cutting the ship's coal capacity as it intended to use the ship for the American market. Fitting out concluded in August 1859 and was marked with a lavish banquet for visitors (which included engineers, stockholders, members of parliament, 5 earls, and other notables). In early September 1859,
11780-403: The ship had remained as an "exhibition ship" for tourists in the Thames. Great Eastern successfully rode out the infamous Royal Charter Storm , after which it was moved to Southampton for the winter. The start of 1860 led to a further change of ownership when the owning company was found to be badly in debt and the value of the ship depreciated by half. This revelation forced the resignation of
11904-411: The ship sailed from her dock towards the channel, accompanied by many spectators. However, off Hastings she suffered a massive steam explosion (caused by a valve being left shut by accident after a pressure test of the system) that killed five crewmen and destroyed the forwardmost funnel. She proceeded to Portland Bill and then to Holyhead , though some investors claimed more money could have been made if
12028-663: The ship's 19,000 tons (12,000 inert tons during the launch) made it the single heaviest object moved by humans to that point. On 3 November, a large crowd gathered to watch the ship launch, with notables present including the Comte de Paris, the Duke of Aumale , and the Siamese ambassador to Britain. The launch, however, failed, and the ship was stranded on its launch rails – in addition, two men were killed and several others injured, leading some to declare Great Eastern an unlucky ship. Brunel rescheduled
12152-489: The ship's company had been contracted by the British War Office to transport 2,000 troops to Canada, part of a show of force to intimidate the rapidly-arming United States. After a further refit to carry troops, Great Eastern departed Britain for Quebec City carrying 2,144 soldiers, 473 passengers, and 122 horses; according to one source, this number of passengers – when coupled with Great Eastern 's crew of 400 – marked
12276-469: The ship's single propeller. A jury-rigged propeller was installed by Hamilton Towle (an American engineer returning from Austria), allowing the ship to steer for Ireland powered only by her screw. Arriving in Queenstown, (now Cobh ), she was denied entry to the harbour as it was feared high winds would cause her to smash her anchorage; she was granted entry three days later and towed in by HMS Advice , tearing
12400-514: The size of her load, she was drawing 9 metres (30 ft) of water. After outrunning a small squall, the ship approached the New York coast on the night of 27 August. Fearing that Great Eastern was resting too low in the water to pass by Sandy Hook, the ship's captain instead chose the nominally safer route through Long Island Sound. While passing by Montauk Point around 2:00 AM, the ship collided with an uncharted rock needle (later named Great Eastern Rock) that stood around 8 metres (26 ft) below
12524-414: The surface. The rock punctured the outer hull of the ship, leaving a gash 2.7 metres (9 ft) wide and 25 metres (83 ft) long – it was later calculated that the needle was large enough to contact the inner hull, but that the outer hull and strong transverse braces had prevented the inner hull from being breached. The collision was noticed by the crew, who guessed that the ship had struck
12648-452: The time. The vessel also had the largest set of paddle wheels . Brunel knew her affectionately as the "Great Babe". He died in 1859 shortly after her maiden voyage, during which she was damaged by an explosion. After repairs, she plied for several years as a passenger liner between Britain and North America before being converted to a cable-laying ship and laying the first lasting transatlantic telegraph cable in 1866. Finishing her life as
12772-409: The work of commercial archaeological units, such as Museum of London Archaeology and the Thames Explorer Trust's innovative education projects. Over three years, archaeologists from the programme surveyed 20 archaeological sites along the tidal Thames in the Greater London area, supported by the work of the Foreshore Recording and Observation Group or FROG, who monitor the surveyed sites for changes, as
12896-453: The year on the foreshore in front of Fulham Palace found Iron Age timber piles. During January 2010, investigations on the Isle of Dogs with the Thames and Field Metal Detecting Society discovered the remains of a human skeleton, dating to the early 18th century. During the 2010 Summer Season, work continued on the Isle of Dogs , recording the remains of the slipways used during the launch of
13020-480: The young; aiding in nation (re-)building and self-discovery; demonstrating innovative responses of past groups to changing environmental and social circumstance; and providing populations themselves with skills and experience in doing archaeology. Clearly, collaborative archaeology is not a panacea for the difficulties facing indigenous groups, but in certain situations . . . it can be a powerful tool Dean and Perrelli have noted that collaboration with indigenous peoples
13144-464: Was Custom House, London ; in February 2009, FROG members recorded the causeway, parts of the 1819 riverside wall, the Custom House gridiron , the remains of two vessels partly buried on the foreshore and a multi-phase revetment structure located under Billingsgate Wharf. In April 2009, an examination of access to the foreshore at Isleworth included recording the 20th century boat slipway and
13268-769: Was 119 m (390 ft 5 in) long with a 14 m (45 ft 11 in) beam . She was at first named Leviathan , but her high building and launching costs ruined the Eastern Steam Navigation Company and so she lay unfinished for a year before being sold to the Great Eastern Ship Company and finally renamed Great Eastern . The hull was an all-iron construction, a double hull of 19-millimetre (0.75 in) wrought iron in 0.86 m (2 ft 10 in) plates with ribs every 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in). Her roughly 30,000 iron plates weighed 340 kilograms ( 1 ⁄ 3 long ton) each, and were cut over individually-made wooden templates before being rolled to
13392-449: Was Brunel's final great project, and he collapsed from a stroke after being photographed on her deck, and died only ten days later, a mere four days after Great Eastern ' s first sea trials . About the ship, Brunel said "I have never embarked on any one thing to which I have so entirely devoted myself, and to which I have devoted so much time, thought and labour, on the success of which I have staked so much reputation." Great Eastern
13516-489: Was a setback for the ship, as at the time the channel was too shallow for Great Eastern to navigate. Going around Africa it would not be able to compete with ships that could use the canal. Ali Rischdi, a famed Arab navigator, proposed taking the ship through the canal, but this was never attempted. At the end of her cable-laying career – hastened by the launch of the CS Faraday , a ship purpose-built for cable laying – she
13640-487: Was an iron - hulled steamship designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , and built by John Scott Russell & Co. at Millwall Iron Works on the River Thames , London, England. Powered by both sidewheels and screw propellers, she was by far the largest ship ever built at the time of her 1858 launch, and had the capacity to carry 4,000 passengers from England to Australia without refuelling. Her length of 692 feet (211 m)
13764-415: Was built by Messrs Scott Russell & Co. of Millwall , Middlesex, England, the keel being laid down on 1 May 1854. She was 211 metres (692 ft 3 in) long, 25 metres (82 ft 0 in) wide, with a draught of 6.1 metres (20 ft 0 in) unloaded and 9.1 metres (29 ft 10 in) fully laden, and displaced 32,000 tons fully loaded. In comparison, SS Persia , launched in 1856,
13888-403: Was bunkered around and over her 10 boilers; which provided steam at 172 kPa (25 PSI). She had sail, paddle and screw propulsion. The paddle-wheels were 17 m (55 ft 9 in) in diameter and the four-bladed screw-propeller was 7.3 m (23 ft 11 in) across. The power came from four steam engines for the paddles and an additional engine for the propeller . The cylinders for
14012-478: Was envisioned as being able to sail halfway around the world without taking on coal, while also carrying so much cargo and passengers that papers described her as a "floating city" and "the Crystal Palace of the sea". Brunel saw the ship as being able to effectively monopolize trade with Asia and Australia, making regular trips between Britain and either Trincomalee or Australia. On 25 March 1852, Brunel made
14136-506: Was first widely noted on by James Dugan in 1952, who quoted a letter from a Captain David Duff, and many later sources cite Dugan's work. Other authors, notably L. T. C. Rolt in his biography of Brunel, have dismissed the claim (noting such a discovery would have been recorded in company logs and received press attention), but the legend has become widely mentioned in books and articles about nautical ghost stories. In London and Londoners in
14260-840: Was outfitted to lay undersea cables in the Indian Ocean; most of the operation's expenses were covered by the British government and banks in India, which hoped to circumvent the unreliable overland cables linking Britain to India. In preparation for operations in the hot climate, the ship was painted white to deflect heat away from the ship's cable tanks. Great Eastern departed from Britain in December 1869, arriving in Bombay (now Mumbai) 83 days later to lay her first cable anchor. Upon her arrival in port, Great Eastern 's size generated considerable public interest, with
14384-464: Was refitted as a liner, but once again efforts to make her a commercial success failed. She remained moored in Milford Harbour for some time, annoying the Milford harbour board, which wanted to build dockyards in the area. Many proposals for the ship were raised; according to one source, pubs were full of talk of filling her with gunpowder and blowing her up. The ship was ultimately saved, however, as
14508-466: Was renting out of supplies for the ship's launch that engineer Richard Tangye was able to found his own engineering firm (Tangye & Co) the next year, remarking that "We launched Great Eastern , and she launched us ". Advice sent to Brunel on how to launch the ship came from a number of sources, including steamboat captains on the Great Lakes and one admirer who wrote an insightful description on how
14632-414: Was repaired by metalworkers in a cofferdam , but cost the company $ 350,000 and delayed the ship's return to Britain by several months. She would make one more trip to New York and back in 1863 before being laid up until 1864 due to her operating costs. In January 1864, it was announced that the ship would be auctioned off. During the auction, four members of the company board of directors bid $ 125,000 for
14756-555: Was signed in Valletta in 1992, and ratified by the UK government before coming into force on 21 March 2001. Article 3 of the document caused considerable debate as it stated that all archaeological work should be carried out by suitably qualified, authorized people. This form of ‘licensing’ for archaeologists already exists in the rest of Europe, where it has limited the work of voluntary archaeologists and local societies. Australian Archaeology has
14880-553: Was sold at auction, at Lloyd's on 4 November 1885, by order of the Court of Chancery . Bidding commenced at £10,000, rising to £26,200 and sold to Mr Mattos, a city merchant. Sold again, she was used as a showboat, a floating palace/concert hall and gymnasium. She later acted as an advertising hoarding – sailing up and down the Mersey for Lewis's Department Store, who at this point were her owners, before being sold. The idea
15004-400: Was surpassed only in 1899 by the 705-foot (215 m) 17,274-gross-ton RMS Oceanic , her gross tonnage of 18,915 was only surpassed in 1901 by the 701-foot (214 m) 20,904-gross-ton RMS Celtic and her 4,000-passenger capacity was surpassed in 1913 by the 4,234-passenger SS Imperator . The ship having five funnels (which were later reduced to four) was unusual for
15128-445: Was technically impossible to prove or disprove, the incident could not have happened given the lack of evidence being found during the numerous times Great Eastern was being repaired. Football historian Stephen Kelly states that in 1928, Liverpool Football Club were looking for a flagpole for their Anfield ground, and consequently purchased her top mast. However, further investigation by local journalist Simon Weedy has shown that
15252-576: Was to attract people to the store by using her as a floating visitor attraction. In 1886 she was sailed to Liverpool for the Liverpool Exhibition of 1886 – during the transit, she struck and badly damaged one of her tugs, the last of 10 ships she would damage or sink. On 10 May 1887, the steamship G. E. Wood collided with her in the Mersey. Sold again after the exhibition, one company considered using her to raise shallow shipwrecks, while one humorist suggested that Great Eastern be used to help dig
15376-523: Was undertaken at Tripcockness near the Royal Arsenal and Rotherhithe . In January 2011, the project published the results of recent investigations at Vauxhall, where the remains of the oldest structure so far discovered in the London area, dating to the late Mesolithic period, have been recorded by the Thames Discovery Programme, English Heritage and the Museum of London. During the 2011 summer field season,
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