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SS Great Eastern

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154-507: SS Great Eastern was an iron - hulled steamship designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel , and built by John Scott Russell & Co. at Millwall Iron Works on the River Thames , London, England. Powered by both sidewheels and screw propellers, she was by far the largest ship ever built at the time of her 1858 launch, and had the capacity to carry 4,000 passengers from England to Australia without refuelling. Her length of 692 feet (211 m)

308-434: A body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure . As it cools further to 1394 °C, it changes to its γ-iron allotrope, a face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure, or austenite . At 912 °C and below, the crystal structure again becomes the bcc α-iron allotrope. The physical properties of iron at very high pressures and temperatures have also been studied extensively, because of their relevance to theories about

462-430: A nuclear spin (− 1 ⁄ 2 ). The nuclide Fe theoretically can undergo double electron capture to Cr, but the process has never been observed and only a lower limit on the half-life of 4.4×10 years has been established. Fe is an extinct radionuclide of long half-life (2.6 million years). It is not found on Earth, but its ultimate decay product is its granddaughter, the stable nuclide Ni . Much of

616-499: A supernova for their formation, involving rapid neutron capture by starting Fe nuclei. In the far future of the universe, assuming that proton decay does not occur, cold fusion occurring via quantum tunnelling would cause the light nuclei in ordinary matter to fuse into Fe nuclei. Fission and alpha-particle emission would then make heavy nuclei decay into iron, converting all stellar-mass objects to cold spheres of pure iron. Iron's abundance in rocky planets like Earth

770-460: A cable layer in exchange for shares in cable companies, ensuring that if Great Eastern succeeded in laying cables, the unprofitable ship could be personally lucrative for her owners. In May 1865, Great Eastern steamed to Sheerness to take on wire for the laying of the Transatlantic telegraph cable . In return for using the ship, her owners wanted $ 250,000 in telegraph company stock, but only on

924-492: A combination of a single screw and paddle wheels , with auxiliary sail power. Although Brunel had pioneered the screw propeller on a large scale with Great Britain , he did not believe that it was possible to build a single propeller and shaft (or, for that matter, a paddleshaft) that could transmit the required power to drive his giant ship at the required speed. Brunel showed his idea to John Scott Russell , an experienced naval architect and ship builder whom he had first met at

1078-408: A deep violet complex: John Scott Russell John Scott Russell (9 May 1808, Parkhead , Glasgow – 8 June 1882, Ventnor , Isle of Wight) was a Scottish civil engineer , naval architect and shipbuilder who built Great Eastern in collaboration with Isambard Kingdom Brunel . He made the discovery of the wave of translation that gave birth to the modern study of solitons , and developed

1232-454: A distorted sodium chloride structure. The binary ferrous and ferric halides are well-known. The ferrous halides typically arise from treating iron metal with the corresponding hydrohalic acid to give the corresponding hydrated salts. Iron reacts with fluorine, chlorine, and bromine to give the corresponding ferric halides, ferric chloride being the most common. Ferric iodide is an exception, being thermodynamically unstable due to

1386-489: A dock engineer (Frederick Appleby) was able to build a dock around her, using the ship's massive hulk as a station for driving pylons. During her 11 years moored in Milford, she accrued a large amount of biofouling on her hull. Early marine naturalist Henry Lee (best known at the time for his skepticism towards sea monsters) conducted an extensive study of her hull, calculating she had ~300 tons of marine life attached to her. She

1540-464: A floating music hall and advertising hoarding (for the department store Lewis's ) in Liverpool , she was broken up on Merseyside in 1889. After his success in pioneering steam travel to North America with Great Western and Great Britain , Brunel turned his attention to a vessel capable of making longer voyages as far as Australia. With a planned capacity of 15,000 tons of coal, Great Eastern

1694-667: A house provided for the secretary of the Society of Arts and then moved to Sydenham Hill , which became a centre of attention especially after Russell and his friends moved Paxton 's glasshouse for the Great Exhibition to the Crystal Palace close by. Arthur Sullivan and his friend Frederic Clay were frequent visitors at the Scott Russell home in the mid-1860s; Clay became engaged to Alice, and Sullivan wooed Rachel. While Clay

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1848-575: A livestock pen on deck. After reaching Virginia, the ship steamed back to New York, and from there sailed south again for an excursion cruise in the Chesapeake bay. The ship departed for Annapolis, where it was given 5,000 tons of coal by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad . Great Eastern remained in Annapolis for several days, where she was toured by several thousand visitors and President James Buchanan . During

2002-553: A macroscopic piece of iron will have a nearly zero overall magnetic field. Application of an external magnetic field causes the domains that are magnetized in the same general direction to grow at the expense of adjacent ones that point in other directions, reinforcing the external field. This effect is exploited in devices that need to channel magnetic fields to fulfill design function, such as electrical transformers , magnetic recording heads, and electric motors . Impurities, lattice defects , or grain and particle boundaries can "pin"

2156-475: A mixture of O 2 /Ar. Iron(IV) is a common intermediate in many biochemical oxidation reactions. Numerous organoiron compounds contain formal oxidation states of +1, 0, −1, or even −2. The oxidation states and other bonding properties are often assessed using the technique of Mössbauer spectroscopy . Many mixed valence compounds contain both iron(II) and iron(III) centers, such as magnetite and Prussian blue ( Fe 4 (Fe[CN] 6 ) 3 ). The latter

2310-414: A narrow channel by a pair of horses, when the boat suddenly stopped—not so the mass of water in the channel which it had put in motion; it accumulated round the prow of the vessel in a state of violent agitation, then suddenly leaving it behind, rolled forward with great velocity, assuming the form of a large solitary elevation, a rounded, smooth and well-defined heap of water, which continued its course along

2464-646: A naval architect, contributing to the Institution of Naval Architects which his father had founded. While in Edinburgh he experimented with steam engines, using a square boiler for which he developed a method of staying the surface of the boiler which became universal. The Scottish Steam Carriage Company was formed producing a steam carriage with two cylinders developing 12 horsepower each. Six were constructed in 1834, well-sprung and fitted out to high standard, which from March 1834 ran between Glasgow's George Square and

2618-544: A public house bar, while one mistress at a Lancashire boarding school acquired the ship's deck caboose for use as a children's playhouse. An early example of breaking-up a structure by use of a wrecking ball , she was scrapped near the Sloyne , at New Ferry on the River Mersey by Henry Bath & Son Ltd in 1889–1890—it took 18 months to take her apart, with her double hull being particularly difficult to salvage. The breaking of

2772-471: A result, mercury is traded in standardized 76 pound flasks (34 kg) made of iron. Iron is by far the most reactive element in its group; it is pyrophoric when finely divided and dissolves easily in dilute acids, giving Fe . However, it does not react with concentrated nitric acid and other oxidizing acids due to the formation of an impervious oxide layer, which can nevertheless react with hydrochloric acid . High-purity iron, called electrolytic iron ,

2926-585: A series of Royal Mail ships, together with many other innovations. After the shipyard was taken over by Caird , he decided to move to London and in 1848 purchased the Millwall Iron Works shipbuilding company. He built two ships for Brunel for the Australia run, much the same size as Brunel's SS Great Britain , Adelaide and Victoria . Problems with refuelling and water led Brunel to think in terms of larger ships for this voyage, but five more were built in

3080-417: A shifting sand shoal, and after a bilge check Great Eastern continued onto New York without incident. While in port, however, it was noticed that the ship had acquired a slight list to starboard, and so a diver was sent in to inspect the hull. After several days of inspection, the diver reported the large hole in the ship's outer hull, a major issue as no drydock in the world could fit the ship. The ship's hull

3234-407: A short time between London and Greenwich. In 1834, while conducting experiments to determine the most efficient design for canal boats, he discovered a phenomenon that he described as the wave of translation . In fluid dynamics the wave is now called Russell's solitary wave . The discovery is described here in his own words: I was observing the motion of a boat which was rapidly drawn along

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3388-501: A sketch of a steamship in his diary and wrote beneath it: "Say 600 ft x 65 ft x 30 ft" (180 m x 20 m x 9.1 m). These measurements were six times larger by volume than any ship afloat; such a large vessel would benefit from economies of scale and would be both fast and economical, requiring fewer crew than the equivalent tonnage made up of smaller ships. Brunel realised that the ship would need more than one propulsion system; since twin screws were still very much experimental, he settled on

3542-575: A success that an international version was planned for 1851. By this time Russell had once again started shipbuilding, the railway boom having finished, and although he became the RSA's appointed secretary for the Great Exhibition , Henry Cole was by this time taking the lead, and he ended up with only a Gold Medal as his reward for much work. Russell became a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1847 attending regularly and making frequent contributions,

3696-460: A time when all previous train ferries were riverine vessels, in 1868 Scott Russell designed a train ferry for service on Lake Constance , the Bodensee Trajekt , which entered service in 1869. This was the world's first cross-lake train ferry. The Bodensee Trajekt had to meet the unusual requirement that its draft not exceed six feet (1.85m). He achieved this by using the superstructure to carry

3850-489: A toll based on ship tonnage – given the size of the ship, the lighthouse levied a toll of $ 1,750 on Great Eastern . Infuriated by the size of the toll, a party went ashore to request that the toll be waived, but the governor of Halifax denied this request. Angered by the refusal, the captain and company leadership ordered the ship to return to Britain immediately, and as such no passengers or visitors were taken on in Halifax. With

4004-418: A topsail schooner with a main gaff sail ( fore-and-aft sail) on each mast, one "jib" on the fore mast and three square sails on masts no. 2 and no. 3 (Tuesday & Wednesday); for a time mast no. 4 was also fitted with 3 yards. In later years, some of the yards were removed. According to some sources she would have carried 5,435 m (58,500 sq ft) in sails. Setting sails turned out to be unusable at

4158-722: A turnaround of only 11 days. However, as noted by sources, the ship's owners struggled to sustain this profitability as they were heavily focused on upper and middle class passenger service. As such, the ship was not used to transport large groups of immigrants travelling to the United States, nor did it take full advantage of the major downturn in the American clipper industry during the American Civil War. On 17 August 1862, Great Eastern departed from Liverpool for New York, carrying 820 passengers and several thousand tons of cargo – given

4312-455: A type of rock consisting of repeated thin layers of iron oxides alternating with bands of iron-poor shale and chert . The banded iron formations were laid down in the time between 3,700  million years ago and 1,800  million years ago . Materials containing finely ground iron(III) oxides or oxide-hydroxides, such as ochre , have been used as yellow, red, and brown pigments since pre-historical times. They contribute as well to

4466-435: A very large coordination and organometallic chemistry : indeed, it was the discovery of an iron compound, ferrocene , that revolutionalized the latter field in the 1950s. Iron is sometimes considered as a prototype for the entire block of transition metals, due to its abundance and the immense role it has played in the technological progress of humanity. Its 26 electrons are arranged in the configuration [Ar]3d 4s , of which

4620-814: Is a chemical element ; it has the symbol Fe (from Latin ferrum  'iron') and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table . It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth , forming much of Earth's outer and inner core . It is the fourth most abundant element in the Earth's crust , being mainly deposited by meteorites in its metallic state. Extracting usable metal from iron ores requires kilns or furnaces capable of reaching 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), about 500 °C (932 °F) higher than that required to smelt copper . Humans started to master that process in Eurasia during

4774-630: Is also rarely found in basalts that have formed from magmas that have come into contact with carbon-rich sedimentary rocks, which have reduced the oxygen fugacity sufficiently for iron to crystallize. This is known as telluric iron and is described from a few localities, such as Disko Island in West Greenland, Yakutia in Russia and Bühl in Germany. Ferropericlase (Mg,Fe)O , a solid solution of periclase (MgO) and wüstite (FeO), makes up about 20% of

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4928-407: Is considered to be resistant to rust, due to its oxide layer. Iron forms various oxide and hydroxide compounds ; the most common are iron(II,III) oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ), and iron(III) oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Iron(II) oxide also exists, though it is unstable at room temperature. Despite their names, they are actually all non-stoichiometric compounds whose compositions may vary. These oxides are

5082-505: Is denoted as "the law of Scott Russell" within the text. His contemporaries spent some time attempting to extend the theory but it would take until the 1870s before an explanation was provided. Lord Rayleigh published a paper in Philosophical Magazine in 1876 to support John Scott Russell's experimental observation with his mathematical theory. In his 1876 paper, Lord Rayleigh mentioned Scott Russell's name and also admitted that

5236-495: Is due to its abundant production during the runaway fusion and explosion of type Ia supernovae , which scatters the iron into space. Metallic or native iron is rarely found on the surface of the Earth because it tends to oxidize. However, both the Earth's inner and outer core , which together account for 35% of the mass of the whole Earth, are believed to consist largely of an iron alloy, possibly with nickel . Electric currents in

5390-474: Is experimentally well defined for pressures less than 50 GPa. For greater pressures, published data (as of 2007) still varies by tens of gigapascals and over a thousand kelvin. Below its Curie point of 770 °C (1,420 °F; 1,040 K), α-iron changes from paramagnetic to ferromagnetic : the spins of the two unpaired electrons in each atom generally align with the spins of its neighbors, creating an overall magnetic field . This happens because

5544-443: Is in Earth's crust only amounts to about 5% of the overall mass of the crust and is thus only the fourth most abundant element in that layer (after oxygen , silicon , and aluminium ). Most of the iron in the crust is combined with various other elements to form many iron minerals . An important class is the iron oxide minerals such as hematite (Fe 2 O 3 ), magnetite (Fe 3 O 4 ), and siderite (FeCO 3 ), which are

5698-401: Is not like that of Mn with its weak, spin-forbidden d–d bands, because Fe has higher positive charge and is more polarizing, lowering the energy of its ligand-to-metal charge transfer absorptions. Thus, all the above complexes are rather strongly colored, with the single exception of the hexaquo ion – and even that has a spectrum dominated by charge transfer in the near ultraviolet region. On

5852-407: Is possible, but nonetheless the sequence does effectively end at Ni because conditions in stellar interiors cause the competition between photodisintegration and the alpha process to favor photodisintegration around Ni. This Ni, which has a half-life of about 6 days, is created in quantity in these stars, but soon decays by two successive positron emissions within supernova decay products in

6006-548: Is somewhat different). Pieces of magnetite with natural permanent magnetization ( lodestones ) provided the earliest compasses for navigation. Particles of magnetite were extensively used in magnetic recording media such as core memories , magnetic tapes , floppies , and disks , until they were replaced by cobalt -based materials. Iron has four stable isotopes : Fe (5.845% of natural iron), Fe (91.754%), Fe (2.119%) and Fe (0.282%). Twenty-four artificial isotopes have also been created. Of these stable isotopes, only Fe has

6160-442: Is such a strong oxidizing agent that it oxidizes ammonia to nitrogen (N 2 ) and water to oxygen: The pale-violet hex aquo complex [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] is an acid such that above pH 0 it is fully hydrolyzed: As pH rises above 0 the above yellow hydrolyzed species form and as it rises above 2–3, reddish-brown hydrous iron(III) oxide precipitates out of solution. Although Fe has a d configuration, its absorption spectrum

6314-502: Is supposed to have an orthorhombic or a double hcp structure. (Confusingly, the term "β-iron" is sometimes also used to refer to α-iron above its Curie point, when it changes from being ferromagnetic to paramagnetic, even though its crystal structure has not changed. ) The inner core of the Earth is generally presumed to consist of an iron- nickel alloy with ε (or β) structure. The melting and boiling points of iron, along with its enthalpy of atomization , are lower than those of

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6468-418: Is thus very important economically, and iron is the cheapest metal, with a price of a few dollars per kilogram or pound. Pristine and smooth pure iron surfaces are a mirror-like silvery-gray. Iron reacts readily with oxygen and water to produce brown-to-black hydrated iron oxides , commonly known as rust . Unlike the oxides of some other metals that form passivating layers, rust occupies more volume than

6622-451: Is used as the traditional "blue" in blueprints . Iron is the first of the transition metals that cannot reach its group oxidation state of +8, although its heavier congeners ruthenium and osmium can, with ruthenium having more difficulty than osmium. Ruthenium exhibits an aqueous cationic chemistry in its low oxidation states similar to that of iron, but osmium does not, favoring high oxidation states in which it forms anionic complexes. In

6776-437: Is used in chemical actinometry and along with its sodium salt undergoes photoreduction applied in old-style photographic processes. The dihydrate of iron(II) oxalate has a polymeric structure with co-planar oxalate ions bridging between iron centres with the water of crystallisation located forming the caps of each octahedron, as illustrated below. Iron(III) complexes are quite similar to those of chromium (III) with

6930-557: The 2nd millennium BC and the use of iron tools and weapons began to displace copper alloys – in some regions, only around 1200 BC. That event is considered the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age . In the modern world , iron alloys, such as steel , stainless steel , cast iron and special steels , are by far the most common industrial metals, due to their mechanical properties and low cost. The iron and steel industry

7084-432: The supernova remnant gas cloud, first to radioactive Co, and then to stable Fe. As such, iron is the most abundant element in the core of red giants , and is the most abundant metal in iron meteorites and in the dense metal cores of planets such as Earth . It is also very common in the universe, relative to other stable metals of approximately the same atomic weight . Iron is the sixth most abundant element in

7238-488: The trans - chlorohydridobis(bis-1,2-(diphenylphosphino)ethane)iron(II) complex is used as a starting material for compounds with the Fe( dppe ) 2 moiety . The ferrioxalate ion with three oxalate ligands displays helical chirality with its two non-superposable geometries labelled Λ (lambda) for the left-handed screw axis and Δ (delta) for the right-handed screw axis, in line with IUPAC conventions. Potassium ferrioxalate

7392-466: The universe , and the most common refractory element. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing Ni , which has a marginally higher binding energy than Fe, conditions in stars are unsuitable for this process. Element production in supernovas greatly favor iron over nickel, and in any case, Fe still has a lower mass per nucleon than Ni due to its higher fraction of lighter protons. Hence, elements heavier than iron require

7546-570: The 3d and 4s electrons are relatively close in energy, and thus a number of electrons can be ionized. Iron forms compounds mainly in the oxidation states +2 ( iron(II) , "ferrous") and +3 ( iron(III) , "ferric"). Iron also occurs in higher oxidation states , e.g., the purple potassium ferrate (K 2 FeO 4 ), which contains iron in its +6 oxidation state. The anion [FeO 4 ] with iron in its +7 oxidation state, along with an iron(V)-peroxo isomer, has been detected by infrared spectroscopy at 4 K after cocondensation of laser-ablated Fe atoms with

7700-589: The Earth's surface. Items made of cold-worked meteoritic iron have been found in various archaeological sites dating from a time when iron smelting had not yet been developed; and the Inuit in Greenland have been reported to use iron from the Cape York meteorite for tools and hunting weapons. About 1 in 20 meteorites consist of the unique iron-nickel minerals taenite (35–80% iron) and kamacite (90–95% iron). Native iron

7854-584: The Edinburgh Journal of Science in the same year. Scott Russell spent some time making practical and theoretical investigations of these waves. He built wave tanks at his home and noticed some key properties: Scott Russell's experimental work seemed at contrast with Isaac Newton 's and Daniel Bernoulli 's theories of hydrodynamics . George Biddell Airy and George Gabriel Stokes had difficulty to accept Scott Russell's experimental observations because Scott Russell's observations could not be explained by

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8008-465: The Eighteen-Fifties and Sixties , Alfred Rosling Bennett writes about the skeleton that "it was then remembered that while on the stocks building a pay-clerk had disappeared with a large sum of money... and was supposed to have fled with it", and questions if the remains could have been deposited by workmen who had murdered the man. Brian Dunning wrote about the legend in 2020, noting that while it

8162-607: The French Academy of Sciences on the portion of Bazin's treatise relating to surges and the propagation of waves ) was featured in the proceedings of the Dutch Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs (English: Royal Institute of Engineers ) in 1869. Within the original French paper, and the translated work, the velocity of a solitary wave is given as: c = g ( h + z ) {\displaystyle c={\sqrt {g(h+z)}}} The formula

8316-557: The Great Exhibition . Scott Russell examined Brunel's plan and made his own calculations as to the ship's feasibility. He calculated that it would have a displacement of 20,000 tons and would require 8,500 horsepower (6,300 kW) to achieve 14 knots (26 km/h; 16 mph), but believed it was possible. At Scott Russell's suggestion, they approached the directors of the Eastern Steam Navigation Company with

8470-938: The Laws by which water opposes Resistance to the Motion of Floating Bodies". He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1849 for Memoirs on "The great Solitary Wave of the First Order, or the Wave of Translation" published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and of several Memoirs in the Reports of the British Association . In 1995, the aqueduct which carries the Union Canal

8624-469: The Panama canal by ramming her into the isthmus. She was, again, sold at auction in 1888, fetching £16,000 for her value as scrap. Many pieces of the ship were bought by private collectors, former passengers, and friends of the crew – various fixtures, lamps, furniture, paneling, and other artifacts were kept. Parts of Great Eastern were repurposed for other uses; one ferry company converted her wood paneling into

8778-576: The Tontine Hotel in Paisley at hourly intervals at 15 mph. The road trustees objected that it wore out the road and placed various obstructions of logs and stones in the road, which actually caused more discomfort for horse-drawn carriages. But in July 1834 one of the carriages was overturned and the boiler smashed, causing the death of several passengers. Two of the coaches were sent to London where they ran for

8932-479: The War Office discontinued the contract, and the ship returned to regular passenger service. In September 1861, Great Eastern was caught in a major hurricane two days out of Liverpool. The ship was trapped in the storm for three days and suffered major damage to her propulsion systems; both her paddle wheels were torn off, her sails stripped away, and her rudder had been bent to 200 degrees and subsequently torn up by

9086-543: The age of 17 and moved to Edinburgh where he taught mathematics and science at the Leith Mechanics' Institute , achieving the highest attendance in the city. On the death of Sir John Leslie , Professor of Natural Philosophy at the University of Edinburgh in 1832, Scott Russell, though only 24 years old, was elected to temporarily fill the vacancy pending the election of a permanent professor, due to his proficiency in

9240-551: The anchor off an American merchant on her way to her berth. The only fatal casualty of the cruise occurred in port when a man was killed by backspin off the helm. Damage caused by the storm and lost revenue from the trip amounted to $ 300,000. The ship continued a cycle of uneventful cruises, cargo loadings, and brief exhibitions from late 1861 to mid 1862. By July 1862, the ship was turning its first noteworthy profits, carrying 500 passengers and 8,000 tons of foodstuffs from New York to Liverpool, bringing in $ 225,000 in gross and requiring

9394-552: The board of directors, who were then replaced by a third group of controlling stockholders. With the new board in place, the ship was recapitalized to raise an additional $ 50,000. The new board was determined to finish the ship, but also bet heavily on making large profits exhibiting the ship in North American seaports. To accomplish this, the company played major American and Canadian cities against each other, goading them into competition over which city would welcome Great Eastern ;

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9548-518: The bowsprit of HMS Blenheim . She departed for New York in May 1861 (her other potential port, Baltimore, now considered too risky due to the outbreak of the American Civil War ), arriving in the port with little fanfare. Taking on a cargo of 5,000 tons of barrelled wheat and 194 passengers, she departed for Liverpool on 25 May, making an uneventful trip. Upon her return to Britain, it was announced that

9702-450: The brown deposits present in a sizeable number of streams. Due to its electronic structure, iron has a very large coordination and organometallic chemistry. Many coordination compounds of iron are known. A typical six-coordinate anion is hexachloroferrate(III), [FeCl 6 ] , found in the mixed salt tetrakis(methylammonium) hexachloroferrate(III) chloride . Complexes with multiple bidentate ligands have geometric isomers . For example,

9856-507: The building company already in debt, cost cutting measures were implemented; the ship was removed from Russell's shipyard, and many investors requested she be sold. As reported by the Times , one investor openly proposed that the ship be sold to the Royal Navy, noting if the navy employed Great Eastern as a ram, she would easily cleave through any warship afloat. These efforts had mixed success, with

10010-486: The cable end was lost mid-Atlantic in an accident, forcing the ship to return in 1866 with a new line. The ship's first officer, Robert Halpin , managed to locate the lost cable end and the unbroken cable made it to shore in Heart's Content, Newfoundland on 27 July 1866. Halpin became captain of Great Eastern , with the ship laying further cables. In early 1869 she laid a series of undersea cables near Brest. Later that year she

10164-481: The captain offering tickets to view the ship for 2 rupees apiece, distributing proceeds to the crew. Departing from Bombay before the onset of the Monsoon season, she proceeded north to lay a cable between Bombay and Aden. From Aden, she laid another cable to the island of Jabal al-Tair , where a second ship rendezvoused with her to take up the cable to Suez and then on to Alexandria. The Suez Canal , which opened in 1869,

10318-399: The cargo-carrying capacity, but starting from the 1840s the "extreme clipper ships " started to show concave bows as increasingly did steam ships culminating with Great Eastern . After his views were propounded by Commander Fishbourne, the American naval architect John W. Griffiths acknowledged the force of Russell's work in his Treatise on marine and naval architecture of 1850 though he

10472-413: The channel apparently without change of form or diminution of speed. I followed it on horseback, and overtook it still rolling on at a rate of some eight or nine miles an hour [14 km/h], preserving its original figure some thirty feet [9 m] long and a foot to a foot and a half [30−45 cm] in height. Its height gradually diminished, and after a chase of one or two miles [2–3 km] I lost it in

10626-564: The city of Portland , Maine (with additional investment from the Grand Trunk Railway ) went so far as to build a $ 125,000 pier to accommodate the ship. Ultimately New York City – which had quickly dredged a berth for her alongside a lumber wharf – was decided on as the ship's first destination. After some delays, Great Eastern began her eleven-day maiden voyage on 17 June 1860 from Liverpool with 35 paying passengers, 8 company " dead heads " (passengers who do not pay) and 418 crew. Among

10780-683: The color of various rocks and clays , including entire geological formations like the Painted Hills in Oregon and the Buntsandstein ("colored sandstone", British Bunter ). Through Eisensandstein (a jurassic 'iron sandstone', e.g. from Donzdorf in Germany) and Bath stone in the UK, iron compounds are responsible for the yellowish color of many historical buildings and sculptures. The proverbial red color of

10934-420: The company had expected to take in $ 700,000. In addition, the company was facing a daily interest payment of $ 5,000, which ate into any profits the ship made. Hoping to net more profit before returning to Britain, the ship sailed from New York in mid August, bound for Halifax with 100 passengers. However, on approach to the port the ship was hailed by a local lighthouse service, which was empowered by law to collect

11088-418: The condition the wire laying succeeded. To accommodate the 22,450 kilometres (13,950 mi) of cable she was carrying, Great Eastern had some of her salons and rooms replaced with large tanks to hold the cable. In July the ship began laying the undersea cable near Valentia Island , gradually working her way west at a speed of 11 km/h (6 kn). The effort went relatively smoothly for several weeks, but

11242-464: The cores of the Earth and other planets. Above approximately 10 GPa and temperatures of a few hundred kelvin or less, α-iron changes into another hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure, which is also known as ε-iron . The higher-temperature γ-phase also changes into ε-iron, but does so at higher pressure. Some controversial experimental evidence exists for a stable β phase at pressures above 50 GPa and temperatures of at least 1500 K. It

11396-597: The crowds, the crew established a bar on deck, spread sand to soak up tobacco juice, and prepared to receive thousands of visitors. However, relations between the crew and New Yorkers began to sour – the public was outraged by the $ 1 entry fee (similar excursion trips in New York charged 25 cents) and many would-be visitors decided to forego visiting the ship. Great Eastern left New York in late July, taking several hundred passengers on an excursion trip to Cape May and then to Old Point , Virginia. However, this too raised issues as

11550-401: The domains in the new positions, so that the effect persists even after the external field is removed – thus turning the iron object into a (permanent) magnet . Similar behavior is exhibited by some iron compounds, such as the ferrites including the mineral magnetite , a crystalline form of the mixed iron(II,III) oxide Fe 3 O 4 (although the atomic-scale mechanism, ferrimagnetism ,

11704-479: The earlier 3d elements from scandium to chromium , showing the lessened contribution of the 3d electrons to metallic bonding as they are attracted more and more into the inert core by the nucleus; however, they are higher than the values for the previous element manganese because that element has a half-filled 3d sub-shell and consequently its d-electrons are not easily delocalized. This same trend appears for ruthenium but not osmium . The melting point of iron

11858-413: The engineering success but financial failure of the 1860 trip, the ship's ownership company again attempted to turn Great Eastern profitable. During the winter of 1860, Scott Russell (who had recently won a $ 120,000 legal judgement against the ship company) refitted the ship and repaired damage sustained during its first year of operations; during the refit, she once broke free from her moorings and cut off

12012-406: The exception of iron(III)'s preference for O -donor instead of N -donor ligands. The latter tend to be rather more unstable than iron(II) complexes and often dissociate in water. Many Fe–O complexes show intense colors and are used as tests for phenols or enols . For example, in the ferric chloride test , used to determine the presence of phenols, iron(III) chloride reacts with a phenol to form

12166-657: The existing water-wave theories. Additional observations were reported by Henry Bazin in 1862 after experiments carried out in the canal de Bourgogne in France. In 1863, Bazin authored a research paper titled Recherches hydrauliques entreprises par M.H. Darcy (English: Hydraulic Researches Undertaken by M.H. Darcy ) which featured the work of Scott Russell. A Dutch translation of Bazin's work entitled Verslag aan de Fransche academie van wetenschappen over het gedeelte der verhandeling van Bazin, betrekkelijk de opstuwingen en de voortbeweging der golven (English: Report to

12320-511: The first theoretical treatment was by Joseph Valentin Boussinesq in 1871; Boussinesq had mentioned Scott Russell's name in his 1871 paper. Thus Scott Russell's observations on solitary waves were accepted as true by some prominent scientists within his own lifetime. Korteweg and de Vries did not mention John Scott Russell's name at all in their 1895 paper but they did quote Boussinesq's paper in 1871 and Lord Rayleigh's paper in 1876. Although

12474-404: The front of his wave of translation, he tackled the more fundamental issue for boat design of finding the hull shape which gives the least resistance. This, he reasoned was concerned with moving the mass of water efficiently out of the way of the hull and then back to fill the gap after it has passed. By careful measurements with dynamometers he validated his theory that a versed sine wave produces

12628-734: The funnels. The funnel was salvaged and subsequently purchased by the water company supplying Weymouth and Melcombe Regis in Dorset, UK, and used as a filtering device. It was later transferred to the Bristol Maritime Museum close to Brunel's SS Great Britain then moved to the SS Great Britain Museum. In October 2007, the recovery of a 6,500-pound (2.9 t) anchor in 70 feet (21 m) of water about four miles (6.4 km) from Great Eastern Rock stirred speculation that it may have belonged to Great Eastern . Iron Iron

12782-462: The global stock of iron in use in society is 2,200 kg per capita. More-developed countries differ in this respect from less-developed countries (7,000–14,000 vs 2,000 kg per capita). Ocean science demonstrated the role of the iron in the ancient seas in both marine biota and climate. Iron shows the characteristic chemical properties of the transition metals , namely the ability to form variable oxidation states differing by steps of one and

12936-404: The ideal shape. Initially he thought that the stern could be a mirror of the stem , but soon realised that the removing water produced something closer to conventional waves than his solitary waves and ended up with a rounded stern with a catenary shape. His studies produced a revolution in the design of hulls for merchant and navy vessels. Most ships of the time had rounded bows to optimise

13090-404: The launch for January 1858, hoping to use the tide in the next launch attempt. In the leadup to the second launch, Brunel and Great Eastern 's backers gathered a significant number of chains, jacks, hydraulic rams, and windlasses to assist in launching the ship. Some were obtained from sympathetic engineers, others through returned favours, and yet more for increasing sums of money; so lucrative

13244-449: The liquid outer core are believed to be the origin of the Earth's magnetic field . The other terrestrial planets ( Mercury , Venus , and Mars ) as well as the Moon are believed to have a metallic core consisting mostly of iron. The M-type asteroids are also believed to be partly or mostly made of metallic iron alloy. The rare iron meteorites are the main form of natural metallic iron on

13398-446: The literature, this mineral phase of the lower mantle is also often called magnesiowüstite. Silicate perovskite may form up to 93% of the lower mantle, and the magnesium iron form, (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 , is considered to be the most abundant mineral in the Earth, making up 38% of its volume. While iron is the most abundant element on Earth, most of this iron is concentrated in the inner and outer cores. The fraction of iron that

13552-407: The major ores of iron . Many igneous rocks also contain the sulfide minerals pyrrhotite and pentlandite . During weathering , iron tends to leach from sulfide deposits as the sulfate and from silicate deposits as the bicarbonate. Both of these are oxidized in aqueous solution and precipitate in even mildly elevated pH as iron(III) oxide . Large deposits of iron are banded iron formations ,

13706-510: The massive Bronze Horseman had been erected in Saint Petersburg. High winds prevented the ship from being launched on 30 January, but the next morning a fresh attempt successfully launched the ship around 10:00 in the morning. Following her launch, Great Eastern spent a further 8 months being fitted out. However, the cost of the fitting out ($ 600,000) concerned many investors, who had already spent nearly $ 6,000,000 constructing her. With

13860-541: The mast was originally moved there by Everton F.C. , prior to their departure from Anfield in 1892. It still stands there today at the Kop end. In 2011, the Channel 4 programme Time Team found geophysical survey evidence to suggest that residual iron parts from the ship's keel and lower structure still reside in the foreshore. During 1859, when Great Eastern was off Portland conducting trials, an explosion aboard blew off one of

14014-775: The metal and thus flakes off, exposing more fresh surfaces for corrosion. Chemically, the most common oxidation states of iron are iron(II) and iron(III) . Iron shares many properties of other transition metals, including the other group 8 elements , ruthenium and osmium . Iron forms compounds in a wide range of oxidation states , −4 to +7. Iron also forms many coordination compounds ; some of them, such as ferrocene , ferrioxalate , and Prussian blue have substantial industrial, medical, or research applications. The body of an adult human contains about 4 grams (0.005% body weight) of iron, mostly in hemoglobin and myoglobin . These two proteins play essential roles in oxygen transport by blood and oxygen storage in muscles . To maintain

14168-606: The meteorites Semarkona and Chervony Kut, a correlation between the concentration of Ni, the granddaughter of Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes provided evidence for the existence of Fe at the time of formation of the Solar System . Possibly the energy released by the decay of Fe, along with that released by Al , contributed to the remelting and differentiation of asteroids after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of Ni present in extraterrestrial material may bring further insight into

14322-440: The modern general theory of solitons. Note that solitons are, by definition, unaltered in shape and speed by a collision with other solitons. So solitary waves on a water surface are not solitons – after the interaction of two (colliding or overtaking) solitary waves, they have changed slightly in amplitude and an oscillatory residual is left behind. Once Russell had a way of observing boats at hitherto unprecedented speeds at

14476-403: The most number of people aboard a single ship to that point in history. The voyage was a success and the ship made it to Quebec, where it took two days for the city's steamers to ferry the passengers from the ship. The crossing was made in record-setting time, taking 8 days and 6 hours. Great Eastern 's durable design was praised by the military officers aboard, but soon after her return to Britain

14630-722: The natural sciences and popularity as a lecturer. But although encouraged to stand for the permanent position he refused to compete with another candidate he admired and thereafter concentrated the engineering profession and experimental research on a large scale. He married Harriette Osborne, daughter of the Irish baronet Sir Daniel Toler Osborne and Harriette Trench, daughter of the Earl of Clancarty in Dublin in 1839; they had two sons (Norman survived) and three daughters, Louise (1841–1878), Rachel (1845–1882) and Alice. In London they lived for five years in

14784-559: The necessary levels, human iron metabolism requires a minimum of iron in the diet. Iron is also the metal at the active site of many important redox enzymes dealing with cellular respiration and oxidation and reduction in plants and animals. At least four allotropes of iron (differing atom arrangements in the solid) are known, conventionally denoted α , γ , δ , and ε . The first three forms are observed at ordinary pressures. As molten iron cools past its freezing point of 1538 °C, it crystallizes into its δ allotrope, which has

14938-437: The new design plan. The James Watt Company would design the ship's screw, Professor Piazzi Smyth would design its gyroscopic equipment, and Russell himself would build the hull and paddle wheel. Brunel entered into a partnership with John Scott Russell , an experienced naval architect and ship builder, to build Great Eastern . Unknown to Brunel, Russell was in financial difficulties. The two men disagreed on many details. It

15092-436: The orbitals of those two electrons (d z and d x − y ) do not point toward neighboring atoms in the lattice, and therefore are not involved in metallic bonding. In the absence of an external source of magnetic field, the atoms get spontaneously partitioned into magnetic domains , about 10 micrometers across, such that the atoms in each domain have parallel spins, but some domains have other orientations. Thus

15246-533: The origin and early history of the Solar System . The most abundant iron isotope Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists because it represents the most common endpoint of nucleosynthesis . Since Ni (14 alpha particles ) is easily produced from lighter nuclei in the alpha process in nuclear reactions in supernovae (see silicon burning process ), it is the endpoint of fusion chains inside extremely massive stars . Although adding more alpha particles

15400-444: The other hand, the pale green iron(II) hexaquo ion [Fe(H 2 O) 6 ] does not undergo appreciable hydrolysis. Carbon dioxide is not evolved when carbonate anions are added, which instead results in white iron(II) carbonate being precipitated out. In excess carbon dioxide this forms the slightly soluble bicarbonate, which occurs commonly in groundwater, but it oxidises quickly in air to form iron(III) oxide that accounts for

15554-581: The oxidizing power of Fe and the high reducing power of I : Ferric iodide, a black solid, is not stable in ordinary conditions, but can be prepared through the reaction of iron pentacarbonyl with iodine and carbon monoxide in the presence of hexane and light at the temperature of −20 °C, with oxygen and water excluded. Complexes of ferric iodide with some soft bases are known to be stable compounds. The standard reduction potentials in acidic aqueous solution for some common iron ions are given below: The red-purple tetrahedral ferrate (VI) anion

15708-539: The paddle engines measured 1.87 m (74 in) bore and 4.3 m (14 ft) stroke. The four cylinders for the screw engine measured 2.13 m (84 in) bore and 1.21 m (4.0 ft) stroke. Total power was estimated at 6,000 kilowatts (8,000 hp). She had six masts (said to be named after the days of a week – Monday being the fore mast and Saturday the spanker mast ), providing space for 1,686 square metres (18,150 sq ft) of sails (7 gaff and maximum 9 (usually 4) square sails), rigged similar to

15862-414: The paper by Korteweg and de Vries in 1895 was not the first theoretical treatment of this subject, it was a very important milestone in the history of the development of soliton theory. It was not until the 1960s and the advent of modern computers that the significance of Scott Russell's discovery in physics , electronics , biology and especially fibre optics started to become understood, leading to

16016-455: The passengers were two journalists, Zerah Colburn and Alexander Lyman Holley . Her first crossing went without incident, and the ship's seaworthiness was proven again when she easily survived a small gale. Great Eastern arrived in New York on 28 June and was successfully docked, though she did damage part of a wharf. The ship was received with great aplomb, with many vessels and tens of thousands of people crowding to see her. In preparation for

16170-497: The past work on isotopic composition of iron has focused on the nucleosynthesis of Fe through studies of meteorites and ore formation. In the last decade, advances in mass spectrometry have allowed the detection and quantification of minute, naturally occurring variations in the ratios of the stable isotopes of iron. Much of this work is driven by the Earth and planetary science communities, although applications to biological and industrial systems are emerging. In phases of

16324-417: The presidential visit, one member of the company board discussed sending the ship to Savannah to transport Southern cotton to English mills, but this idea was never followed up on. Upon its second return to New York, the company decided to sail from the United States. From a financial perspective, the American venture had been a disaster; the ship had taken in only $ 120,000 against a $ 72,000 overhead, whereas

16478-414: The principal ores for the production of iron (see bloomery and blast furnace). They are also used in the production of ferrites , useful magnetic storage media in computers, and pigments. The best known sulfide is iron pyrite (FeS 2 ), also known as fool's gold owing to its golden luster. It is not an iron(IV) compound, but is actually an iron(II) polysulfide containing Fe and S 2 ions in

16632-684: The railway boom was at its height. Russell had contributed an article on the Steam engine and steam navigation for the 7th edition of Encyclopædia Britannica in 1841 which also appeared in book form. Charles Wentworth Dilke offered him the editorial position of a new weekly paper, the Railway Chronicle in London and the Russell family was soon in a small two-room flat in Westminster . The next year he also became

16786-490: The required curvature. Internally the hull was divided by two 107 m (351 ft 1 in) long, 18 m (59 ft 1 in) high, longitudinal bulkheads and further transverse bulkheads dividing the ship into nineteen compartments. Great Eastern was the first ship to incorporate a double-skinned hull, a feature which would not be seen again in a ship for 100 years, but which would later become compulsory for reasons of safety. To maximize her fuel capacity, stored coal

16940-637: The same canal where he observed his Wave of Translation – over the Edinburgh Bypass (A720) was named the Scott Russell Aqueduct in his memory. Also in 1995, the hydrodynamic soliton effect was reproduced near the place where John Scott Russell observed hydrodynamic solitons in 1834. A building at Heriot-Watt University is named after him. In 2019 he was inducted into the Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame His 1844 paper has become

17094-506: The same class. Before they started any business together, he was held in high regard by Isambard Kingdom Brunel who made him a partner in his project to build Great Eastern . Although the original conception, the cellular construction and the joint use of paddle and screw were Brunel's ideas, "the ship embodies the wave-line form, the longitudinal system of construction, the complete and partial bulkheads, and other details of construction which were peculiarly Scott Russell’s". The project

17248-438: The same time as the paddles and screw were under steam, because the hot exhaust from the five (later four) funnels would set them on fire. Her maximum speed was 13 knots (24 km/h; 15 mph). She was involved in a series of accidents during construction, with 6 workers being killed. Great Eastern was planned to be launched on 3 November 1857. The ship's massive size posed major logistical issues; according to one source,

17402-437: The second half of the 3d transition series, vertical similarities down the groups compete with the horizontal similarities of iron with its neighbors cobalt and nickel in the periodic table, which are also ferromagnetic at room temperature and share similar chemistry. As such, iron, cobalt, and nickel are sometimes grouped together as the iron triad . Unlike many other metals, iron does not form amalgams with mercury . As

17556-552: The secretary of the committee set up by the Royal Society of Arts to organise a national exhibition, which provided them with a town house in the Strand . Russell soon introduced Henry Cole to the committee and when, a few weeks before the first exhibition in 1847, there were no exhibitors, Russell and Cole spent three whole days travelling around London to enlist manufacturers and shopkeepers. This and two subsequent exhibitions were such

17710-449: The ship and won it, thus acquiring personal control of the vessel. The group then allowed the ship company to go bankrupt, thus separating the ship from the now defunct shipping company and divesting many smaller stockholders. The ship was then contracted out to Cyrus West Field , an American financier, who intended to use it to lay underwater cables. The ship's owners developed a business model whereby they would rent out Great Eastern as

17864-425: The ship caused a minor labour dispute as workers – who were paid by the ton of ship scrapped – became frustrated with the slow pace of breaking and went on strike. After Great Eastern 's scrapping, rumours spread that the shipbreakers had found the remains of trapped worker(s) entombed in her double hull—likely inspired by tales spread by her crew of a phantom riveter who had been sealed in the ship's hull. The legend

18018-447: The ship did not have enough provisions (a burst pipe in a storeroom had ruined much of the ship's food) to make the short trip comfortable, while the ship's rudimentary bathrooms posed a sanitation issue. Duplicate tickets were sold for some berths, families were separated and remixed in improperly assigned cabins, and five plainclothes police officers (put on by New York Police Department to deter pickpockets) were discovered and chased into

18172-641: The ship eventually being sold to a new company for £800,000, equating to a loss of $ 3,000,000 for investors in the Eastern Steam Navigation Company. The new company modified parts of its predecessor's design, most notably cutting the ship's coal capacity as it intended to use the ship for the American market. Fitting out concluded in August 1859 and was marked with a lavish banquet for visitors (which included engineers, stockholders, members of parliament, 5 earls, and other notables). In early September 1859,

18326-450: The ship had remained as an "exhibition ship" for tourists in the Thames. Great Eastern successfully rode out the infamous Royal Charter Storm , after which it was moved to Southampton for the winter. The start of 1860 led to a further change of ownership when the owning company was found to be badly in debt and the value of the ship depreciated by half. This revelation forced the resignation of

18480-410: The ship sailed from her dock towards the channel, accompanied by many spectators. However, off Hastings she suffered a massive steam explosion (caused by a valve being left shut by accident after a pressure test of the system) that killed five crewmen and destroyed the forwardmost funnel. She proceeded to Portland Bill and then to Holyhead , though some investors claimed more money could have been made if

18634-661: The ship's 19,000 tons (12,000 inert tons during the launch) made it the single heaviest object moved by humans to that point. On 3 November, a large crowd gathered to watch the ship launch, with notables present including the Comte de Paris, the Duke of Aumale , and the Siamese ambassador to Britain. The launch, however, failed, and the ship was stranded on its launch rails – in addition, two men were killed and several others injured, leading some to declare Great Eastern an unlucky ship. Brunel rescheduled

18788-489: The ship's company had been contracted by the British War Office to transport 2,000 troops to Canada, part of a show of force to intimidate the rapidly-arming United States. After a further refit to carry troops, Great Eastern departed Britain for Quebec City carrying 2,144 soldiers, 473 passengers, and 122 horses; according to one source, this number of passengers – when coupled with Great Eastern 's crew of 400 – marked

18942-469: The ship's single propeller. A jury-rigged propeller was installed by Hamilton Towle (an American engineer returning from Austria), allowing the ship to steer for Ireland powered only by her screw. Arriving in Queenstown, (now Cobh ), she was denied entry to the harbour as it was feared high winds would cause her to smash her anchorage; she was granted entry three days later and towed in by HMS Advice , tearing

19096-513: The size of her load, she was drawing 9 metres (30 ft) of water. After outrunning a small squall, the ship approached the New York coast on the night of 27 August. Fearing that Great Eastern was resting too low in the water to pass by Sandy Hook, the ship's captain instead chose the nominally safer route through Long Island Sound. While passing by Montauk Point around 2:00 AM, the ship collided with an uncharted rock needle (later named Great Eastern Rock) that stood around 8 metres (26 ft) below

19250-460: The stresses of the train. (It was not until 1892 that the first Lake Michigan cross-lake train ferry, the Ann Arbor No. 1 , designed by Frank E. Kirby , entered service.) Scott Russell used the design of the Bodensee Trajekt as the basis of a cross-channel ferry that could manage the shallow harbour of Dover, but this was not realised until 1933. Although his design for the Great Exhibition

19404-547: The surface of Mars is derived from an iron oxide-rich regolith . Significant amounts of iron occur in the iron sulfide mineral pyrite (FeS 2 ), but it is difficult to extract iron from it and it is therefore not exploited. In fact, iron is so common that production generally focuses only on ores with very high quantities of it. According to the International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report ,

19558-414: The surface. The rock punctured the outer hull of the ship, leaving a gash 2.7 metres (9 ft) wide and 25 metres (83 ft) long – it was later calculated that the needle was large enough to contact the inner hull, but that the outer hull and strong transverse braces had prevented the inner hull from being breached. The collision was noticed by the crew, who guessed that the ship had struck

19712-581: The time of the construction of Great Eastern . Holley also visited Scott Russell's house in Sydenham. As a result of this, Holley, and his colleague Zerah Colburn , travelled on the maiden voyage of Great Eastern from Southampton to New York in June 1860. Scott Russell's son, Norman, stayed with Holley at his house in Brooklyn — Norman also travelled on the maiden voyage, one voyage that John Scott Russell did not make. His son, Norman, followed his father in becoming

19866-450: The time. The vessel also had the largest set of paddle wheels . Brunel knew her affectionately as the "Great Babe". He died in 1859 shortly after her maiden voyage, during which she was damaged by an explosion. After repairs, she plied for several years as a passenger liner between Britain and North America before being converted to a cable-laying ship and laying the first lasting transatlantic telegraph cable in 1866. Finishing her life as

20020-455: The volume of the lower mantle of the Earth, which makes it the second most abundant mineral phase in that region after silicate perovskite (Mg,Fe)SiO 3 ; it also is the major host for iron in the lower mantle. At the bottom of the transition zone of the mantle, the reaction γ- (Mg,Fe) 2 [SiO 4 ] ↔ (Mg,Fe)[SiO 3 ] + (Mg,Fe)O transforms γ-olivine into a mixture of silicate perovskite and ferropericlase and vice versa. In

20174-618: The wave-line system of ship construction. Russell was a promoter of the Great Exhibition of 1851 . John Russell was born on the 9th May 1808 with in Parkhead, Glasgow, the son of Reverend David Russell and Agnes Clark Scott. He spent one year at the University of St. Andrews before transferring to the University of Glasgow . It was while at the University of Glasgow that he added his mother's maiden name, Scott, to his own, to become John Scott Russell. He graduated from Glasgow University in 1825 at

20328-510: The windings of the channel. Such, in the month of August 1834, was my first chance interview with that singular and beautiful phenomenon which I have called the Wave of Translation. The phenomenon of solitary waves had previously been reported in 1826 by Giorgio Bidone in Turin , but Bidone's work seems to have gone unnoticed by researchers in the Netherlands and Britain, despite being mentioned in

20482-769: Was 119 m (390 ft 5 in) long with a 14 m (45 ft 11 in) beam . She was at first named Leviathan , but her high building and launching costs ruined the Eastern Steam Navigation Company and so she lay unfinished for a year before being sold to the Great Eastern Ship Company and finally renamed Great Eastern . The hull was an all-iron construction, a double hull of 19-millimetre (0.75 in) wrought iron in 0.86 m (2 ft 10 in) plates with ribs every 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in). Her roughly 30,000 iron plates weighed 340 kilograms ( 1 ⁄ 3 long ton) each, and were cut over individually-made wooden templates before being rolled to

20636-449: Was Brunel's final great project, and he collapsed from a stroke after being photographed on her deck, and died only ten days later, a mere four days after Great Eastern ' s first sea trials . About the ship, Brunel said "I have never embarked on any one thing to which I have so entirely devoted myself, and to which I have devoted so much time, thought and labour, on the success of which I have staked so much reputation." Great Eastern

20790-487: Was a setback for the ship, as at the time the channel was too shallow for Great Eastern to navigate. Going around Africa it would not be able to compete with ships that could use the canal. Ali Rischdi, a famed Arab navigator, proposed taking the ship through the canal, but this was never attempted. At the end of her cable-laying career – hastened by the launch of the CS Faraday , a ship purpose-built for cable laying – she

20944-415: Was built by Messrs Scott Russell & Co. of Millwall , Middlesex, England, the keel being laid down on 1 May 1854. She was 211 metres (692 ft 3 in) long, 25 metres (82 ft 0 in) wide, with a draught of 6.1 metres (20 ft 0 in) unloaded and 9.1 metres (29 ft 10 in) fully laden, and displaced 32,000 tons fully loaded. In comparison, SS Persia , launched in 1856,

21098-401: Was bunkered around and over her 10 boilers; which provided steam at 172 kPa (25 PSI). She had sail, paddle and screw propulsion. The paddle-wheels were 17 m (55 ft 9 in) in diameter and the four-bladed screw-propeller was 7.3 m (23 ft 11 in) across. The power came from four steam engines for the paddles and an additional engine for the propeller . The cylinders for

21252-435: Was elected to its council in 1857 and became a vice-president in 1862. However he became involved in a financial dispute with Sir William Armstrong and didn't become president. But "as a speaker, and particularly as an after-dinner speaker, he had few equals." He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1849 although he contributed less. In 1860 at a meeting at his house in Sydenham, the Institution of Naval Architects

21406-475: Was envisioned as being able to sail halfway around the world without taking on coal, while also carrying so much cargo and passengers that papers described her as a "floating city" and "the Crystal Palace of the sea". Brunel saw the ship as being able to effectively monopolize trade with Asia and Australia, making regular trips between Britain and either Trincomalee or Australia. On 25 March 1852, Brunel made

21560-505: Was first widely noted on by James Dugan in 1952, who quoted a letter from a Captain David Duff, and many later sources cite Dugan's work. Other authors, notably L. T. C. Rolt in his biography of Brunel, have dismissed the claim (noting such a discovery would have been recorded in company logs and received press attention), but the legend has become widely mentioned in books and articles about nautical ghost stories. In London and Londoners in

21714-615: Was from a wealthy family, Sullivan was still a poor young composer from a poor family; the Scott Russells welcomed the engagement of Alice to Clay, who, however broke it off, but forbade the relationship between Sullivan and Rachel, although the two continued to see each other covertly. At some point in 1868, Sullivan started a simultaneous (and secret) affair with Louise (1841–1878). Both relationships had ceased by early 1869. The American engineer Alexander Lyman Holley befriended Scott Russell and his family on his various visits to London at

21868-580: Was grudging in acknowledging a debt to Russell. Scott Russell made one of the first experimental observations of the Doppler effect which he published in 1848. Christian Doppler published his theory in 1842. Much of Russell's early experimental work had been conducted under the auspices of the British Association and throughout his life he contributed to the scientific and professional associations that were becoming more important in that era. In 1844,

22022-475: Was now becoming the more lamentably apparent with every day that passed". During the 1850s he argued within the Navy for the construction of iron warships and the first design, HMS  Warrior , is said by some to be a "Russell ship". He afterwards complained about the secrecy that prevented an open discussion of the issues, criticizing those within the Navy who argued that iron ships could not be protected. At

22176-839: Was outfitted to lay undersea cables in the Indian Ocean; most of the operation's expenses were covered by the British government and banks in India, which hoped to circumvent the unreliable overland cables linking Britain to India. In preparation for operations in the hot climate, the ship was painted white to deflect heat away from the ship's cable tanks. Great Eastern departed from Britain in December 1869, arriving in Bombay (now Mumbai) 83 days later to lay her first cable anchor. Upon her arrival in port, Great Eastern 's size generated considerable public interest, with

22330-614: Was plagued with a number of problems—Scott Russell put in a bid which was far too low with the result that he was bankrupt halfway through, though he recovered to finish the job; but it was Brunel that insisted on a sideways launch rather than the dry dock that Russell preferred. Great Eastern was eventually launched in 1858. Scott Russell was a better scientist than a businessman and his reputation never fully recovered from his financial irregularities, gross neglect of duty and disputes. As L. T. C. Rolt writes in his biography of Brunel "That Russell had indeed misled Brunel and betrayed his trust

22484-463: Was refitted as a liner, but once again efforts to make her a commercial success failed. She remained moored in Milford Harbour for some time, annoying the Milford harbour board, which wanted to build dockyards in the area. Many proposals for the ship were raised; according to one source, pubs were full of talk of filling her with gunpowder and blowing her up. The ship was ultimately saved, however, as

22638-465: Was renting out of supplies for the ship's launch that engineer Richard Tangye was able to found his own engineering firm (Tangye & Co) the next year, remarking that "We launched Great Eastern , and she launched us ". Advice sent to Brunel on how to launch the ship came from a number of sources, including steamboat captains on the Great Lakes and one admirer who wrote an insightful description on how

22792-412: Was repaired by metalworkers in a cofferdam , but cost the company $ 350,000 and delayed the ship's return to Britain by several months. She would make one more trip to New York and back in 1863 before being laid up until 1864 due to her operating costs. In January 1864, it was announced that the ship would be auctioned off. During the auction, four members of the company board of directors bid $ 125,000 for

22946-475: Was set up, with Russell as one of the professional vice-presidents. He attended most meetings and rarely failed to comment. In 1864 he published a massive 3-volume treatise on The Modern System of Naval Architecture which laid out the profiles of many of the new ships being built. His obituary said of naval architecture: From around 1838, Scott Russell was employed at the small Greenock shipyard of Thomson and Spiers where he introduced his wave-line system to

23100-550: Was sold at auction, at Lloyd's on 4 November 1885, by order of the Court of Chancery . Bidding commenced at £10,000, rising to £26,200 and sold to Mr Mattos, a city merchant. Sold again, she was used as a showboat, a floating palace/concert hall and gymnasium. She later acted as an advertising hoarding  – sailing up and down the Mersey for Lewis's Department Store, who at this point were her owners, before being sold. The idea

23254-400: Was surpassed only in 1899 by the 705-foot (215 m) 17,274-gross-ton RMS  Oceanic , her gross tonnage of 18,915 was only surpassed in 1901 by the 701-foot (214 m) 20,904-gross-ton RMS  Celtic and her 4,000-passenger capacity was surpassed in 1913 by the 4,234-passenger SS  Imperator . The ship having five funnels (which were later reduced to four) was unusual for

23408-443: Was technically impossible to prove or disprove, the incident could not have happened given the lack of evidence being found during the numerous times Great Eastern was being repaired. Football historian Stephen Kelly states that in 1928, Liverpool Football Club were looking for a flagpole for their Anfield ground, and consequently purchased her top mast. However, further investigation by local journalist Simon Weedy has shown that

23562-574: Was to attract people to the store by using her as a floating visitor attraction. In 1886 she was sailed to Liverpool for the Liverpool Exhibition of 1886 – during the transit, she struck and badly damaged one of her tugs, the last of 10 ships she would damage or sink. On 10 May 1887, the steamship G. E. Wood collided with her in the Mersey. Sold again after the exhibition, one company considered using her to raise shallow shipwrecks, while one humorist suggested that Great Eastern be used to help dig

23716-466: Was trumped by that of Joseph Paxton , Scott Russell did design the Rotunde for the 1873 Vienna Exposition . At 108 metres (354 ft) in diameter it was for nearly a century the largest cupola in the world, having no ties to obstruct the view. Some consider it his greatest structural engineering achievement. In 1838 he was awarded the gold Keith Medal by the Royal Society of Edinburgh for his paper "On

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