172-616: South Ossetia ( / ɒ ˈ s ɛ t i ə / o- SET -ee-ə , less common: / ɒ ˈ s iː ʃ ə / o- SEE -shə ), officially the Republic of South Ossetia or the State of Alania , is a partially recognised landlocked country in the South Caucasus . It has an officially stated population of just over 56,500 people (2022), who live in an area of 3,900 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi), with 33,000 living in
344-419: A $ 500 million credit on condition that Belarus recognises the two regions as independent. In June 2009, President Alexander Lukashenko of Belarus said Moscow had made recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia a condition for Belarus to receive the last $ 500 million of a $ 2 billion loan, but added that Belarus’ position was not for sale. Russian officials have denied any such link. The dispute over
516-412: A Parisian goldsmith. Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system to a fixed poll tax which
688-513: A bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagatayid factions, but disputes continued among the descendants of Tolui. The conflict over whether the Mongol Empire would adopt a sedentary, cosmopolitan lifestyle or continue its nomadic, steppe-based way of life was a major factor in the breakup. After Möngke Khan died (1259), rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan , who fought each other in
860-419: A bridge of friendship, but very serious relations." However, Belarus still did not recognize Abkhazia's independence. Georgia sent a protest note to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bosnian Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued a statement, saying that Bosnia and Herzegovina has "good and friendly relations with Georgia based on mutual respect of territorial integrity and sovereignty". The ministry also noted that it
1032-824: A confusion over what the government had intended to do which was just simply a letter stating that there might be an intention to establish relations with Abkhazia. But at this point in time, there's no action on that and there's no decision". On 20 May 2013, the Georgian president Saakashvili said at an Asian summit Vanuatu "changed their mind" and does not recognise Abkhazia, which Vanuatu's new Prime Minister Moana Carcasses Kalosil confirmed. On 12 July 2013 Georgia and Vanuatu signed an agreement on establishing diplomatic and consular relations, which stated that "the Republic of Vanuatu recognises territorial integrity of Georgia within its internationally recognised borders, including its regions –
1204-505: A new great khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the Mongol heartland , members of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it, claiming he had no interest in the position. Batu instead nominated Möngke , a grandson of Genghis from his son Tolui's lineage. Möngke was leading a Mongol army in Rus,
1376-696: A part of Georgia." On 28 August, the Georgian Parliament passed a resolution declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia " Russian-occupied territories " and instructed the government to annul all previous treaties on Russian peacekeeping. The following day the government announced that it was severing diplomatic ties with Russia, with the Georgian Embassy in Moscow and the Russian Embassy in Tbilisi to close as
1548-448: A policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families instead of giving them all to the aristocrats. These policies brought him into conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to the throne; they regarded Temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper. This dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates, and some Mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance. War ensued, and Temujin and
1720-533: A referendum on this matter has been raised multiple times in domestic politics, but none has taken place. The Ossetians are believed to originate from the Alans , a nomadic Iranian tribe. In the 8th century a consolidated Alan kingdom, referred to in sources of the period as Alania , emerged in the northern Caucasus Mountains. Around 1239–1277 Alania fell to the Mongol and later to the Timur 's armies, who massacred much of
1892-485: A result. Georgia recalled its Ambassador from Russia and ordered all Russian diplomats to leave Georgia, saying that only consular relations would be maintained. The Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs commented on this decision, saying that some 600,000 to 1 million Georgians in Russia would be left to the "mercy of fate". Later, Georgia also severed diplomatic relations with Nicaragua. Georgia moved to economically isolate
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#17328452349422064-486: A symmetrical approach between them and Abkhazia. In 2021, an OSCE expert estimated that Belarus might be one of the next countries to recognise Abkhazia. In November 2021, South Ossetian president Anatoly Bibilov said that he expects a diplomatic recognition from Belarus soon. In 2022, Alexander Lukashenko visited Abkhazia for the first time and met with the Abkhaz president Bzhania and proclaimed "We want to build not just
2236-636: A unilateral ceasefire and called for peace talks. However, escalating assaults against Georgian villages (located in the South Ossetian conflict zone) were soon matched with gunfire from Georgian troops, who then proceeded to move in the direction of the capital of the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia ( Tskhinvali ) on the night of 8 August, reaching its center in the morning of 8 August. One Georgian diplomat told Russian newspaper Kommersant on 8 August that by taking control of Tskhinvali, Tbilisi wanted to demonstrate that Georgia would not tolerate
2408-482: A vocal member of the South Ossetian opposition to Anatoly Bibilov had been tortured to death by the South Ossetian Police resulting in months of protests and sacking of several government ministers. President Anatoly Bibilov announced on 26 March 2022 that South Ossetian troops had been sent to assist Russia in its invasion of Ukraine . Bibilov announced on 30 March 2022 that South Ossetia would initiate
2580-400: A war with these regions. It envisions engagement of people of these two regions through education as well as social, economic and business projects, instead of isolation. It is officially illegal under Georgian law to enter South Ossetia or Abkhazia through Russia, without permission from Georgia; it is possible to travel through Georgian territory to Abkhazia, though as Georgia cannot assure
2752-435: A wide range of economic, social, and humanitarian issues. The states would also jointly counter organised crime, international terrorism, and drug trafficking, documents to this effect were signed for 10 years with an option to extend the deal automatically. Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili considered Russia's move as an attempt to alter the borders of Europe by force. Below are some excerpts from his statement: This
2924-901: Is Mount Khalatsa at 3,938 m (12,920 ft) above sea level. Out of the roughly 2,000 glaciers that exist in the Greater Caucasus, approximately 30% are located within Georgia . The 10 glaciers of the Liakhvi River basin and a handful of the Rioni River basin are located in South Ossetia. Most of South Ossetia is in the Kura Basin with the northwestern part of it in the Black Sea basin. The Likhi and Racha ridges act as divide separating these two basins . Major rivers in South Ossetia include
3096-469: Is North Ossetia .... Here they are newcomers." When the Georgian parliament declared a state of emergency in the territory of South Ossetian AO on 12 December 1990, troops from both Georgian and Soviet interior ministries were sent to the region. After the Georgian National Guard was formed in early 1991, Georgian troops entered Tskhinvali on 5 January 1991. The 1991–1992 South Ossetia War
3268-673: Is a violation of international law". After the 2014 Ukrainian revolution , the new Ukrainian government toughened its stance towards Abkhazia and South Ossetia (like Transnistria). In 2018, Ukrainian ships forcefully intercepted Abkhaz ships in the Black Sea. To help the conflict resolution in the Caucasus, the Cultural Affairs Officer at the U.S. Embassy in Tbilisi started an exchange program for Abkhaz university employees in 2018. The professors from Abkhazian State University visited
3440-450: Is relatively low and rainfall across South Ossetia averages 500 to 800 mm (19.7 to 31.5 in) per year, but Alpine and highland regions have distinct microclimates . At higher elevations, precipitation is sometimes twice as heavy as in the eastern plains of Georgia. Alpine conditions begin at about 2,100 m (6,890 ft), and above 3,600 m (11,811 ft) snow and ice are present year-round. The Russian troops who patrol
3612-412: Is the first attempt on European territory ... since Hitler's regime and Stalin's Soviet Union where a large state is trying unilaterally, with the use of force, to completely crush a neighbouring country and openly annex its territory. This is inconceivable lawlessness and insolence ... Russia has done unthinkable damage to its place in the international community. The question of the re-establishment of
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#17328452349423784-635: Is warmer there than in the Northern Caucasus. Climatic zones in South Ossetia are determined by distance from the Black Sea and by altitude. The plains of eastern Georgia are shielded from the influence of the Black Sea by mountains that provide a more continental climate . The foothills and mountainous areas (including the Greater Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters, with snow cover often exceeding two meters in many regions. The penetration of humid air masses from
3956-483: The 1991–1992 South Ossetia War with Russian involvement on the Ossetian side. After the war, the conflict remained frozen throughout 1990s and saw two major escalations in 2000s: in 2004 and in 2008 . The latter conflict led to the full-scale Russo-Georgian War of August 2008, during which Ossetian and Russian forces gained full de facto control of the territory of the former South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast. Since
4128-678: The Bolsheviks granted this autonomy to the Ossetians in exchange for their ( Bolshevik ) loyalty in fighting the Democratic Republic of Georgia and favouring local separatists, since this area had never been a separate entity prior to the Russian invasion. The drawing of administrative boundaries of the South Ossetian AO was quite a complicated process. Many Georgian villages were included within
4300-657: The Caucasus at the juncture of Asia and Europe. It occupies the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountain range and its foothills which are part of the Iberia Plain , a geographic plateau that is roughly in the center of South Ossetia. The Likhi Range shapes the western geographic boundary of South Ossetia, although the northwestern corner of South Ossetia is located west of the range. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range forms
4472-614: The Caucasus . Most countries recognise them as part of Georgia, while Russia , Venezuela , Nicaragua , Nauru , and Syria regard them as independent. Russia's initial recognition of the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia occurred in the aftermath of the Russo-Georgian War in 2008. The government of Georgia considers the republics to be Russian-occupied territories . Abkhazia and South Ossetia were once recognised by up to seven UN member states , until Tuvalu withdrew its recognition of both in 2014, and Vanuatu clarified
4644-670: The East with the West , and the Pacific to the Mediterranean , in an enforced Pax Mongolica , allowing the exchange of trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies across Eurasia . The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as the grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei or from one of his other sons, such as Tolui , Chagatai , or Jochi . The Toluids prevailed after
4816-576: The European Council due to the violation of Georgia's territorial integrity. The EU's diplomatic response to the news was delayed by disagreements between eastern European states, the UK wanting a harsher response and Germany, France and other states' desire not to isolate Russia. Former US envoy Richard Holbrooke said the conflict could encourage separatist movements in other former Soviet states along Russia's western border. Several days later, Nicaragua became
4988-547: The European Union –sponsored Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia stated that, while preceded by months of mutual provocations, "open hostilities began with a large-scale Georgian military operation against the town of Tskhinvali and the surrounding areas, launched in the night of 7 to 8 August 2008." In 2016, a referendum on integration with Russia was proposed during an election campaign, but
5160-552: The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in September 1990. Towards the end of 1990, the situation for ethnic Georgians in the region worsened sharply. There were reports of multiple cases of lootings and beatings committed both by Georgian and Ossetian forces and paramilitaries. The Georgian government responded by abolishing South Ossetia's autonomy and dispatching its troops to the region. The escalating crisis led to
5332-616: The Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic lived outside the South Ossetian AO. Tensions in the region began to rise amid rising nationalism among both Georgians and Ossetians in 1989. Before this, the two communities of the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast of the Georgian SSR had been living in peace with each other except for the 1918–1920 events . Both ethnicities had a normal degree of interaction and there were many Georgian-Ossetian intermarriages. The dispute surrounding
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5504-861: The Golden Horde khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in Iran, and the Yuan dynasty in China, based in modern-day Beijing . In 1304, during the reign of Temür , the three western khanates accepted the suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty. The part of the empire that fell first was the Ilkhanate, which disintegrated in the period of 1335–1353. Next,
5676-420: The Golden Horde , refused to come to the kurultai, claiming that he was ill and that the climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire. When Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge threatened to seize the throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try to secure his position. Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to
5848-557: The Greater and Little Liakhvi, Ksani , Medzhuda, Tlidon, Canal Saltanis, Ptsa River and host of other tributaries. South Ossetia's climate is affected by subtropical influences from the East and Mediterranean influences from the West. The Greater Caucasus range moderates the local climate by serving as a barrier against cold air from the north, which results in the fact that, even at great heights, it
6020-820: The Khitan -led Liao dynasty since the 10th century. In 1125, the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchens overthrew the Liao dynasty and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia. In the 1130s the Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted the Khamag Mongol confederation, ruled at the time by Khabul Khan , great-grandfather of Genghis Khan. The Mongolian plateau
6192-598: The Levant and the Carpathian Mountains . The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the Mongol heartland under the leadership of Temüjin, known by the more famous title of Genghis Khan ( c. 1162 – 1227), whom a council proclaimed as the ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent out invading armies in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected
6364-479: The Mongol invasions of the 13th century, while one South Ossetian de facto foreign minister in the 1990s said that the Ossetians first appeared in the area only in the early 17th century. Since it was created after the Russian invasion of 1921, South Ossetia was regarded as artificial creation by Georgians during the Soviet era. The South Ossetian Popular Front ( Ademon Nykhas ) was created in 1988. On 10 November 1989,
6536-622: The Mongols captured Caizhou , the town to which Wanyan Shouxu had fled. In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei's sons Kochu and Koten and the Tangut general Chagan invaded southern China. With the assistance of the Song dynasty the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234. Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze , Liu Heima (劉黑馬, Liu Ni), and
6708-671: The Qing dynasty in the 1630s. The Golden Horde had broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century and its rule on Eastern Europe is traditionally considered to have ended in 1480 with the Great Stand on the Ugra River by the Grand Duchy of Moscow , while the Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687. The Mongol Empire is also referred to as the "Mongolian Empire" or
6880-547: The Roki Tunnel before the Georgian military action. Russia accused Georgia of "aggression against South Ossetia", and launched a large-scale land, air, and sea invasion of Georgia with the pretext of a " peace enforcement operation" on 8 August 2008. Russian airstrikes against targets within Georgia were also launched. Abkhaz forces opened a second front on 9 August by attacking the Kodori Gorge , held by Georgia. Tskhinvali
7052-620: The Russian revolution , the area of modern South Ossetia became part of the Democratic Republic of Georgia . In 1918, conflict began between the landless Ossetian peasants living in Shida Kartli (Interior Georgia), who were influenced by Bolshevism and demanded ownership of the lands they worked, and the Menshevik government backed ethnic Georgian aristocrats, who were legal owners. Although
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7224-522: The Toluid Civil War (1260–1264) and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of the Chagatayid and Ögedeid families. By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires , each pursuing its own interests and objectives:
7396-509: The "Mongol World Empire" in some English sources. The empire referred to itself as ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ yeke mongɣol ulus ( lit. 'nation of the great Mongols' or the 'great Mongol nation') in Mongol or kür uluγ ulus ( lit. the 'whole great nation') in Turkic. After the 1260 to 1264 succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke , Kublai's power became limited to
7568-502: The "Republic of South Ossetia". Abkhazia declared its independence after its war with Georgia in 1992–1993. Its Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1994. The 2008 South Ossetia war was fought in August 2008 between Georgia on one side and South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Russia on the other, resulting in a combined South Ossetian, Abkhaz and Russian victory and the expulsion of the Georgian military from both territories. After hearing
7740-697: The 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous empire in history . Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia , the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe , extending northward into parts of the Arctic ; eastward and southward into parts of the Indian subcontinent , mounted invasions of Southeast Asia , and conquered the Iranian Plateau ; and reached westward as far as
7912-460: The 2004 parliamentary and presidential elections, he promised to restore the territorial integrity of Georgia. During one of his early speeches, Saakashvili addressed the separatist regions, saying, "[N]either Georgia nor its president will put up with disintegration of Georgia. Therefore, we offer immediate negotiations to our Abkhazian and Ossetian friends. We are ready to discuss every model of statehood by taking into consideration their interests for
8084-414: The 2008 war, Georgia and a significant part of the international community have regarded South Ossetia as occupied by the Russian military . South Ossetia relies heavily on military, political, and financial aid from Russia. Since 2008, the South Ossetian government has expressed their intention of joining the Russian Federation ; if successful, this would end its proclaimed independence. The prospect of
8256-466: The Abkhaz Ambassador in Venezuela met with the Ambassador of the SADR in the same country. 25 February 2022 (from Abkhazia) and 9 March 2022 (reciprocal recognition from DPR) 9 March 2022 (Abkhazia) On 22 February 2022, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs published a statement welcoming the recognition of independence of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics by Russian President Vladimir Putin . On 25 February 2022 President Aslan Bzhania announced
8428-405: The Abkhazian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, while Vanuatu initially remained silent on the issue. Confusion arose about the actual status of the recognition after a change of Vanuatuan government in June 2011 when officials denied and others reconfirmed the recognition. Russian newspaper Kommersant claimed to have laid their hands on a facsimile of a signed agreement between both countries. However,
8600-412: The Alanian population. The survivors among the Alans retreated into the mountains of the central Caucasus and gradually started migration to the south, across the Caucasus Mountains into the Kingdom of Georgia . In the 17th century, by pressure of Kabardian princes, Ossetians started a second wave of migration from the North Caucasus to the Kingdom of Kartli . Ossetian peasants, who were migrating to
8772-522: The Asian invaders except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia connecting his invasion of Transcaucasia with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced the Georgian and Armenian nobles to surrender as well. Giovanni de Plano Carpini , the pope's envoy to the Mongol great khan, travelled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote: They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev,
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#17328452349428944-548: The Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia and the Tskhinvali Region/South Ossetia." Abkhazia's Foreign Minister Viacheslav Chirikba responded by claiming that Vanuatu had not officially withdrawn its recognition of Abkhazia. On 30 March 2015, Vanuatu Foreign Minister Sato Kilman met with Chirikba in Moscow, the two officials expressing their desire to strengthen bilateral relations. The following day, Kilman declared in an interview with RIA Novosti that "nothing had changed" in respect to Vanuatu's 2011 recognition of Abkhazia, but that
9116-501: The Black Sea to the west of South Ossetia is often blocked by the Likhi mountain range. The wettest periods of the year in South Ossetia generally occur during spring and autumn while the winter and summer months tend to be the driest. Elevation plays an important role in South Ossetia where climatic conditions above 1,500 m (4,921 ft) are considerably colder than in any lower-lying areas. The regions that lie above 2,000 m (6,562 ft) frequently experience frost even during
9288-420: The Carcasses government had merely decided to pursue diplomatic relations with Georgia rather than Abkhazia, that he didn't consider diplomatic relations with Abkhazia and Georgia to be incompatible, and that he hoped diplomatic relations with Abkhazia would soon be formalised. In June 2015, Kilman was sacked as Foreign Minister, partly as a result of this meeting, with Prime Minister Joe Natuman again clarifying
9460-483: The EU has rewarded the Belarusian President Lukashenko for not recognising the republics by suspending the travel ban for top Belarusian officials that had been imposed in 2004. Karel Schwarzenberg has stated publicly, that if Belarus recognises Abkhazia and South Ossetia, it can forget about the Eastern Partnership. "If they would recognize South Ossetia and Abkhazia it would create a very, very difficult situation for Belarus," Schwarzenberg has said. Sweden, co-author of
9632-495: The Eastern Partnership program, rejected Lavrov's position as "completely unacceptable". The EU's position on Georgia is not 'blackmail' but "is about upholding the principles of the EU and international law, which Russia should also be respecting", stated Swedish foreign minister Carl Bildt According to Eurasianet .org, which cites Russian media reports, Belarus is under Kremlin pressure to recognise South Ossetia and Abkhazia. There have been suppositions Russia has offered Belarus
9804-523: The First Party Secretary of the oblast from his position. The Georgian Supreme Council adopted a law barring regional parties in summer 1990. The South Ossetian regional council interpreted this as a move against Ademon Nykhas and subsequently passed a "declaration of national sovereignty", proclaiming the South Ossetian Soviet Democratic Republic within the Soviet Union on 20 September 1990. Ossetians boycotted subsequent Georgian parliamentary elections and held their own contest in December. In October 1990,
9976-410: The Georgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Zalkaliani commented "We are grateful that the Republic of Vanuatu is consistent in pursuing the non-recognition policy of the so-called independence of Georgia's occupied regions, in full compliance with fundamental norms and principles of international law". The following day Regenvanu visited the conflict line and a Memorandum of Co-operation was signed between
10148-447: The Georgian capital in ruins. On 6 January, Gamsakhurdia and several of his supporters fled the city for exile. Afterwards, the Georgian military council , an interim government, was formed by a triumvirate of Jaba Ioseliani , Tengiz Kitovani and Tengiz Sigua , and, in March 1992, they invited Eduard Shevardnadze , a former Soviet minister, to come to Georgia to assume control of the Georgian State Council. An independence referendum
10320-430: The Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were four Han Tumens and three Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The Yuan dynasty created a Han army 漢軍 from Jin defectors, and another of ex-Song troops called the Newly Submitted Army 新附軍. In
10492-415: The Kipchak-controlled steppes. In the east, Ögedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing the Eastern Xia regime and the Water Tatars . In 1230, the great Khan personally led his army in the campaign against the Jin dynasty of China. Ögedei's general Subutai captured the capital of Emperor Wanyan Shouxu in the siege of Kaifeng in 1232. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when
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#173284523494210664-409: The Koreans through both diplomacy and military force. The advance into Europe continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance among the Poles , the Moravians , and the Christian military orders of the Hospitallers , Teutonic Knights and the Templars assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly,
10836-464: The Mongol Empire. This marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei to the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui. The decision was acknowledged by a few of the Ögedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Möngke's cousin Kadan and the deposed khan Qara Hülëgü, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ögedei's grandson Shiremun, sought to topple Möngke. Shiremun moved with his own forces toward
11008-420: The Mongol advance at Legnica . The Hungarian army, their Croatian allies and the Knights Templar were beaten by the Mongols at the banks of the Sajo River on 11 April 1241. Before Batu's forces could continue on to Vienna and northern Albania , news of Ögedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion. As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis's line had to attend
11180-418: The Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class. Genghis Khan arranged for the Chinese Taoist master Qiu Chuji to visit him in Afghanistan, and also gave his subjects the right to religious freedom, despite his own shamanistic beliefs. Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea , an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire or
11352-410: The Mongol generals in Persia. Güyük appointed his best friend's father Eljigidei as chief commander of the troops in Persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the Nizari Ismailis and conquering the Abbasids at the center of the Islamic world, Iran and Iraq . In 1248, Güyük raised more troops and suddenly marched westward from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The reasoning
11524-499: The Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan . Möngke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai's son Uryankhadai reduced the neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and went to war with the kingdom of Đại Việt under the Trần dynasty in northern Vietnam in 1258, but they had to draw back. The Mongol Empire tried to invade Đại Việt again in 1285 and 1287 but were defeated both times. After stabilizing
11696-426: The Mongols established Karakorum as their capital lasting until 1260. During that period, Ogedei Khan ordered the construction of a palace within the surrounding of its walls. Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song dynasty , Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the Yangtze and Sichuan , but did not secure their control over the conquered areas. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-yang from
11868-412: The Mongols in 1161. During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the usually cold, parched steppes of Central Asia enjoyed their mildest, wettest conditions in more than a millennium. It is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock, which significantly enhanced Mongol military strength. Known during his childhood as Temüjin, Genghis Khan
12040-428: The Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded Tibet immediately after their withdrawal. Batu Khan , another grandson of Genghis Khan, overran the territories of the Bulgars , the Alans , the Kypchaks, Bashkirs, Mordvins , Chuvash , and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237
12212-428: The Mongols were encroaching upon Ryazan , the first Kievan Rus' principality they were to attack. After a three-day siege involving fierce fighting, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They then proceeded to destroy the army of the Grand Principality of Vladimir at the Battle of the Sit River . The Mongols captured the Alania capital Maghas in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus' had fallen to
12384-529: The Mongols' decision to withdraw. Following the Great Khan Ögedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei's widow Töregene took over the empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies. She built palaces, cathedrals, and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education. She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei's son Güyük . But Batu, ruler of
12556-527: The Muslim Caliphate at their height. Genghis named his third son, the charismatic Ögedei , as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location . The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother Tolui until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229. Among his first actions Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the Bashkirs , Bulgars , and other nations in
12728-590: The North Caucasus did not have its own political entity before 1924, when the North Ossetian Autonomous Oblast was created. Although the Ossetians had their own language ( Ossetian ), Russian and Georgian were administrative/state languages. Under the rule of Georgia's government during Soviet times, Ossetians enjoyed minority cultural autonomy, including speaking the Ossetian language and teaching it in schools. In 1989, two-thirds of Ossetians in
12900-611: The North Ossetian Prigorodnyi District . In 1944, many South Ossetians were resettled in areas of North Ossetia from which the Ingush had been expelled by Stalin in 1944. In the 1990s the new wave of South Ossetians migrating to the former Ingush territory fuelled conflict between Ossetians and Ingush. On 29 April 1991, the western part of South Ossetia was affected by an earthquake , which killed more than 200 and left tens of thousands homeless. In late 1991, dissent
13072-540: The Ossetians were initially discontented with the economic policies of the central government, the tension soon transformed into ethnic conflict. The first Ossetian rebellion began in February 1918, when three Georgian princes were killed and their land was seized by the Ossetians. The central government of Tiflis retaliated by sending the National Guard to the area. However, the Georgian unit retreated after they had engaged
13244-424: The Ossetians. Ossetian rebels then proceeded to occupy the town of Tskhinvali and began attacking the ethnic Georgian civilian population. During uprisings in 1919 and 1920, the Ossetians were covertly supported by Soviet Russia , but even so, were defeated. According to allegations made by Ossetian sources, the crushing of the 1920 uprising caused the death of 5,000 Ossetians, while ensuing hunger and epidemics were
13416-528: The Russian Federation. It also considered the peacekeeping force (consisting in equal parts of South Ossetians, North Ossetians, Russians and Georgians) to be non-neutral and demanded its replacement. Various proposals were launched by the Georgian side to internationalise the peacekeeping in South Ossetia. According to U.S. senator Richard Lugar , the United States supported Georgia's call in 2006 for
13588-415: The Russian government's position." Medvedev also signed into law federal bills ratifying friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance pacts between his government and those of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The laws stipulated the obligations of each state to provide assistance to each other if either of them comes under attack, joint protection of Abkhazia and South Ossetia's borders, as well as cooperation on
13760-431: The Russian recognition, Nicaragua, Venezuela, Nauru, Vanuatu and Tuvalu soon followed suit and recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states. However, in 2013 and 2014, Vanuatu and Tuvalu have scrapped their recognition. Russia has invested a significant money in diplomatic strategy to promote recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and display its soft power. However, Russia seems to have stopped investing in
13932-787: The Russian-comprised peacekeeping force operating under CIS mandate. Tensions between Georgia and Russia began escalating in April 2008. A bomb explosion on 1 August 2008 targeted a car transporting Georgian peacekeepers. South Ossetians were responsible for instigating this incident, which marked the opening of hostilities and injured five Georgian servicemen. In response, several South Ossetian militiamen were hit. South Ossetian separatists began shelling Georgian villages on 1 August. These artillery attacks caused Georgian servicemen to return fire periodically from 1 August. At around 19:00 on 7 August 2008, Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili announced
14104-490: The South Ossetian AO despite numerous protests by the Georgian population. While the city of Tskhinvali did not have a majority Ossetian population, it was made the capital of the South Ossetian AO. In addition to parts of Gori uezd and Dusheti uezd of Tiflis Governorate , parts of Racha uezd of Kutaisi Governorate (western Georgia) were also included within the South Ossetian AO. All these territories historically had been indigenous Georgian lands. Historical Ossetia in
14276-584: The South Ossetian regional council asked the Georgian Supreme Council to upgrade the region to the status of an " autonomous republic ". The decision to transform the South Ossetian AO into the South Ossetian ASSR by the South Ossetian authorities escalated the conflict. On 11 November, this decision was revoked by the Georgian parliament, the Supreme Soviet . The Georgian authorities removed
14448-465: The Soviet leadership was encouraging South Ossetian separatism in order to force Georgia not to leave the Soviet Union. Georgia declared its independence in April 1991. As a result of the war, about 100,000 ethnic Ossetians fled the territory and Georgia proper, most across the border into North Ossetia. A further 23,000 ethnic Georgians fled South Ossetia to other parts of Georgia. Many refugees went to
14620-603: The UN Security Council, the United States was heavily critical of Russian support of the secessionist governments, accusing the government of violating Georgia's territorial integrity . In response, Vitaly Churkin , the Permanent Representative of Russia to the UN, attacked the U.S. claim to moral high ground by recalling its invasion of Iraq in 2003. Others accused the United States of hypocrisy, citing its support of
14792-620: The United States. They visited the Arizona State University , San Diego State University , Rutgers University , Virginia Tech , Pennsylvania State University , University of Maryland, College Park and the United States Department of Agriculture . On 10 December 1997, President of Chechnya Aslan Maskhadov appointed Ruslan Tuntaev as a "plenipotentiary representative of the Chechen republic-Ichkeria" to Abkhazia. The envoy
14964-715: The West Ögedei's general Chormaqan destroyed Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu , the last shah of the Khwarizmian Empire . The small kingdoms in southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy. In East Asia, there were a number of Mongol campaigns into Goryeo Korea , but Ögedei's attempt to annex the Korean Peninsula met with little success. Gojong , the king of Goryeo , surrendered but later revolted and massacred Mongol darughachis (overseers); he then moved his imperial court from Gaeseong to Ganghwa Island . In 1235,
15136-583: The Yuan dynasty lost control of the Tibetan Plateau and China proper in 1354 and 1368, respectively, and collapsed after its capital of Dadu was taken over by Ming forces . The Genghisid rulers of the Yuan then retreated north and continued to rule the Mongolian Plateau . The regime is thereafter known as the Northern Yuan dynasty in historiography, surviving as a rump state until the conquest by
15308-533: The aforementioned appeals from both the Abkhazian and South Ossetian leadership, on 25 August 2008, the Federation Council and State Duma passed motions calling upon President Dmitry Medvedev to recognise the independence of both states and establish diplomatic relations . On 26 August 2008, President Medvedev signed decrees recognising the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as sovereign states. In
15480-667: The area as "the former autonomous district of South Ossetia", in reference to the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast disbanded in 1990. The Georgian government informally refers to the area as the Tskhinvali region and considers it a part of Georgia's Shida Kartli region. Lacking effective control over the territory, Georgia maintains an administrative body called the Provisional Administration of South Ossetia . The South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast, established by Soviet authorities in Moscow in 1922, declared independence from
15652-676: The area comprising modern North Ossetia , was among the first areas of the North Caucasus to come under Russian domination, starting in 1774. The capital, Vladikavkaz , was the first Russian military outpost in the region. By 1806, Ossetia was completely under Russian control. Ossetian migration to Georgian areas continued in the 19th and 20th centuries, when Georgia was part of the Russian Empire and Ossetian settlements emerged in Trialeti , Borjomi , Bakuriani and Kakheti as well. Following
15824-517: The borders of South Ossetia have reportedly been expanding the boundaries of the region through “encroaching occupation”, meaning they surreptitiously advance several feet at a time into Georgian-held territory. Following the 2008 South Ossetia war , Russia recognised South Ossetia as independent. This unilateral recognition by Russia was met by condemnation from Western Blocs, such as NATO , Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and
15996-416: The building of foreign merchants' quarters, Buddhist monasteries , mosques , and Christian churches in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with Chinese, European, and Persian architecture . One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes that dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by Guillaume Boucher ,
16168-608: The capital city, Tskhinvali . As of 2024, only five members of the United Nations (UN) recognise South Ossetia as a sovereign state – Russia , Venezuela , Nicaragua , Nauru , and Syria . The Georgian government and all other UN member states regard South Ossetia as sovereign territory of Georgia . The political status of South Ossetia is a central issue of the Georgian–Ossetian conflict and Georgia–Russia relations . The Georgian constitution designates
16340-414: The capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and
16512-651: The causes of death of more than 13,000 people. The Soviet Georgian government, established after the Red Army invasion of Georgia in 1921, created an autonomous administrative unit for Transcaucasian Ossetians in April 1922 under pressure from Kavbiuro (the Caucasian Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union ), called the South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast (AO). Some believe that
16684-653: The control of Genghis Khan. His most powerful allies were his father's friend, Khereid chieftain Toghrul , and Temujin's childhood anda (i.e. blood brother ) Jamukha of the Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the Merkit tribe, rescued his wife Börte , and went on to defeat the Naimans and the Tatars. Temujin forbade the looting of his enemies without permission, and he implemented
16856-510: The eastern part of the empire, centered on China. Kublai officially issued an imperial edict on 18 December 1271 to give the empire the Han -style dynastic name of "Great Yuan" ( Dai Yuan , or Dai Ön Ulus' ; Chinese : 大 元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ) and to establish the Yuan dynasty . Some sources give the full Mongol name as Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus . The area around Mongolia , Manchuria , and parts of North China had been controlled by
17028-406: The election proceedings in motion on April 7, 2022. On May 13, the annexation referendum was scheduled to take place on July 17. Following Biblov's defeat in 2022 election , the new president, Alan Gagloev , suspended the referendum on May 30. Gagloyev announced in August 2022 that border crossings with Georgia would be open ten days a month. South Ossetia is a very mountainous region located in
17200-428: The emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack, but Möngke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Möngke ordered an investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many members of the Mongol elite were found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from 77 to 300, though princes of Genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed. Möngke confiscated
17372-925: The empire's finances, Möngke once again sought to expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East and south China . Möngke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army. The Muslims from Qazvin denounced the menace of the Nizari Ismailis , a well-known sect of Shiites . The Mongol Naiman commander Kitbuqa began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master Rukn al-Din Khurshah surrendered in 1257 and
17544-560: The empire. In addition to laws regarding family, food, and the army, Genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation. He also encouraged literacy and the adaptation of the Uyghur script into what would become the Mongolian script of the empire, ordering the Uyghur Tata-tonga , who had previously served
17716-536: The end of 18th century, the ultimate sites of Ossetian settlement on the territory of modern South Ossetia were in Kudaro ( Jejora river estuary), Greater Liakhvi gorge, the gorge of Little Liakhvi , Ksani River gorge, Guda (Tetri Aragvi estuary) and Truso ( Terek estuary). The Georgian Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti , including the territory of modern South Ossetia, was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1801. Ossetia,
17888-514: The estates of the Ögedeid and the Chagatai families and shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives, but thereafter the power of the great khan's throne remained firmly with the descendants of Tolui. Möngke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles, leading to
18060-599: The first time, in 2024, Armenia voted in favor of the Georgia resolution at the United Nations which would United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution to reiterate the right of return of all displaced persons and refugees to Georgia's Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region/South Ossetia and support Georgia's territorial integrity. On 27 August 2008, Azerbaijani Foreign Ministry spokesman Khazar Ibrahim stated, "Azerbaijan's position remains unchanged. We recognise Georgia's territorial integrity". According to Peter Rutland,
18232-601: The following day. Russia recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia as separate republics on 26 August. In response to Russia's recognition, the Georgian government severed diplomatic relations with Russia. Russian forces left the buffer areas bordering Abkhazia and South Ossetia on 8 October and the European Union Monitoring Mission in Georgia assumed authority over the buffer areas. Since the war, Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and South Ossetia are Russian-occupied Georgian territories . On 30 September 2009,
18404-494: The forces still loyal to him prevailed, defeating the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as the khagan (Emperor) of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol State) at a Kurultai (general assembly/council). It was there that he assumed the title of Genghis Khan (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, marking
18576-421: The government's position that "Abkhazia is part of Georgia". However, the following week Kilman replaced Natuman as Prime Minister. On 14 March 2019 Vanuatu Foreign Minister Ralph Regenvanu met with his Georgian counterpart David Zalkaliani in Tbilisi. While both sides committed to deepen bilateral ties, Regenvanu "confirmed Vanuatu's support of Georgia's sovereignty and territorial integrity", according to
18748-462: The independence of the Republic of South Ossetia on 29 May 1992. On 24 June 1992, Shevardnadze and the South Ossetian government signed the Sochi ceasefire agreement , brokered by Russia. The agreement included obligations to avoid the use of force, and Georgia pledged not to impose sanctions against South Ossetia. The Georgian government retained control over substantial portions of South Ossetia, including
18920-412: The inhabitants are kept in complete slavery. Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu's relations with Güyük , Ögedei's eldest son, and Büri , the beloved grandson of Chagatai Khan , remained tense and worsened during Batu's victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus'. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri could not do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ögedei
19092-523: The intention to maintain dialogue with Abkhazia". In corroboration of that, Vanuatu maintained throughout the years its support for Georgia's annually submitted United Nations resolution regarding the return of internally displaced persons to Abkhazia, generally seen as an expression of support for the territorial integrity of Georgia. On 18 March 2013, Johnny Koanapo, Vanuatu Director-General of Foreign Affairs, stated that diplomatic relations had never been established with Abkhazia. He said that "There's been
19264-451: The issue dragged on for months within Vanuatu's governing ranks, according to some related to domestic power politics and personal feuds. In 2012 Vanuatu's UN envoy maintained the country does not recognise Abkhazia, while a senior official of Vanuatu's Ministry of Foreign Affairs confirmed this by saying "the country has definitely not recognized Abkhazia", adding "the government had expressed
19436-580: The khan of Naimans , to instruct his sons. Genghis quickly came into conflict with the Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China. He also had to deal with two other powers, Tibet and Qara Khitai . Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with
19608-417: The killing of Georgian citizens. According to Russian military expert Pavel Felgenhauer , the Ossetian provocation was aimed at triggering the Georgian response, which was needed as a pretext for premeditated Russian military invasion. According to Georgian intelligence, and several Russian media reports, parts of the regular (non-peacekeeping) Russian Army had already moved to South Ossetian territory through
19780-581: The kurultai convened by Töregene in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of stature necessary for a great khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire — leaders of vassal nations, representatives from Rome, and other entities who came to the kurultai to show their respects and conduct diplomacy. Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue
19952-403: The kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year. Today researchers doubt that Ögedei's death was the sole reason for the Mongols withdrawal. Batu did not return to Mongolia, so a new khan was not elected until 1246. Climatic and environmental factors, as well as the strong fortifications and castles of Europe, played an important role in
20124-427: The legal capacity to recognise any state diplomatically; their member states do so individually. However, depending on the intergovernmental organisation's rules of internal governance and the positions of their member states, they may express positive or negative opinions as to declarations of independence, or choose to offer or withhold membership to a newly declared state. Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire of
20296-452: The legal process to become part of Russia . Russian politicians reacted positively and said Russian law would permit (parts of) foreign nations to join the federation. They highlighted the necessity to "express the will of the Ossetian people" through a referendum. Ossetian leader Bibilov said in a lengthy interview that he planned to hold two referendums, one on annexation by Russia, and the second vote on joining North Ossetia, for which he set
20468-504: The loan led to the June 2009 Milk War between Belarus and Russia. The government of Belarus has informed its citizens to abide by Georgian laws when travelling to the regions. The Foreign Ministry of Belarus stated that Belarusians should only use entrance points on the Georgian side. Belarusian lawmakers visited Abkhazia and South Ossetia in late 2009 to study the situation and decide to postpone decision to spring 2010. South Ossetia asked for
20640-813: The massive smuggling of goods for the Ergneti market through the Roki Tunnel , which was not under Georgian control, cost the country significant amounts of custom revenues. Georgia proposed to bring the Roki tunnel under joint control and monitoring, which was refused by the South Ossetian side. The antismuggling operation against the market resulted in a breakdown of South Ossetian trust in Georgia's intentions. A wave of violence erupted between Georgian peacekeepers and South Ossetian militiamen and freelance fighters from Russia. This included hostage taking of dozens of Georgian peacekeepers, shootouts and shelling of Georgian controlled villages, which left dozens dead and wounded. A ceasefire deal
20812-641: The mountainous areas of the South Caucasus , often settled in the lands of Georgian feudal lords. The Georgian King of the Kingdom of Kartli permitted Ossetians to immigrate. According to Russian ambassador to Georgia Mikhail Tatishchev , at the beginning of the 17th century there was already a small group of Ossetians living near the headwaters of the Great Liakhvi . In the 1770s there were more Ossetians living in Kartli than ever before. This period has been documented in
20984-431: The northern Caucasus and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction supported Batu's choice, and Möngke was elected; though given the kurultai's limited attendance and location, it was of questionable validity. Batu sent Möngke, under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke repeatedly invited Oghul Qaimish and
21156-555: The northern border of South Ossetia with Russia. There is only one main road through the mountain range from South Ossetia to Russia, the TransKAM highway through the Roki tunnel into North Ossetia , which was completed in 1986. The Transkam section located in South Ossetia is nominally part of the Georgian S10 highway even though Tbilisi effectively does not control that part. The Roki Tunnel
21328-553: The officials from South Africa, Jordan and El Salvador, and sent diplomatic notes to other countries, such as Egypt, France, Guatemala and Sri Lanka. This campaign reached its peak in 2017, but subsequently decreased and largely halted with the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic . Syria remains the only country which has recognised Abkhazia and South Ossetia since 2009. 14 April 2010 (South Ossetia) In 2022, an Abkhaz Embassy in Nicaragua
21500-479: The other major Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ögedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a descendant of Genghis's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei could be great khan. When Möngke's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin Berke organized a second kurultai on 1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke great khan of
21672-426: The parliamentary election in Georgia was won by Zviad Gamsakhurdia 's "Round Table" block. On 11 December 1990, Zviad Gamsakhurdia's government declared the Ossetian election illegitimate and abolished South Ossetia's autonomous status altogether. Gamsakhurdia rationalised the abolition of Ossetian autonomy by saying, "They [Ossetians] have no right to a state here in Georgia. They are a national minority. Their homeland
21844-718: The policies of his father Ögedei, not those of Töregene. He punished Töregene's supporters, except for governor Arghun the Elder . He also replaced young Qara Hülëgü , the khan of the Chagatai Khanate , with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke , to assert his newly conferred powers. He restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by Uyghur, Naiman and Central Asian officials, favoring Han Chinese commanders who had helped his father conquer Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in
22016-515: The presence of the Ossetian people in the South Caucasus has been one of the causes of conflict. Although Georgian historiography believes that Ossetian mass migration to the South Caucasus (Georgia) began in the 17th century, Ossetians claim to have been residing in the area since the ancient times, which is not supported by available sources. Some Ossetian historians accept that the migration of Ossetian ancestors to modern South Ossetia began after
22188-457: The promotion of their future development." Since 2004, tensions began to rise as the Georgian authorities strengthened their efforts to bring the region back under their rule, after it succeeded in Adjara . Georgia sent police to close down the Ergneti black market, which was one of the region's chief sources of revenue, selling foodstuffs and fuel smuggled from Russia. The Georgian authorities claimed
22360-480: The recognition of South Ossetia and Abkhazia was "not currently on the agenda." This was confirmed by the Minister for Foreign Affairs Kostyantyn Gryshchenko on 14 May 2010: "An issue of territorial integrity and inviolability of frontiers is a matter of principle for us. Period". On 4 June 2010, Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovych said, "I have never recognized Abkhazia, South Ossetia or Kosovo's independence. This
22532-621: The recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic. On 10 March 2022 the LPR recognised Abkhazia's independence. Russia annexed the LPR on 30 September 2022. The annexation is internationally unrecognised . On 12 February 2010 it was announced that it is expected to establish diplomatic relations with Abkhazia. Artsakh had ceased to exist on 1 January 2024. On 31 March 2014 Georgia and Tuvalu signed an agreement on establishing diplomatic and consular relations. The agreement
22704-584: The recognition of the Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic. Russia annexed the DPR on 30 September 2022. The annexation is internationally unrecognised . On 22 February 2022, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs published a statement welcoming the recognition of independence of the Donetsk and Luhansk People's Republics by Russian President Vladimir Putin . On 25 February 2022 President Aslan Bzhania announced
22876-512: The recognition project after 2014. One of the possible reasons might be worsening of the financial situation in Russia following the Russo-Ukrainian War and international sanctions on Russia . Abkhazia has started a new campaign to strengthen the relations with the foreign countries and present itself as an independent actor. Abkhaz officials have visited a number of countries, including China, Italy, Turkey and Israel. They have also met with
23048-679: The regions, and asking central Moldova's government to recognise these states. Saudi Arabia does not recognizes Abkhazia or South Ossetia. In May 2012, during the visit to Georgia, Abdullah bin Zamil Al-Drees, a head of the delegation of Majlis al-Shura of Saudi Arabia, said that the kingdom's position was based on its foreign policy in support of the territorial integrity of countries. In October 2009, Ukrainian Ambassador to Russia Kostyantyn Gryshchenko said that "We must not recognize neither Kosovo nor Abkhazia, nor South Ossetia in no case". In March 2010, President Viktor Yanukovych said that
23220-674: The regions. A ban on economic activity in the regions without Georgian permission was issued, and anyone caught violating this ban by the Georgian authorities faced prosecution. The Georgian Navy blockaded the coast of Abkhazia, and has seized 23 cargo ships trying to bring supplies to Abkhazia, most notably fuel supplies. Abkhazia is dependent on fuel imports, and faced a serious shortage as a result. Russia began deploying boats from its own Black Sea Fleet on 21 September 2009, in response. In August 2009, Russia and South Ossetia accused Georgia of shelling Ossetian villages and kidnapping four South Ossetian citizens. Russia threatened to use force unless
23392-482: The safety inside the disputed territories, going to either Abkhazia or South Ossetia is not recommended by the Georgian government. It is not possible for foreigners to enter South Ossetia from Georgian controlled territory, as the South Ossetian de facto authorities do not facilitate nor allow this. The European Union, NATO , the OSCE , and the United States immediately voiced displeasure with Russia's decision. After
23564-484: The second country to recognise South Ossetia. Venezuela recognised South Ossetia on 10 September 2009, becoming the third UN member state to do so. The European Union , Council of Europe , North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) and most UN member countries do not recognise South Ossetia as an independent state. The de facto republic governed by the secessionist government held a second independence referendum on 12 November 2006, after its first referendum in 1992
23736-455: The shelling stopped, and put its troops stationed in South Ossetia on high alert. In January 2010, Georgia adopted a strategy regarding the reintegration of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The strategy is called Involvement through Cooperation and it was presented to the international organisations as well as to Abkhazia and South Ossetia. The document says Georgia views peaceful methods as the only way for conflict solution and that there won't be
23908-624: The south, and into Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Güyük also divided the Sultanate of Rum between Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus and Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan , though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision. Not all parts of the empire respected Güyük's election. The Hashshashins , former Mongol allies whose Grand Master Hasan Jalalud-Din had offered his submission to Genghis Khan in 1221, angered Güyük by refusing to submit. Instead he murdered
24080-571: The southern part of the empire he continued his predecessors' struggle against the Song dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to Yunnan , and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well. Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to
24252-556: The start of the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000). The Kheshig , the imperial guard , was founded and divided into day ( khorchin torghuds ) and night ( khevtuul ) guards. Genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though many of them came from very low-ranking clans. Compared to
24424-399: The status of their recognitions. Vanuatu reconfirmed in 2019 it supports Georgian territorial integrity including the two disputed territories. Abkhazia and South Ossetia recognise each other, and also have some recognition from non-UN member states. South Ossetia declared independence from Georgia during the 1991–1992 South Ossetia War on 29 May 1992, with its Constitution referring to
24596-473: The summer months. The average temperature in South Ossetia in January is around +4 degrees Celsius, and the average temperature in July is around +20.3 degrees Celsius. The average yearly liquid precipitation in South Ossetia is around 598 millimetres. In general, summer temperatures average 20 °C (68 °F) to 24 °C (75.2 °F) across much of South Ossetia, and winter temperatures average 2 °C (35.6 °F) to 4 °C (39.2 °F). Humidity
24768-438: The territorial integrity of Georgia and the protection of its freedom – this is not an internal Georgian problem, or a question of Georgia and Russia. This is now a question of Russia and the rest of the civilised world. Georgia's future, is not only the future of Georgia, this is the future of the whole civilised world... Deputy Foreign Minister Giga Bokeria said, "This is an unconcealed annexation of these territories, which are
24940-563: The territorial integrity of Georgia within its international recognised borders, including its regions – Abkhazia's autonomous republic and Tskhinvali region. In April 2014, it was suggested that Russia was more embarrassed by Tuvalu's withdrawal of recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, than by international sanctions for Crimea, since this "decision could spell the end of a years-long diplomatic strategy that has cost Russia millions." On 23 May 2011 Vanuatu recognised Abkhazia's independence and established diplomatic relations, according to
25112-469: The time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Güyük met, Güyük, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at Qum-Senggir (Hong-siang-yi-eulh) in Xinjiang , possibly a victim of poison. Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother-in-law Töregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on
25284-437: The town of Akhalgori . A Joined Peacekeeping force of Ossetians, Russians and Georgians was established. On 6 November 1992, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) set up a mission in Georgia to monitor the peacekeeping operation. From then until mid-2004, South Ossetia was generally peaceful. Following the 2003 Rose Revolution , Mikheil Saakashvili became the President of Georgia in 2004. Ahead of
25456-421: The travel diaries of Johann Anton Güldenstädt who visited Georgia in 1772. The Baltic German explorer called modern North Ossetia–Alania simply Ossetia, while he wrote that Kartli (the areas of modern-day South Ossetia) was populated by Georgians and the mountainous areas were populated by both Georgians and Ossetians. Güldenstädt also wrote that the northernmost border of Kartli is the Major Caucasus Ridge . By
25628-563: The two sides. While at the conflict line, Regenvanu said: "Vanuatu has always recognized the territorial integrity of Georgia. In 2011 we had a minister who expressed a different position. In my opinion, he was influenced by certain individuals and recognized the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. His decision was not an official position of the state". In 2023, President Nikol Pashinyan stated that Armenia fully respects and acknowledges Georgia's territorial integrity and considers Abkhazia and South Ossetia as Georgian territories. For
25800-501: The units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were relatively few. He proclaimed a new code of law of the empire, Ikh Zasag or Yassa ; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads. He forbade the selling of women, theft, fighting among the Mongols, and the hunting of animals during the breeding season. He appointed his stepbrother Shikhikhutug as supreme judge (jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of
25972-403: The violation of Serbian territorial integrity when it recognised the independence of Kosovo in 2008. The Russian government also welcomed Nicaragua's recognition of the two states, and called on other countries to "recognise reality" and follow Nicaragua's example. President Daniel Ortega announced that his government "recognises the independence of South Ossetia and Abkhazia and fully supports
26144-517: The war had ended. The war displaced 192,000 people, and while many were able to return to their homes after the war, a year later around 30,000 ethnic Georgians remained displaced. In an interview published in Kommersant , South Ossetian leader Eduard Kokoity said he would not allow Georgians to return. President of France Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated a ceasefire agreement on 12 August 2008. On 17 August, Russian president Dmitry Medvedev announced that Russian forces would begin to pull out of Georgia
26316-495: The withdrawal of Russian "peacekeepers" from the conflict zones. Later, EU South Caucasus envoy Peter Semneby said that "Russia's actions in the Georgia spy row have damaged its credibility as a neutral peacekeeper in the EU's Black Sea neighbourhood." Joe Biden (Chairman, U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee), Richard Lugar , and Mel Martínez sponsored a resolution in June 2008 accusing Russia of attempting to undermine Georgia's territorial integrity and called for replacing
26488-482: Was a son of a Mongol chieftain and rose very rapidly as a young man by working with Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. After Temujin went to war against Kurtait (also known as Wang Khan; given the Chinese title "Wang" for its meaning of King ), who was the most powerful Mongol leader at the time, he gave himself the name Genghis Khan. He then enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin, with the term Mongol coming to be used in reference to all Mongolic speaking tribes under
26660-664: Was appointed with a mandate of handling "economic and cultural-humanitarian affairs", with nothing being stated about political relations. On 19 December 1997, Tuntaev was removed from his post by Maskhadov following Tuntaev's statement that the Chechen republic of Ichkeria "might recognize the Abkhazia's independence soon". Maskhadov's administration described this statement as an "illegal and uncoordinated action". Kazbek Khajiev, Maskhadov's press secretary, said that Chechnya would not endanger its friendly relations with Georgia to "promote somebody's ambitions". Under international law, intergovernmental organisations do not themselves possess
26832-467: Was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143. In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing a peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated
27004-413: Was characterised by general disregard for international humanitarian law by uncontrollable militias, with both sides reporting atrocities. The Soviet military facilitated a ceasefire as ordered by Mikhail Gorbachev in January 1991. In March and April 1991, Soviet interior troops were reported actively disarming militias on both sides, and deterring the inter-ethnic violence. Zviad Gamsakhurdia asserted that
27176-557: Was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need. His court also tried to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates. He also centralized control of monetary affairs and reinforced the guards at the postal relays. Möngke ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 that took several years to complete and was not finished until Novgorod in the far northwest was counted in 1258. In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers Hulagu and Kublai to rule Persia and Mongol-held China respectively. In
27348-459: Was established. Until then, Abkhazia was represented in Nicaragua via its Ambassador in Caracas. On 29 September 2010 the SADR Minister for African Issues Mohamed Yeslem Beyssat said referring to South Ossetia: “Western Sahara de facto recognizes the independence of South Ossetia. Now we have to formalise relations de jure, including the establishment of diplomatic relations". The two states have had various formal and informal contacts. In 2019,
27520-457: Was held in South Ossetia on 19 January 1992, with voters being asked two questions: "Do you agree that South Ossetia should be an independent country?" and "Do you agree with the South Ossetian parliament's solution of 1 September 1991 on reunion with Russia?" Both proposals were approved, but the results were not recognised internationally. Nonetheless, the South Ossetian regional council subsequently passed an "act of state independence" and declared
27692-400: Was mounting against Gamsakhurdia in Georgia due to his intolerance of critics and attempts to concentrate political power. On 22 December 1991, after a coup d'état , Gamsakhurdia and his supporters were besieged by the opposition, which was backed by the national guard, in several government buildings in Tbilisi . The ensuing heavy fighting resulted in over 200 casualties and left the center of
27864-426: Was not recognised by most governments as valid. According to the Tskhinvali election authorities, the referendum turned out a majority for independence from Georgia where 99% of South Ossetian voters supported independence and the turnout for the vote was 95%. The referendum was monitored by a team of 34 international observers from Germany, Austria, Poland, Sweden and other countries at 78 polling stations. However, it
28036-451: Was not recognised internationally by the UN, European Union, OSCE, NATO and the Russian Federation, given the lack of ethnic Georgian participation and the illegality of such a referendum without recognition from the Georgian government in Tbilisi . The European Union, OSCE and NATO condemned the referendum. International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia Abkhazia and South Ossetia are separatist regions of Georgia in
28208-420: Was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations ( khanlig ): Keraites , Khamag Mongol , Naiman , Mergid , and Tatar . The Jin emperors, following a policy of divide and rule , encouraged disputes among the tribes, especially between the Tatars and the Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the Jin. Khabul's successor was Ambaghai Khan , who
28380-424: Was put on hold indefinitely. A referendum on South Ossetia's official name was held on 9 April 2017; over three-quarters of those who voted supported amendments to the South Ossetian constitution which gave the names "Republic of South Ossetia" and "State of Alania" equal status under the law. South Ossetia was rocked by its most significant protests from 2020 to 2021 following the Murder of Inal Djabiev . Djabiev,
28552-456: Was reached on 13 August though it was repeatedly violated. The Georgian government protested against the allegedly increasing Russian economic and political presence in the region and against the uncontrolled military of the South Ossetian side. Georgian government officials have stated South Ossetian key security positions are occupied by (former) Russian security officials, while some political researchers speak of institutions being outsourced to
28724-423: Was seized by the Russian military by 10 August. Russian forces occupied the Georgian cities of Zugdidi , Senaki , Poti , and Gori (the last one after the ceasefire agreement was negotiated). The Russian Black Sea Fleet blockaded the Georgian coast. A campaign of ethnic cleansing against Georgians in South Ossetia was conducted by South Ossetians, with Georgian villages around Tskhinvali being destroyed after
28896-494: Was signed by Tuvalu's Minister of Environmental Protection, Foreign Affairs, Labour and Trade, and Georgian Foreign Minister Maya Panjikidze during the visit of Tuvalu's governmental delegation to Georgia. The agreement stipulates that both sides agreed to develop relations on the grounds of the principles of sovereign equality, friendly relations and cooperation, territorial integrity, non-violation of borders and non-interference in homeland affairs. It emphasises that Tuvalu recognises
29068-472: Was still alive. Ögedei continued with offensives into the Indian subcontinent , temporarily investing Uchch , Lahore , and Multan of the Delhi Sultanate and stationing a Mongol overseer in Kashmir , though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to retreat. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to end the conflict with Goryeo by making it a client state and sent Mongol princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his kheshig with
29240-488: Was unaware of the visit of Bibilov. However, President of President of Republika Srpska Milorad Dodik said that Bibilov was visiting "the Serb entity, not the Bosnian state". He also stated that "Georgia does not have a friendly attitude towards the RS [Republika Srpska], we know that, and neither do we have one towards it". Gagauzia , an autonomous region of Moldova, passed a resolution, recognising independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, backing Russia's actions in
29412-480: Was unclear. Some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate, Emyl; others suggested that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full-scale conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Kievan Rus . Suspicious of Güyük's motives, Sorghaghtani Beki , the widow of Genghis's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu of Güyük's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastward at
29584-526: Was vital for the Russian military in the 2008 South Ossetia war because it is the only direct route through the Caucasus Mountains between Russia and South Ossetia. South Ossetia covers an area of about 3,900 km (1,506 sq mi), separated by the mountains from the more populous North Ossetia (which is a republic within Russia) and extending southwards almost to the Mtkvari river in Georgia. More than 89% of South Ossetia lies over 1,000 m (3,281 ft) above sea level , and its highest point
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