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112-522: Sitting Bull ( Lakota : Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake [tˣaˈtˣə̃ka ˈijɔtakɛ] ; c.  1831–1837  – December 15, 1890) was a Hunkpapa Lakota leader who led his people during years of resistance against United States government policies. Sitting Bull was killed by Indian agency police accompanied by U.S. officers and supported by U.S. troops on the Standing Rock Indian Reservation during an attempt to arrest him at

224-786: A Native American tribe and First Nations band government in North America. They compose two of the three main subcultures of the Sioux people, and are typically divided into the Eastern Dakota and the Western Dakota . The four bands of Eastern Dakota are the Bdewákaŋthuŋwaŋ , Waȟpéthuŋwaŋ , Waȟpékhute , and Sisíthuŋwaŋ and are sometimes referred to as the Santee ( Isáŋyathi or Isáŋ-athi ; 'knife' + 'encampment', 'dwells at

336-432: A "great pet" of her. In observing Oakley, Sitting Bull's respect for the young sharpshooter grew. Oakley was quite modest in her attire, deeply respectful of others, and had a remarkable stage persona despite being a woman who stood only five feet in height. Sitting Bull felt that she was "gifted" by supernatural means in order to shoot so accurately with both hands. As a result of his esteem, he symbolically "adopted" her as

448-644: A Lakota warrior. During the Dakota War of 1862 , in which Sitting Bull's people were not involved, several bands of eastern Dakota people killed an estimated 300 to 800 settlers and soldiers in south-central Minnesota in response to poor treatment by the government and in an effort to drive the whites away. Despite being embroiled in the American Civil War , the United States Army retaliated in 1863 and 1864, even against bands that had not been involved in

560-438: A daughter in 1884. He named her "Little Sure Shot", a name that Oakley used throughout her career. In 1885, Sitting Bull was allowed to leave the reservation to go Wild Westing with Buffalo Bill Cody's Buffalo Bill's Wild West . He earned about $ 50 a week (equal to $ 1,696 today) for riding once around the arena, where he was a popular attraction. Although it is rumored that he cursed his audiences in his native tongue during

672-847: A direct military role in the ensuing battle; instead, he acted as a spiritual leader. A week prior to the attack, he had performed the Sun Dance, in which he fasted and sacrificed over 100 pieces of flesh from his arms. On June 25, 1876, Custer's scouts discovered Sitting Bull's camp along the Little Big Horn River, known as the Greasy Grass River to the Lakota. After being ordered to attack, Custer's 7th Cavalry's troops lost ground quickly and were forced to retreat. Sitting Bull's followers, led into battle by Crazy Horse, counterattacked and ultimately defeated Custer while surrounding and laying siege to

784-500: A fluent speaker to use. In 2013 Lakota teachers at Red Cloud Indian School on Pine Ridge Indian Reservation discussed their use of orthography for their K–12 students as well as adult learners. The orthography used at Red Cloud "is meant to be more phonetic than other orthographies... That means there are usually more 'H's than other versions. While many orthographies use tipi ... Red Cloud spells it thípi." He continues, "the orthography also makes heavy use of diacritical marks... that

896-454: A following ⟨ƞ⟩ , ⟨ŋ⟩ , or ⟨n⟩ ; historically, these were written with ogoneks underneath, ⟨į ą ų⟩ . No syllables end with consonantal /n/ . A neutral vowel ( schwa ) is automatically inserted between certain consonants, e.g. into the pairs ⟨gl⟩ , ⟨bl⟩ and ⟨gm⟩ . So the clan name written phonemically as ⟨Oglala⟩ has become

1008-516: A grammatical sentence that contains only a verb. (interjection) (conjunction) (adverb(s)) (nominal) (nominal) (nominal) (adverb(s)) verb (enclitic(s)) (conjunction) When interjections are used, they begin the sentence or end it. A small number of interjections are used only by one gender, for instance the interjection expressing disbelief is ečéš for women but hóȟ for men; for calling attention women say máŋ while men use wáŋ . Most interjections, however, are used by both genders. It

1120-522: A hair sample obtained during his lifetime. In October 2021, Willerslev confirmed Lakota writer and activist Ernie Lapointe 's contention that he was Sitting Bull's great-grandson and his three sisters were Sitting Bull's biological great-grandchildren. Lakota language Speakers of the Lakota language make up one of the largest Native American language speech communities in the United States , with approximately 2,000 speakers, who live mostly in

1232-481: A higher tone than all other vowels in the word. This is generally the vowel of the second syllable of the word, but often the first syllable can be stressed, and occasionally other syllables as well. Stress is generally indicated with an acute accent: ⟨á⟩ , etc. Compound words will have stressed vowels in each component; proper spelling will write compounds with a hyphen. Thus máza-ská , literally "metal-white", i.e. "silver; money" has two stressed vowels,

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1344-602: A member of the National Indian Defense Association (NIDA), reached out to Sitting Bull, acting to be his voice, secretary, interpreter, and advocate. She joined him, together with her young son Christy, at his compound on the Grand River, sharing with him and his family home and hearth. During a time of harsh winters and long droughts impacting the Sioux Reservation, a Paiute Indian named Wovoka spread

1456-574: A performer with Buffalo Bill's Wild West show, Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency in South Dakota . Because of fears that Sitting Bull would use his influence to support the Ghost Dance movement, Indian Service agent James McLaughlin at Fort Yates ordered his arrest. During an ensuing struggle between Sitting Bull's followers and the agency police, Sitting Bull was shot in

1568-428: A property. (In English, such descriptions are usually made with adjectives .) Verbs are inflected for first-, second- or third person , and for singular, dual or plural grammatical number . There are two paradigms for verb inflection . One set of morphemes indicates the person and number of the subject of active verbs. The other set of morphemes agrees with the object of transitive action verbs or

1680-618: A purchase or lease of the Hills, the government in Washington had to find a way around the promise to protect the Sioux in their land, as specified in the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie. It was alarmed at reports of Sioux depredations, some of which were encouraged by Sitting Bull. In November 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant ordered all Sioux bands outside the Great Sioux Reservation to move onto

1792-676: A religious movement from present-day Nevada east to the Plains that preached a resurrection of the Native. It was known as the Ghost Dance movement because it called on the Indians to dance and chant for the rising up of deceased relatives and the return of the buffalo. The dance included shirts that were said to stop bullets. When the movement reached Standing Rock, Sitting Bull allowed the dancers to gather at his camp. Although he did not appear to participate in

1904-573: A suitable location for a military fort in the Hills. Custer's announcement of gold in the Black Hills triggered the Black Hills Gold Rush . Tensions increased between the Lakota and European Americans seeking to move into the Black Hills. Although Sitting Bull did not attack Custer's expedition in 1874, the U.S. government was increasingly pressured by citizens to open the Black Hills to mining and settlement. Failing in an attempt to negotiate

2016-515: A time when authorities feared that he would join the Ghost Dance movement. Before the Battle of the Little Bighorn , Sitting Bull had a vision in which he saw many soldiers, "as thick as grasshoppers", falling upside down into the Lakota camp, which his people took as a foreshadowing of a major victory in which many soldiers would be killed. About three weeks later, the confederated Lakota tribes with

2128-400: Is postpositional , with adpositions occurring after the head nouns: mas'óphiye él , "at the store" (literally 'store at'); thípi=kiŋ ókšaŋ , "around the house" (literally 'house=the around') (Rood and Taylor 1996). Rood and Taylor (1996) suggest the following template for basic word order. Items in parentheses are optional; only the verb is required. It is therefore possible to produce

2240-524: Is common for a sentence to begin with a conjunction. Both čhaŋké and yuŋkȟáŋ can be translated as and ; k’éyaš is similar to English but . Each of these conjunctions joins clauses. In addition, the conjunction na joins nouns or phrases. Lakota uses postpositions , which are similar to English prepositions, but follow their noun complement. Adverbs or postpositional phrases can describe manner, location, or reason. There are also interrogative adverbs, which are used to form questions. To

2352-478: Is marked with an acute accent : ⟨á, é, í, ó, ú, áŋ, íŋ, úŋ⟩ on stressed vowels (which receive a higher tone than non-stressed ones) The following consonants approximate their IPA values: ⟨b, g, h, k, l, m, n, ŋ, p, s, t, w, z⟩ . ⟨Y⟩ has its English value of /j/ . An apostrophe, ⟨'⟩ , is used for the glottal stop . A caron is used for sounds, other than /ŋ/ , which are not written with Latin letters in

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2464-398: Is more appropriate. They are both used in matters of time and space. As mentioned above, nominals are optional in Lakota, but when nouns appear the basic word order is subject–object–verb. Pronouns are not common, but may be used contrastively or emphatically. Lakota has four articles : waŋ is indefinite, similar to English a or an , and kiŋ is definite, similar to English

2576-440: Is not popular among some educators and academics". Delphine Red Shirt, an Oglala Lakota tribal member and a lecturer on languages at Stanford University , disagrees and prefers a Lakota orthography without diacritical marks. "I'm very against any orthography that requires a special keyboard to communicate," she said. First language speaker and veteran language teacher at Red Cloud, the late Philomine Lakota, had similar concerns with

2688-567: Is now Marmarth, North Dakota . They had been left behind by a wagon train commanded by Captain James L. Fisk to effect some repairs to an overturned wagon. When he led an attack, Sitting Bull was shot in the left hip by a soldier. The bullet exited through the small of his back, and the wound was not serious. From 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud , a leader of the Oglala Lakota , fought against U.S. forces, attacking their forts in an effort to keep control of

2800-484: Is often written without diacritics . Besides failing to mark stress, this also results in the confusion of numerous consonants: /s/ and /ʃ/ are both written ⟨s⟩ , /h/ and /χ/ are both written ⟨h⟩ , and the aspirate stops are written like the unaspirates, as ⟨p, t, c, k⟩ . All digraphs (i.e. characters created by two letters, such as kh, kȟ, k') are treated as groups of individual letters in alphabetization. Thus for example

2912-420: Is phonetically [laˈkˣota] ). For some speakers, there is a phonemic distinction between the two, and both occur before /e/ . No such variation occurs for the affricate /tʃʰ/. Some orthographies mark this distinction; others do not. The uvular fricatives /χ/ and /ʁ/ are commonly spelled ⟨ȟ⟩ and ⟨ǧ⟩ . All monomorphemic words have one vowel which carries primary stress and has

3024-774: Is spent teaching and speaking the language. On May 3, 2022, the Tribal Council of the Standing Rock Sioux , in a near-unanimous vote, banished the Lakota Language Consortium (and specifically, LLC linguist Jan Ullrich and co-founder Wilhelm Meya) from ever again setting foot on the reservation. The council's decision was based on the LLC's history with not only the Standing Rock community, but also with at least three other communities that also voiced concerns about Meya and

3136-792: The Blue Earth River . Most of the Yankton live on the Yankton Indian Reservation in southeastern South Dakota. Some Yankton live on the Lower Brule Indian Reservation and Crow Creek Reservation , which is also occupied by the Lower Yanktonai. The Upper Yanktonai live in the northern part of Standing Rock Reservation , and on the Spirit Lake Reservation , in areas within central North Dakota. Others live in

3248-462: The Lakota language , roughly translates to "Buffalo Bull Who Sits Down", but Americans commonly refer to him as "Sitting Bull". Thereafter, Sitting Bull's father was known as Jumping Bull. At this ceremony before the entire band, Sitting Bull's father presented his son with an eagle feather to wear in his hair, a warrior's horse, and a hardened buffalo hide shield to mark his son's passage into manhood as

3360-626: The Minnesota River area before ceding their land and moving to South Dakota in 1858. Despite ceding their lands, their treaty with the U.S. government allowed them to maintain their traditional role in the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ as the caretakers of the Pipestone Quarry , which is the cultural center of the Sioux people. They are considered to be the Western Dakota (also called middle Sioux), and have in

3472-698: The Mississippi River and up to its headwaters. After the Dakota War of 1862 , the federal government expelled the Santee (who included the Mdewakanton ) from Minnesota. Many were sent to Crow Creek Indian Reservation east of the Missouri River in what is now South Dakota. In 1864 some from the Crow Creek Reservation were sent to St. Louis and then traveled by boat up the Missouri River, ultimately to

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3584-609: The Ojibwe throughout the 1700s pushed the Dakota into southern Minnesota, where the Western Dakota (Yankton, Yanktonai) and Teton (Lakota) were residing. In the 1800s, the Dakota signed treaties with the United States, ceding much of their land in Minnesota. Failure of the United States to make treaty payments on time, as well as low food supplies, led to the Dakota War of 1862 , which resulted in

3696-522: The Powder River Country in present-day Montana . In support of Red Cloud, Sitting Bull led numerous war parties against Fort Berthold , Fort Stevenson , and Fort Buford and their allies from 1865 through 1868. The uprising has come to be known as Red Cloud's War . By early 1868, the U.S. government desired a peaceful settlement to the conflict. It agreed to Red Cloud's demands that the U.S. abandon Forts Phil Kearny and C.F. Smith . Gall of

3808-571: The Santee Sioux Reservation . In the 21st century, the majority of the Santee live on reservations and reserves, and many in small and larger cities in Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Canada. They went to cities for more work opportunities and improved living conditions. The Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ-Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna, also known by the anglicized spelling Yankton (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋ: "End village") and Yanktonai (Iháŋkthuŋwaŋna: "Little end village") divisions consist of two bands or two of

3920-440: The Standing Rock Agency . This reservation straddles the present-day boundary between North and South Dakota. Sitting Bull and his band of 186 people were kept separate from the other Hunkpapa gathered at the agency. U.S. Army officials were concerned that he would stir up trouble among the recently surrendered northern bands. On August 26, 1881, he was visited by U.S. census taker William T. Selwyn, who counted 12 people in

4032-646: The endonym Wičhíyena ('Those Who Speak Like Men'). They also have distinct federally recognized tribes. In the past the Western Dakota have been erroneously classified as Nakota , who are located in Montana and across the border in Canada, where they are known as Stoney . The word Dakota means "ally or friend" in the Dakota language , and their autonyms include Ikčé Wičhášta ("Indian people") and Dakhóta Oyáte ("Dakota people"). The Eastern and Western Dakota are two of

4144-471: The other two battalions led by Reno and Benteen . The Native Americans' victory celebrations were short-lived. Public shock and outrage at Custer's defeat and death, and the government's understanding of the military capability of the remaining Sioux, led the Department of War to assign thousands more soldiers to the area. Over the next year, the new American military forces pursued the Lakota, forcing many of

4256-544: The "SLO" or even "Suggested Lakota Orthography." Tasha Hauff writes, Choosing a writing system, or orthography, is often a serious point of contention in Indigenous communities engaging in revitalization work (Hinton, 2014). While writing a traditionally oral language can itself be considered a colonial act, standardizing a writing system is fraught with political as well as pedagogical complications. Because teachers at Standing Rock were in need of language-teaching materials, and

4368-426: The . In addition, waŋží is an indefinite article used with hypothetical or irrealis objects, and k’uŋ is a definite article used with nouns that have been mentioned previously. There are also nine demonstratives , which can function either as pronouns or as determiners . Verbs are the only word class that are obligatory in a Lakota sentence. Verbs can be active, naming an action, or stative , describing

4480-636: The Czech linguist advocates resembles the Czech orthography – making it easier for Czech people to read. The Europeans predominantly use the internet to give the impression that this "Czech orthography" is a Lakota product and the standard for writing Lakota." "The Rosebud Sioux Tribe was the first of the Lakota tribes to take legal action against the self-authorizing practices the LLC committed by utilizing names of Lakota language experts without their consent to obtain funding for their projects." Rosebud Resolution No. 2008–295 goes further and compares these actions to what

4592-482: The Dakota being exiled from Minnesota to numerous reservations in Nebraska, North and South Dakota and Canada. After 1870, the Dakota people began to return to Minnesota, creating the present-day reservations in the state. The Yankton and Yanktonai Dakota ( Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna ; "Village-at-the-end" and "Little village-at-the-end"), collectively also referred to by the endonym Wičhíyena , resided in

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4704-708: The Dakota identified them in Minnesota, Iowa, and Wisconsin. After the introduction of the horse in the early 18th century, the Sioux dominated larger areas of land—from present day Central Canada to the Platte River , from Minnesota to the Yellowstone River , including the Powder River country. (Formerly Devil's Lake Reservation) (Mni Wakan Oyate) (Pejuhutazizi Oyate) (Formerly Prior Lake Indian Reservation) (* Reserves shared with other First Nations ) Contemporary Sioux people are also listed under

4816-555: The European Americans. After the ultimatum on January 1, 1876, when the U.S. Army began to track down as hostiles those Sioux and others living off the reservation, Native Americans gathered at Sitting Bull's camp. He took an active role in encouraging this "unity camp". He sent scouts to the reservations to recruit warriors and told the Hunkpapa to share supplies with those Native Americans who joined them. An example of his generosity

4928-559: The Hunkpapa and other representatives of the Hunkpapa, Blackfeet and Yankton Dakota , signed a form of the Treaty of Fort Laramie on July 2, 1868, at Fort Rice (near Bismarck , North Dakota). Sitting Bull did not agree to the treaty. He told the Jesuit missionary Pierre Jean De Smet, who sought him on behalf of the government: "I wish all to know that I do not propose to sell any part of my country." He continued his hit-and-run attacks on forts in

5040-534: The Hunkpapa leader's immediate family and 41 families, totaling 195 people, were recorded in Sitting Bull's band. The military decided to transfer Sitting Bull and his band to Fort Randall to be held as prisoners of war. Loaded onto a steamboat , the band of 172 people was sent down the Missouri River to Fort Randall near present-day Pickstown, South Dakota on the southern border of the state, where they spent

5152-482: The IPA: ⟨č⟩ /tʃ/ , ⟨ǧ⟩ /ʁ/ , ⟨ȟ⟩ /χ/ , ⟨š⟩ /ʃ/ , ⟨ž⟩ /ʒ/ . Aspirates are written with ⟨h⟩ : ⟨čh, kh, ph, th,⟩ and velar frication with ⟨ȟ⟩ : ⟨kȟ, pȟ, tȟ.⟩ Ejectives are written with an apostrophe: ⟨č', ȟ', k', p', s', š', t'⟩ . The spelling used in modern popular texts

5264-569: The LLC materials but do not write in the orthography. These are usually Elders who remain in the habit of writing the way they learned. A few people at Standing Rock, however, have been offended by the notion of a standard way of writing Lakota/Dakota, especially one that seems unlike any of the systems used by Elders. Community members have been particularly wary of the SLO ["Standard Lakota Orthography"], which appears to be developed by outsiders who are not fluent speakers and would require considerable study for

5376-422: The LLC was one of the few organizations developing such resources, Standing Rock adopted the new orthography, but not without resistance from members of the community. ... The new writing system at Standing Rock was often criticized or even rejected within the community. Some fluent speakers at Standing Rock have not accepted the new writing system. There are some who continue to work in language education and who use

5488-469: The LLC's promotion of their New Lakota Dictionary , websites and other Internet projects aimed at revising and standardizing their new spelling of the Lakota language. "Lakota first language speakers and Lakota language teachers criticize the "Czech orthography" for being overloaded with markings and – foremost – for the way it is being brought into Lakota schools"; it has been criticized as " neocolonial domination." Sonja John writes that "The new orthography

5600-510: The LLC, "saying he broke agreements over how to use recordings, language materials and historical records, or used them without permission." The "Standard Lakota Orthography" as the LLC calls it, is in principle phonemic, which means that each character ( grapheme ) represents one distinctive sound ( phoneme ), except for the distinction between glottal and velar aspiration, which is treated phonetically. Lakota vowels are ⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩ nasal vowels are aŋ, iŋ, uŋ. Pitch accent

5712-407: The Lakota Language Consortium and its " Czech orthography " from the reservation and its educational system. This ban was a response to a series of protests by community members and grassroots language preservation workers, at Rosebud and other Lakota communities, against the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC). Despite its name, the LLC is an organization formed by two Europeans. Concerns arose due to

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5824-473: The Lakota coalition, of which Sitting Bull was the ostensible head, was the primary target of the federal government's pacification campaign. During the period 1868–1876, Sitting Bull developed into one of the most important Native American political leaders. After the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) and the creation of the Great Sioux Reservation, many traditional Sioux warriors, such as Red Cloud of

5936-635: The Native Americans to surrender. Sitting Bull refused to do so and in May 1877 led his band across the border into the North-West Territories , Canada. He remained in exile for four years near Wood Mountain , refusing a pardon and the chance to return. When crossing the border into Canadian territory, Sitting Bull was met by the Mounties of the region. During this meeting, James Morrow Walsh , commander of

6048-475: The North-West Mounted Police, explained to Sitting Bull that the Lakota were now on British soil and must obey British law. Walsh emphasized that he enforced the law equally and that every person in the territory had a right to justice. Walsh became an advocate for Sitting Bull and the two became good friends for the remainder of their lives. While in Canada, Sitting Bull also met with Crowfoot , who

6160-734: The Northern Cheyenne defeated the 7th Cavalry under Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer on June 25, 1876, annihilating Custer's battalion and seeming to fulfill Sitting Bull's prophetic vision. Sitting Bull's leadership inspired his people to a major victory. In response, the U.S. government sent thousands more soldiers to the area, forcing many of the Lakota to surrender over the next year. Sitting Bull refused to surrender, and in May 1877, he led his band north to Wood Mountain , North-West Territories (now Saskatchewan ). He remained there until 1881, when he and most of his band returned to U.S. territory and surrendered to U.S. forces. After working as

6272-618: The Northern Cheyenne, Hunkpapa, Oglala, Sans Arc, and Minneconjou camped together for a Sun Dance , with both the Cheyenne medicine man White Bull or Ice and Sitting Bull in association. This ceremonial alliance preceded their fighting together in 1876. Sitting Bull had a major revelation. At the climactic moment, "Sitting Bull intoned, 'The Great Spirit has given our enemies to us. We are to destroy them. We do not know who they are. They may be soldiers.' Ice too observed, 'No one then knew who

6384-564: The Oglala and Spotted Tail of the Brulé , moved to reside permanently on the reservations. They were largely dependent for subsistence on the U.S. Indian agencies. Many other chiefs, including members of Sitting Bull's Hunkpapa band such as Gall, at times, lived temporarily at the agencies. They needed the supplies at a time when white encroachment and the depletion of buffalo herds reduced their resources and challenged Native American independence. In 1875,

6496-603: The Plains Wars because they thought the other nation was under attack by the U.S. Given this connection, she suggests the major war should have been called "The Great Cheyenne War". Since 1860, the Northern Cheyenne had led several battles among the Plains Indians. Before 1876, the U.S. Army had destroyed seven Cheyenne camps, more than those of any other nation. Other historians, such as Robert M. Utley and Jerome Greene, also use Lakota oral testimony, but they have concluded that

6608-461: The United States and surrender on July 19, 1881. Sitting Bull had his young son Crow Foot surrender his Winchester Rifle to major David H. Brotherton, commanding officer of Fort Buford . Sitting Bull said to Brotherton, "I wish it to be remembered that I was the last man of my tribe to surrender my rifle". In the parlor of the Commanding Officer's Quarters in a ceremony the next day, he told

6720-614: The approach... then the question is whose version will be adopted? This will cause dissent and politics to become a factor in the process." Also in 2002, Sinte Gleska University rejected a partnership with the European-owned Lakota Language Consortium. Sinte Gleska uses the orthography developed by Albert White Hat , which on December 13, 2012, was formally adopted by the Rosebud Sioux Tribe per Tribal Resolution No. 2012–343. This resolution also banned

6832-627: The creation of the tribe. Other creation stories say language was invented by Iktomi . A wholly Lakota newspaper named the Anpao Kin ("Daybreak") circulated from 1878 by the Protestant Episcopal Church in Niobrara Mission , Nebraska until its move to Mission, South Dakota in 1908 continuing until its closure in 1937. The print alongside its Dakota counterpart Iapi Oaye ("The Word Carrier") played an important role in documenting

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6944-501: The dancing, he was viewed as a key instigator. Alarm spread to nearby white settlements. In 1890, James McLaughlin , the U.S. Indian agent at Fort Yates on Standing Rock Agency, feared that the Lakota leader was about to flee the reservation with the Ghost Dancers , so he ordered the police to arrest him. On December 14, 1890, McLaughlin drafted a letter to Lieutenant Henry Bullhead, an Indian agency policeman named as Bull Head in

7056-445: The development of a written form of Lakota was Ella Cara Deloria , also called Aŋpétu Wašté Wiŋ (Beautiful Day Woman), a Yankton Dakota ethnologist, linguist, and novelist who worked extensively with the Dakota and Lakota peoples, documenting their languages and cultures. She collaborated with linguists such as Franz Boas and Edward Sapir to create written materials for Lakota, including dictionaries and grammars. Another key figure

7168-497: The eastern half of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation in northeastern Montana. In addition, they reside at several Canadian reserves, including Birdtail , Oak Lake , and Whitecap (formerly Moose Woods). The Dakota maintain many separate tribal governments scattered across several reservations and communities in North America: in the Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska, and Montana in the United States; and in Manitoba , southern Saskatchewan in Canada. The earliest known European record of

7280-478: The enemy were – of what tribe.'...They were soon to find out." Sitting Bull's refusal to adopt any dependence on the U.S. government meant that at times he and his small band of warriors lived isolated on the Plains . When Native Americans were threatened by the United States, numerous members from various Sioux bands and other tribes, such as the Northern Cheyenne, came to Sitting Bull's camp. His reputation for "strong medicine" developed as he continued to evade

7392-420: The enlistment and affairs including obituaries of Native Sioux soldiers into the army as America became involved in World War I . Lakota has five oral vowels, /i e a o u/ , and three nasal vowels, /ĩ ã ũ/ (phonetically [ɪ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃] ). Lakota /e/ and /o/ are said to be more open than the corresponding cardinal vowels, perhaps closer to [ɛ] and [ɔ] . Orthographically, the nasal vowels are written with

7504-619: The fight, including Bull Head. The police killed Sitting Bull and seven of his supporters at the site, along with two horses. Sitting Bull's body was taken to present-day Fort Yates, North Dakota , where it was placed in a coffin made by the U.S. Army carpenter there, and he was buried on the grounds of Fort Yates. A monument was installed to mark his burial site after his remains were reportedly taken to South Dakota . In 1953, Lakota family members exhumed what they believed to be Sitting Bull's remains, transporting them for reinterment near Mobridge, South Dakota , his birthplace. A monument to him

7616-399: The first a in each component. If it were written without the hyphen, as mazaska , it would imply a single main stress. A common phonological process which occurs in rapid speech is vowel contraction , which generally results from the loss of an intervocalic glide. Vowel contraction results in phonetic long vowels ( phonemically a sequence of two identical vowels), with falling pitch if

7728-415: The first underlying vowel is stressed, and rising pitch if the second underlying vowel is stressed: kê: (falling tone), "he said that", from kéye ; hǎ:pi (rising tone), "clothing", from hayápi . If one of the vowels is nasalized, the resulting long vowel is also nasalized: čhaŋ̌:pi , "sugar", from čhaŋháŋpi . When two vowels of unequal height contract, or when feature contrasts exist between

7840-411: The following year accompanied by federal troops. Sitting Bull and the Hunkpapa attacked the survey party, which was forced to turn back. In 1873, the military accompaniment for the surveyors was increased again, but Sitting Bull's forces resisted the survey "most vigorously." The Panic of 1873 forced the Northern Pacific Railway's backers, such as Jay Cooke , into bankruptcy, which halted construction of

7952-401: The four soldiers, 20 warriors and other guests in the small room that he wished to regard the soldiers and the white race as friends but he wanted to know who would teach his son the new ways of the world. Two weeks later, after waiting in vain for other members of his tribe to follow him from Canada, Sitting Bull and his band were transferred to Fort Yates , the military post located adjacent to

8064-777: The greater Siouan-Catawban language family. It is closely related to and mutually intelligible with the Lakota language , and both are also more distantly related to the Stoney and Assiniboine languages. Dakota is written in the Latin script and has a dictionary and grammar. Before the 17th century, the Santee Dakota ( Isáŋyathi ; "Knife" also known as the Eastern Dakota) lived around Lake Superior with territories in present-day northern Minnesota and Wisconsin. They gathered wild rice, hunted woodland animals and used canoes to fish. Wars with

8176-516: The homeless and beggars. Sitting Bull returned to the Standing Rock Agency after working in Buffalo Bill's Wild West show. The tension between Sitting Bull and Agent McLaughlin increased, and each became warier of the other over several issues including division and sale of parts of the Great Sioux Reservation. In 1889, Indian Rights Activist Caroline Weldon from Brooklyn , New York City,

8288-452: The hostilities. In 1864, two brigades of about 2200 soldiers under Brigadier General Alfred Sully attacked a village . The defenders were led by Sitting Bull, Gall and Inkpaduta . The Lakota and Dakota were driven out, but skirmishing continued into August at the Battle of the Badlands . In September, Sitting Bull and about one hundred Hunkpapa Lakota encountered a small party near what

8400-473: The house, knocked, and entered. Bull Head told Sitting Bull that he was under arrest and led him outside. Sitting Bull and his wife noisily stalled for time as the camp awakened and men converged at the house. As Bull Head ordered Sitting Bull to mount a horse, he said that the Indian Affairs agent wanted to see the chief, and that Sitting Bull could then return to his house. When Sitting Bull refused to comply,

8512-531: The letter's beginning, which included instructions and a plan to capture Sitting Bull. The plan called for the arrest to take place at dawn on December 15 and advised the use of a light spring wagon to facilitate removal before his followers could rally. Bullhead decided against using the wagon. He intended to have the police officers force Sitting Bull to mount a horse immediately after the arrest. Around 5:30 a.m. on December 15, 39 police officers and four volunteers approached Sitting Bull's house. They surrounded

8624-592: The next 20 months. They were allowed to return north to the Standing Rock Agency in May 1883. In 1883, The New York Times reported that Sitting Bull had been baptized into the Catholic Church . James McLaughlin , Indian agent at Standing Rock Agency, dismissed these reports, saying: "The reported baptism of Sitting-Bull is erroneous. There is no immediate prospect of such ceremony so far as I am aware." In 1884, show promoter Alvaren Allen asked Agent James McLaughlin to allow Sitting Bull to tour parts of Canada and

8736-534: The non-Lakota speaker, the postpositions él and ektá sound like they can be interchangeable, but although they are full synonyms of each other, they are used in different occasions. Semantically (word meaning), they are used as locational and directional tools. In the English language they can be compared to prepositions like "at", "in", and "on" (when used as locatives) on the one hand, and "at", "in", and "on" (when used as directionals), "to", "into", and "onto", on

8848-411: The northern United States. The show was called the "Sitting Bull Connection". It was during this tour that Sitting Bull met Annie Oakley in present-day Minnesota . Sitting Bull was so impressed with Oakley's skills with firearms that he offered $ 65 (equal to $ 2,204 today) for a photographer to take a photo of the two together. The admiration and respect were mutual. Oakley stated that Sitting Bull made

8960-507: The northern plains states of North Dakota and South Dakota . Many communities have immersion programs for both children and adults. Like many indigenous languages, the Lakota language did not have a written form traditionally. However, efforts to develop a written form of Lakota began, primarily through the work of Christian missionaries and linguists, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The orthography has since evolved to reflect contemporary needs and usage. One significant figure in

9072-422: The original address which had been written as a 'gracious act of amity', and the audience, including President Grant , was left none the wiser. Sitting Bull stayed with the show for four months before returning home. During that time, audiences considered him a celebrity and romanticized him as a warrior . He earned a small fortune by charging for his autograph and picture, although he often gave his money away to

9184-435: The orthography, and argues against changing the spelling forms she learned from her father. However, she did consider that, a shared curriculum could "create consistency across the region and encourage the long-term viability of the language. However, Philomine is also cognizant that it will take more than a school curriculum to preserve the language." She added, "In order for a language to survive, it can't simply be taught from

9296-424: The other. (Pustet 2013) A pointer for when to use él and when to use ektá can be determined by the concepts of location (motionless) or motion; and space vs. time. These features can produce four different combinations, also called semantic domains, which can be arranged as follows (Pustet 2013): Summed up, when a context describes no motion, él is the appropriate postposition; when in motion, ektá

9408-521: The past been erroneously classified as Nakota . The actual Nakota are the Assiniboine and Stoney of Western Canada and Montana . Migrations of Ojibwe people from the east in the 17th and 18th centuries, who were armed with muskets supplied by the French and British, pushed the Dakota further into Minnesota and west and southward. The US gave the name " Dakota Territory " to the northern expanse west of

9520-441: The place name Ogallala . The voiced uvular fricative /ʁ/ becomes a uvular trill ( [ʀ] ) before /i/ and in fast speech it is often realized as a voiced velar fricative [ɣ] . The voiceless aspirated plosives have two allophonic variants each: those with a delay in voicing ([pʰ tʰ kʰ]) , and those with velar friction ([pˣ tˣ kˣ]) , which occur before /a/ , /ã/ , /o/ , /ĩ/ , and /ũ/ (thus, lakhóta , /laˈkʰota/

9632-602: The place of knife flint'), who reside in the eastern Dakotas , central Minnesota and northern Iowa . They have federally recognized tribes established in several places. The Western Dakota are the Yankton , and the Yanktonai ( Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋ and Iháŋktȟuŋwaŋna ; "Village-at-the-end" and "Little village-at-the-end"), who reside in the Upper Missouri River area. The Yankton-Yanktonai are collectively also referred to by

9744-507: The police used force on him. The Sioux in the village were enraged. Catch-the-Bear, a Lakota, shouldered his rifle and shot Bull Head, who, in response, fired his revolver into the chest of Sitting Bull. Another police officer, Red Tomahawk, shot Sitting Bull in the head, and Sitting Bull dropped to the ground. Sitting Bull died between 12 and 1 p.m. A close quarters fight erupted, and within minutes, several men were dead. The Lakota killed six policemen immediately, and two more died shortly after

9856-403: The preceding vowel is nasalized, then the resulting vowel is also nasalized): hi=pi=kte , "they will arrive here", [hiukte]; yatkáŋ=pi=na , "they drank it and...", [jatkə̃õna] . Lakota also exhibits some traces of sound symbolism among fricatives, where the point of articulation changes to reflect intensity: zí , "it's yellow", ží , "it's tawny", ǧí , "it's brown". (Compare with

9968-520: The railroad through Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota territory. After the 1848 discovery of gold in the Sierra Nevada and dramatic gains in new wealth from it, other men became interested in the potential for gold mining in the Black Hills . In 1874, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led a military expedition from Fort Abraham Lincoln near Bismarck to explore the Black Hills for gold and to determine

10080-522: The reservation, knowing that not all would likely comply. As of February 1, 1876, the Interior Department certified as hostile those bands who continued to live off the reservation. This certification allowed the military to pursue Sitting Bull and other Lakota bands as "hostiles". Based on tribal oral histories, historian Margot Liberty theorizes that many Lakota bands allied with the Cheyenne during

10192-592: The seven council fires. According to Nasunatanka and Matononpa in 1880, the Yanktonai are divided into two sub-groups known as the Upper Yanktonai and the Lower Yanktonai (Húŋkpathina). They were involved in quarrying pipestone . The Yankton-Yanktonai moved into northern Minnesota. In the 18th century, they were recorded as living in the Mankato ( Maka To – Earth Blue/Blue Earth) region of southwestern Minnesota along

10304-688: The show, the historian Utley contends that he did not. Historians have reported that Sitting Bull gave speeches about his desire for education for the young, and reconciling relations between the Sioux and whites. The historian Edward Lazarus wrote that Sitting Bull reportedly cursed his audience in Lakota in 1884, during an opening address celebrating the completion of the Northern Pacific Railway . According to Michael Hiltzik , "...Sitting Bull declared in Lakota , 'I hate all White people.' ... 'You are thieves and liars. You have taken away our land and made us outcasts.'" The translator, however, read

10416-449: The side and head by Standing Rock policemen Lieutenant Bull Head ( Tatankapah , Lakota: Tȟatȟáŋka Pȟá ) and Red Tomahawk ( Marcelus Chankpidutah , Lakota: Čhaŋȟpí Dúta ), after the police were fired upon by Sitting Bull's supporters. His body was taken to nearby Fort Yates for burial. In 1953, his Lakota family exhumed what were believed to be his remains, reburying them near Mobridge, South Dakota , near his birthplace. Sitting Bull

10528-458: The similar examples in Mandan .) Several orthographies as well as ad hoc spelling are used to write the Lakota language, with varying perspectives on whether standardization should be implemented. In 2002, Rosebud Cultural Studies teacher Randy Emery argued that standardization of the language could cause problems "because the language is utilized diversely. If standardization is determined to be

10640-542: The smaller size of the buffalo herds in Canada, Sitting Bull and his men found it difficult to find enough food to feed their starving people. Sitting Bull's presence in the country led to increased tensions between the Canadian and the United States governments. Before Sitting Bull left Canada, he may have visited Walsh for a final time and left a ceremonial headdress as a memento. Hunger and desperation eventually forced Sitting Bull and 186 of his family and followers to return to

10752-689: The subject and object need to be marked, two affixes occur on the verb. Below is a table illustrating this. Subject affixes are marked in italics and object affixes are marked in underline . Some affixes encompass both subject and object (such as čhi - ...). The symbol ∅ indicates a lack of marking for a particular subject/object (as in the case of 3rd Person Singular forms). Cells with three forms indicate Class I, Class II, and Class III verb forms in this order. Example: uŋk á ni pȟepi "We are waiting for you" from apȟé "to wait for somebody". Dakota people The Dakota (pronounced [daˈkˣota] , Dakota : Dakȟóta or Dakhóta ) are

10864-507: The subject of stative verbs. Most of the morphemes in each paradigm are prefixes, but plural subjects are marked with a suffix and third-person plural objects with an infix . First person arguments may be singular, dual , or plural; second or third person arguments may be singular or plural. Examples: máni "He walks." mánipi "They walk." Example: waŋwíčhayaŋke "He looked at them" from waŋyáŋkA "to look at something/somebody". Subject and object pronouns in one verb If both

10976-417: The three groupings belonging to the Sioux nation (also called Dakota in a broad sense), the third being the Lakota (Thítȟuŋwaŋ or Teton). The three groupings speak dialects that are still relatively mutually intelligible . This is referred to as a common language, Dakota-Lakota, or Sioux . The Dakota include the following bands: The Dakota language is a Mississippi Valley Siouan language, belonging to

11088-506: The top. A language is a living thing and students need to breathe life into it daily; talking with friends, family and elders in Lakota". In 2018, at the Cheyenne River Indian Reservation , Lakota speaker Manny Iron Hawk and his wife Renee Iron Hawk discussed opening an immersion school and the difficulties around choosing an orthography to write Lakota; Mr. Iron Hawk voiced support for the LLC (SLO) Orthography, saying it

11200-412: The upper Missouri area throughout the late 1860s and early 1870s. The events between 1866 and 1868 mark a historically debated period of Sitting Bull's life. According to historian Stanley Vestal , who conducted interviews with surviving Hunkpapa in 1930, Sitting Bull was made "Supreme Chief of the whole Sioux Nation" at this time, but historians and ethnologists later refuted this, since Lakota society

11312-425: The vowels and the glide, two new phonetic vowels, [æː] and [ɔː] , result: iyæ̂: , "he left for there", from iyáye ; mitȟa: , "it's mine", from mitȟáwa . The plural enclitic =pi is frequently changed in rapid speech when preceding the enclitics =kte , =kiŋ , =kštó , or =na . If the vowel preceding =pi is high/open, =pi becomes [u]; if the vowel is non-high (mid or closed), =pi becomes [o] (if

11424-429: The word čhíŋ precedes čónala in a dictionary. In 1982, Lakota educator Leroy Curley (1935–2012) devised a 41-letter circular alphabet. The basic word order of Lakota is subject–object–verb , although the order can be changed for expressive purposes (placing the object before the subject to bring the object into focus or placing the subject after the verb to emphasize its status as established information). It

11536-577: Was Albert White Hat Sr. , who taught at and later became the chair of the Lakota language program at his alma mater, Sinte Gleska University at Mission, South Dakota, one of the first tribal-based universities in the US. His work focused on the Sicangu dialect using an orthography developed by Lakota in 1982 and which today is slowly supplanting older systems provided by linguists and missionaries. The Lakota people 's creation stories say that language originated from

11648-459: Was 14 years old, he accompanied a group of Lakota warriors, which included his father and his uncle Four Horns, in a raiding party to take horses from a camp of Crow warriors. He displayed bravery by riding forward and counting coup on one of the surprised Crow, which was witnessed by the other mounted Lakota. Upon returning to camp, his father gave a celebratory feast at which he conferred his own name upon his son. The name, Tȟatȟáŋka Íyotake, in

11760-577: Was Sitting Bull's provision for Wooden Leg 's Northern Cheyenne tribe. They had been impoverished by Captain Reynolds' March 17, 1876, attack and fled to Sitting Bull's camp for safety. Over the course of the first half of 1876, Sitting Bull's camp continually expanded as natives joined him for safety in numbers. His leadership had attracted warriors and families, creating an extensive village estimated at more than 10,000 people. Lt. Col. Custer came across this large camp on June 25, 1876. Sitting Bull did not take

11872-512: Was a leader of the Blackfeet , long-time powerful enemies of the Lakota and Cheyenne. Sitting Bull wished to make peace with the Blackfeet Nation and Crowfoot. As an advocate for peace himself, Crowfoot eagerly accepted the tobacco peace offering. Sitting Bull was so impressed by Crowfoot that he named one of his sons after him. Sitting Bull and his people stayed in Canada for four years. Due to

11984-503: Was accessible to second language learners, but know not all agreed with him. Others in the community voiced a preference for the tribe creating their own orthography. While Mr. Iron Hawk supports this approach, Renee Iron Hawk also expressed a sense of urgency, saying "We should just use what we have, and then fix and replace it, but we need to start speaking it now". The Iron Hawks both agreed that too much time has been spent arguing over which orthography to use or not use, and not enough time

12096-506: Was born on land later included in the Dakota Territory sometime between 1831 and 1837. In 2007, Sitting Bull's great-grandson asserted from family oral tradition that Sitting Bull was born along the Yellowstone River , south of present-day Miles City, Montana . He was named Ȟoká Psíče (Jumping Badger) at birth, and nicknamed Húŋkešni [ˈhʊ̃kɛʃni] or "Slow", an allusion to his careful and unhurried nature. When Sitting Bull

12208-415: Was done to children taken from their families by the residential schools . In 2006 some of the Lakota language teachers at Standing Rock chose to collaborate with Sitting Bull College , and the Lakota Language Consortium (LLC), with the aim of expanding their language curriculum. Teachers at Standing Rock use several different orthographies. Language activists at Standing Rock also refer to it as simply

12320-402: Was erected there. Following Sitting Bull's death, his cabin on the Grand River was taken to Chicago for use as an exhibit at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition . Indigenous dancers also performed at the exposition. On September 14, 1989, the U.S. Postal Service released a Great Americans series 28¢ postage stamp featuring a likeness of the leader. On March 6, 1996, Standing Rock College

12432-427: Was highly decentralized. Lakota bands and their elders made individual decisions, including whether or not to wage war. Sitting Bull's band of Hunkpapa continued to attack migrating parties and forts in the late 1860s. In 1871, the Northern Pacific Railway conducted a survey for a route across the northern plains directly through Hunkpapa lands, it encountered stiff Lakota resistance. The same railway people returned

12544-513: Was renamed Sitting Bull College in his honor. The college serves as an institution of higher education on Sitting Bull's home of Standing Rock in North Dakota and South Dakota. In August 2010, a research team led by Eske Willerslev , an ancient DNA expert at the University of Copenhagen , announced its intention to sequence the genome of Sitting Bull, with the approval of his descendants, using

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