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164-601: Located on the middle and lower reaches of the Yarlung Valley , formed by the Yarlung Tsangpo River , Lhoka region is often regarded as the birthplace of Tibetan civilization. It is bounded by the city of Lhasa to the north, Nyingchi to the east, Shigatse on the west and the international border with India and Bhutan on the south. The city measures 420 kilometres (260 mi) east to west and 329 kilometres (204 mi) from north to south. Its uniqueness stems from

328-627: A new government system with divisions known as Zong, established 13 of them in Nêdong (the capital), Gonggar and so forth. On May 23 of 1951, a Tibetan delegation signed the Seventeen Point Agreement with the central government of the People's Republic of China for the "peaceful liberation of Tibet". However, in 1959, the Lhoka was annexed to China by brute force. Many monasteries were destroyed during

492-484: A banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked

656-514: A diagram of Pascal's triangle . The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book. Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry. Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations. His calendar, the Shoushi Li ( 授時暦 ; 'Time Granting Calendar'),

820-767: A fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia , the Ilkhanate , encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of

984-496: A large Buddha statue cast by King Baikezan. On this occasion birds are given a red carpet welcome at Linka with a tribute of food items such as the Tibetan Highland barley, wheat, peas and other grains on a platter placed on a table. Two butter lamps are also lighted near the table. Two lamas are specially deputed from Lhasa to organise and perform this religious festival. The first cuckoo bird known locally as "Kuda" arrives as

1148-535: A major food crop, sorghum , along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation. The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non- Han ethnicity that ruled all of China proper . In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan

1312-511: A major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style Six Ministries ),

1476-548: A messenger of the Cuckoo king of birds and after a survey of the arrangements made in the Linka, the chief Cuckoo bird arrives formally by performing "Xiezha" at the grounds where a table is set with offerings for the bird. Arrival of these spring birds every year and hearing its chirping is considered as an auspicious sign by the Tibetan people to usher a good cropping season; the birds have been

1640-596: A mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the Ministry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council. The Kingdom of Qocho , Kingdom of Dali , Chiefdom of Bozhou , other Tusi chiefdoms, and Goryeo were ruled by rulers subject to, and in some cases related to, the Yuan imperial house. Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during

1804-550: A monastery with a jade-green and gold roof, and a house with turquoise roof tiles, which led to the discovery of Tenzin Gyatso, the present 14th Dalai Lama . The Tsangpo River, until recently untapped with no storage dams across it, has been planned to be developed with a cascade of five dams on the main stem of the river in its middle reaches; the five dams proposed are the Zangmu, the Gyatsa,

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1968-451: A number of important castles, monasteries, temples, meditation caves, peaks and stupas . There are three renowned power places ( ne-sum ), Sheldrak, Tradruk , and Yumbu Lagang or ( Yungbulakang Palace ). Also, there are three major stupas which serve as receptacles for sacred relics ( ten-sum ): Takchen Bumpa, Gontang Bumpa, and Tsechu Bumpa. Just below the town of Tsetang there once was a 14th-century iron suspension bridge built across

2132-426: A part of the cliff." It is built like a fortress, on the apex of Mt. Tashitseri on the east bank of Yarlung River. The palace looks down over the entire Yarlung Valley. According to folk legend, the king Nyatri descended from heaven, as also the first Tibetan scriptures and few religious objects were set down here from the heaven, during the rule of the 28th King Lhatotorinyetsan. The palace walls are built in stone while

2296-543: A passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth. After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged Xiangyang (襄阳) between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangtze River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition

2460-524: A predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the battle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty. The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years. The Yuan dynasty created the "Han Army" ( 漢軍 ) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" ( 新附軍 ). Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained

2624-467: A prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture – as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique. The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer Guo Shoujing , who was tasked with many public works projects and helped

2788-602: A river area of 38,300 square kilometres (14,800 sq mi) and flows for 424 kilometres (263 mi) through seven counties namely, Nanggarze, Gonggar, Chahang, Nedong, Sangri, Qusum and Gyacha. In addition, there are 88 lakes of which the important ones are the Yamdrok Lake , the Chigu Lake and the Purmo Yumco lake. The hydroelectric power potential of the river system of Shannan has been assessed at 35.1 million kW. However,

2952-551: A separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou , but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty . The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan ( 大元 ) was formally carried on, and is known as

3116-567: A society which smelted a variety of materials including iron, copper and silver to produce weapons and other objects. The 31st king of Yarlung, Namri Songtsen , was an expansionist and invaded neighbouring tribes, expanding the territory of Yarlung. The 32nd king (who was also the first emperor of Tibet), Songtsän Gampo , conquered Subi tribe , Yangtong tribe and many others and established the Tibetan Empire . Although transferred his capital city from Qiongjie to Lhasa , many of his descendant of

3280-667: A successor at the Siege of Diaoyucheng . Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, Ariq Böke , was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on

3444-453: A total population of 330,000. However, a large part of the counties of Lhunze ( 隆子县 ) and Cona ( 错那县 ), covering an area of 28,700 square kilometres (11,100 sq mi) and collectively known as part of South Tibet , are shown by the Chinese government to be Tibetan Autonomous Region's territory (although currently in the control of India) and hence marked disputed. The details of the names of

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3608-914: A tourist footfall of 703,000. However, this sector is not fully open and is subject to the permit system controlled by many governmental agencies, and many areas are out of bounds for visitors as they are military zones or sensitive areas. The city had 450,000 hectares (1,100,000 acres) of land (350,000 hectares (860,000 acres) were irrigated, which was 77% of the cultivated area) under cultivation in 1999, producing 4,725 kilograms (10,417 lb) of grain per hectare, which marked Shannan as an important commercial grain production centre in Tibet. Animal husbandry, another agrarian sector covered 2.2 million ha of posture land with all farmhouse holds involved in animal husbandry; there were 2.14 million heads of domestic animals (comprising 12 percent yaks, 10 percent cows, 50 percent sheep and goats 20 percent goats). Its agricultural tradition

3772-510: A tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols. The Trần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288) . Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty. Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and

3936-514: Is about 5 million tons, the highest in the country, which is about 35–45% of China's total resources (in a total area of 2,500 square kilometres (970 sq mi)). It is being extracted in the Norbusa Chromite Mine. Other natural resources relate to construction industry such as marble, granite, limestone and clay, which are also abundant in the city. The industrial sector in the city, apart from service sector trading, are industries in

4100-460: Is an accepted version of this page The Yuan dynasty ( Chinese : 元 朝 ; pinyin : Yuáncháo ), officially the Great Yuan ( Chinese : 大 元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ; Mongolian : ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ , Yeke Yuwan Ulus , literally "Great Yuan State"), was a Mongol -led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division . It

4264-455: Is being built at an altitude of 3,260 metres (10,700 ft), and its height is 116 metres (381 ft) with a length of 390 metres (1,280 ft). This project will have serious implications for the downstream riparian countries of India and Bangladesh. The Himalayas in the south dictate the climatic conditions in the prefecture. The warm and moisture laden winds from the Indian Ocean cause

4428-495: Is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious." In traditional historiography of China , on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the Song dynasty and the Ming dynasty . Note, however, Yuan dynasty

4592-497: Is credited with miraculous potential for oracles or prognostication of events, particularly related to the succession process of the reincarnation of the Dalai Lamas and Panchen Lamas that is stated to get reflected in this Holy Lake. This vision is sought through elaborate Buddhist rites performed by high-ranking lamas. It is said that Palden Lhamo, as the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, promised Gendun Drup,

4756-426: Is decorated at its head end with a statue of Lord Loyak Gyalo which is supposed to be shedding light on the dead king. At the foot end of the coffin, there is a cache of pears made in gold and wrapped in silk, and it weighs 35 kilograms (77 lb). Zamasang Palace , an 8th-century monument, now seen in ruins, was the palace of Tride Zotsan and Princess Jincheng. King Trison Detsan was born here. After Detsen's death,

4920-468: Is located 183 kilometres from Lhasa . It covers an area of 79,700 square kilometres (30,800 sq mi), which includes part of South Tibet , a disputed territory currently under control of the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh ; the disputed parts include Itanagar , the state capital of Arunachal Pradesh. Its topography averages 3,700 metres (12,100 ft) above sea level. The population of Tsetang city

5084-538: Is located in Lhodrak County . It was built by the well-known Buddhist Guru Mharpa's disciple Milarepa to atone for his sins. It is stated to be of unique architecture and contains rare Tibetan paintings. The Sange Choeling Monastery, built in 1515 AD belongs to the Drupa Kang Yukpa Sect . It is spread over an area of3,000 square metres (32,000 sq ft). In the past, it had a vast estate extending from

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5248-740: Is located on the northern bank of the Yarlung Zambo River in Dranang County . ‘Samye’ in Tibetan means "unexpected building." The layout of the monastery is a replication of the Odantapuri temple in Bihar , India, and represents the Buddhist cosmology . It was the first monastery built in Tibet which has a studied transition of temple architecture and Tibetan architecture. The monastery consists of halls, residence for monks, stupas and colleges. This monastery

5412-407: Is one of the three largest sacred lakes in Tibet and is over 72 kilometres (45 mi) long with an area of 638 square kilometres (246 sq mi). The lake is fan-shaped, spreading to the south but narrowing up to the north. The mountainous lakeshore is highly crenellated, with numerous bays and inlets. Lake Yamdrok freezes in winter. Like mountains, lakes are considered sacred by Tibetan people,

5576-464: Is said that the main statue first descended from heaven on the Mt. Hapori from where it was shifted to the monastery. The chapel has many yak butter lamps which are carved in stone. Frescoes in the monastery depict folk athletics and dances. This monastery has been the forerunner of similar monasteries built in Tibet in the 10th century. The monastery has undergone refurbishing and additions several times during

5740-506: Is situated at an altitude of 4,480 metres (14,700 ft) and has a very large area of 638 square kilometres (246 sq mi), with a shoreline of 250 kilometres (160 mi). The average depth of water in the lake is about 30–40 metres (98–131 ft) with deepest depth reported to be 60 metres (200 ft). There are many Tibetan fish species in the lake. Aqua fauna noted in the lake have been listed as wild duck, goose and many other species. Yamdrok Lake, also known as Yamḍok Yumtso,

5904-565: Is the Ongkor (Bumper Harvest) Festival which is observed in June according to the Tibetan calendar, in the riverine areas to mark good harvests of the season. The festival for worship of birds is called in Chinese ’yingniao jie.’ It is a religious festival that is special to the Bon or Bonpo community, which still practices the original pre-Buddhist religion of Tibet known as Bön . During this festival, cuckoo ,

6068-425: Is traced to the ancient Yarlong tribes when the city was known as "the grain store of Tibet". The irrigated agricultural base of the city is supported by a network of 1,312 canals, 141 wells with pumping stations with installed capacity of 2,398 kilowatts; 27 irrigation pumps with an installed capacity of 1,552 kilowatts, nine reservoirs with storage of 3.31 million cubic meters and 816 water ponds. Mechanised farming

6232-405: Is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before Kublai Khan 's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honoured prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring them posthumous names and temple names . Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew

6396-856: Is where Guru Padmasambhva meditated. There is small temple in front of the cave where the Guru and the Fifth Dalai Lama are said to have recited the Longevity Sutra . Qingpo Meditation Caves are set at 3,400 metres (11,200 ft) elevation, surrounded by Narui Mountains on three sides with Yarlung Zangbo River flowing to its south. This cave is where Guru Padmasambhava and King Trison Detsan are said to have learned and propagated Buddhism; Buddhist scriptures were buried here. The cave complex originally consisted of 108 meditation caves out of which 40 caves exist. Also seen are 108 celestial burial chambers of eminent monks of Nyingma Sect and also rock paintings dated to

6560-603: Is widely practiced in Lhoka region. This large extent of agriculture has resulted in increasing the per capita income of farmers and herders to 1000 yuan, a 7-fold increase over the average of 137 yuan in 1959. This has also resulted in rural prosperity and even creation of a rich farming community who have established the first "farmers hotel" in the region, and investing in real estate. The city has more than 20 types of metal and non-metal mineral resources such as chromium, gold, copper, iron, antimony, lead, zinc, manganese, mica, crystal, jade and marble. Its proven reserve of chromium

6724-505: The Bon religious group of nobles who were opposed to Buddhism propagated by Dretsen completely destroyed the palace. Now, only a small temple in honour of Tride Zotsan and Princess Jincheng with their statues deified inside, is seen among the ruins. Namseling Manor (རྣམ་སྲས་གླིང་གཞིས་ཀ་) founded during the reign of the Phadru dynasty between the 16th and 17th century. Namseling Manor is the earliest multi storied construction as well as one of

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6888-593: The Brahmaputra River in India and Jamuna in Bangladesh , and its tributaries flows through the middle and lower stretches of the city and is bounded by Lhasa on the north, Nyingchi on the east, Shigatse to the west and international border that extends to 630 kilometres (390 mi) with India and Bhutan. The river system has provided large perennial source of water in the region of fertile land. The valley created by

7052-636: The Chiefdom of Bozhou , which was recognized by both the Song and Tang dynasty, also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty, and later by the Ming dynasty . The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Three Kingdoms era king Huoji who legendarily helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo . They were also recognized by

7216-545: The Classics , which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography , geography , and scientific education. Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre , printing techniques, porcelain , playing cards , and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while

7380-665: The First Dalai Lama in one of his visions "that she would protect the reincarnation lineage of the Dalai Lamas." Ever since the time of Gendun Gyatso, the Second Dalai Lama , who formalised the system, the Regents and other monks have gone to the lake to seek guidance on choosing the next reincarnation through visions while meditating there. It is also believed by pilgrims that they can see visionary images of their future by looking at

7544-574: The Himalayan belt. The Cona, Lhongzi, Nanggarze and Lhozha counties form the International Border. The city's district and counties have 144 townships of which 71 townships are in agricultural sector, 18 are in animal husbandry sector and the balance 55 are a mix of the two sectors. There are also five neighbourhood committees and 719 village committees. The wide Yarlung River flowing from west to east (between Quxu and Gyacha) also known as Tsongpo and

7708-582: The Ming dynasty . In 1276 Kublai captured the Song capital of Hangzhou (杭州), the wealthiest city of China, after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese Emperor Gong of Song . Emperor Gong was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as Emperor Bing of Song , who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General Zhang Hongfan led

7872-561: The Mongol postal system , constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper jiaochao banknotes. During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing coins ; however, under Külüg Khan coins were completely replaced by paper money. It was not until the reign of Toghon Temür that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation. The Pax Mongolica , Mongol peace, enabled

8036-635: The Northern Yuan dynasty . A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular . Arts and culture also greatly developed and flourished during the Yuan dynasty. There was a widespread introduction of blue and white painted porcelain, as well as a major change to Chinese painting. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced

8200-511: The Sui and Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the Ministry of Justice , did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and Semu , who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by

8364-487: The Yarlung Tsangpo River or Brahmaputra by the famous engineer Tangtong Gyalpo , with a span of 150 to 250 metres, but only five large stone supports are left today. A modern bridge has been built a few kilometres downstream at Nyago. Even when Sarat Das visited in 1879 it was in such a state of disrepair that he had to ferry across the River in a large boat containing traders and their donkeys. Yuan dynasty This

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8528-595: The Yarlung Valley and a field in the village of Sare near Tsetang Town, is said to be the first farming field in Tibet. The first king in Tibetan history, Nyatri Tsenpo , really a mere chief of the Yarlong tribe, began ruling over the Yarlung valley in the beginning of second century BC. He founded the Fan Kingdom and established a hereditary monarchy. During the reign of the ninth king, Budegong , agriculture flourished and he

8692-499: The ling , representing the four continents amidst vast oceans to the north, south, east and west of Sumeru. The smaller temples flank the four temples to their right and left, which are known as the lingtren (meaning subcontinents) making up the Buddhist Universe . Two chapels for the worship of Sun and Moon are part of this complex. The entire monastery is surrounded by a circular wall (fencing wall) which has many small stupas on

8856-639: The mascot for Tibetan people since ancient times. Yarlung Valley Samding Dorje Phagmo The Yarlung Valley is formed by Yarlung Chu, a tributary of the Tsangpo River in the Shannan Prefecture in the Tibet autonomous region of China. It refers especially to the district where Yarlung Chu joins with the Chongye River, and broadens out into a large plain about 2 km wide, before it flows into

9020-461: The "Manchu dynasty" or "Manchu Dynasty of China". Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan", since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of Great Khan ; these appeared on some Yuan maps. However, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. Genghis Khan united

9184-539: The 14th century. It is located 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) to the northeast of Samye Monastery. Zhayang Zong Lava Cave is in the Channang County amidst Zayangzong Mountain. There are three caves, two are exposed on the southern side and the third cave is interlinked. The largest cave, which has a Buddha hall and a Sutra hall, is 13 metres (43 ft) deep, 11 metres (36 ft) wide, 15 metres (49 ft) in height. The residential quarters of monks are located outside

9348-623: The Dynastic Name issued in 1271, Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to the Tang dynasty . Some of the Yuan emperors mastered the Chinese language , while others only used their native Mongolian language , written with the 'Phags-pa script . Kublai, as a Khagan (Great Khan) of

9512-613: The Karma Sect but was later brought under Gelukpa Sect by the Fifth Dalai Lama , in the mid-17th century. The monastery also enjoyed the patronage of emperors of the Qing dynasty . It became famous throughout Tibet as in this monastery lama Lhalong Pekyi Dorje put an end to the Tubo dynasty by murdering the last Tibetan king Langdarma , the first ruler of unified Tibetan Empire . Dratang Monastery

9676-424: The King and Princess Wencheng. The temple has precious relics. The monastery also houses the Pear Tangka , which is 2 metres (6.6 ft) in length and 1.2 metres (3.9 ft) in width and made of 29,026 pears studded with precious stones. The Thangka was painted by Naidong during the reign of Pamodrupa Kingdom. Built in 1155, Lhalong Monastery is located at Monda in Lhozhag County . It initially belonged to

9840-419: The Lhamai Laco of Gyacha, which are considered as sacred; and religious places of worship such as the Dorje Drak Monastery (also spelt Do-rje-brag, or Dorjezha Monastery), the Quamzhub Monastery which is under state control, the Samding Monastery , the Samyas Monastery (the first monastery built in Tibet), Quinpu Meditation Cave and the Zayang Zang Karst Cave. Some of the notable monuments and monasteries are in

10004-406: The Lhuntse Valley to Chabochu River. Gyigag Monastery is a stop-over point as part of the once in 12 years circumambulatory circuit of the holy mountains undertaken by Buddhist pilgrims. Habori Mountain, once supposedly a haunted mountain, was subdued to ensure trouble-free construction of the Samye Monastery. The devils were traditionally subdued by Guru Padmasambahva. Nyimalung Holy Cave

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10168-421: The Middle East and the rest of the empire. Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician Wei Yilin (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for reducing dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics. The Mongol physician Hu Sihui described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise. Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of

10332-416: The Mongol Empire from 1260, had claimed supremacy over the other successor Mongol khanates: the Chagatai , the Golden Horde , and the Ilkhanate , before proclaiming as the Emperor of China in 1271. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan . However, even though the claim of supremacy by the Yuan emperors was recognized by the western khans in 1304, their subservience

10496-455: The Mongol treasury. Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals. Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems. Kublai's second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an inauspicious typhoon . Kublai botched his campaigns against Annam, Champa , and Java , but won a Pyrrhic victory against Burma . The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and

10660-489: The Mongol tribes of the steppes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan , the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China . Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou , Hebei . Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani . He sought

10824-506: The Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze , Liu Heima ( 劉黑馬 , aka Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala ( 蕭札剌 ) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ögedei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier ( 石抹孛迭兒 ), Tabuyir ( 塔不已兒 ), and Zhongxi,

10988-408: The National Heritage list. Yumbulakhar (or Yungbulakhang) Palace was the earliest palace built in Tibet between 400 BC and 200 BC, during the reign of the first King Nyatri Tsanpo , in ancient Yarlung Valley , in Nêdong District . It is 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) to the south of Zetang Town , the capital of the city. It is stated to be "several ten metres high and its magnificent contour looks like

11152-404: The Song. Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects. He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the traditional monopolies on salt and iron . He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left

11316-440: The Tsangpo River. It is situated in Nedong District of the Shannan Prefecture and includes the capital of the prefecture, Tsetang , one of Tibet's largest cities, 183 km southeast of Lhasa . 29°12′N 91°46′E  /  29.200°N 91.767°E  / 29.200; 91.767 It was originally well-forested and suitable for agriculture. The Tsetang district is famous for its apples and pears. The Yarlung and

11480-423: The Yarlung valley during this period was the Pazhu dynasty and in 1322, Qiangqujianqun became the leader of the Pazhu and replenished agricultural activity in the region, funding irrigation works, cultivating lands, reconstructing roads, restoring houses and developing husbandry. Qiangqujiangqun founded the Naidong dynasty which would last for 262 years, introduced the system of feudal serfdom and implemented

11644-413: The Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as huihui or Muslim medicine. The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai. Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court. Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its humoral system contradicted

11808-500: The Yuan dynasty introduced Middle Eastern cartography , astronomy , medicine, clothing, and cuisine in East Asia. Eastern crops such as carrots , turnips , new varieties of lemons , eggplants , and melons , high-quality granulated sugar , and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty. Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates

11972-454: The Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Han Chinese were treated as second-class citizens , and that China stagnated economically and scientifically. The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to

12136-526: The Yuan era. The mathematician Zhu Shijie (1249–1314) solved simultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern matrices . Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown. His method is described in the Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns , written in 1303. The opening pages contain

12300-458: The Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors. Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues. The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that

12464-555: The Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items. When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür . He was installed as emperor in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu (商都) with

12628-562: The Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine. Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as acupuncture , moxibustion , pulse diagnosis , and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to

12792-526: The Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal of China , which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of

12956-450: The Yuan reform the lunisolar calendar to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year, which was only 26 seconds off the modern Gregorian calendar 's measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During

13120-677: The Zhongda, the Jiexu and the Langzhen. The first project in the cascade is the Zangmu Dam of the Zangmu Hydro Power Station, which will have an installed capacity of 510 MW. It is 140 kilometres (87 mi) from Lhasa and construction work is expected to start soon with financing provided by Huaneng, China's top power company and Gezhouba, a leading dam building company to build the project. The dam

13284-484: The adjoining Chongye Valley formed the original seat of the Yarlung dynasty of Tibetan kings and controlled important ancient trade routes into India and Bhutan . The first Tibetan Emperor, Songtsen Gampo (605 or 617? - 649), moved the capital to Lhasa after greatly expanding his territories and power. The valley, often referred to as the "cradle of Tibetan civilisation", is only 72 km (45 mi) long, but contains

13448-496: The approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349. The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of

13612-406: The broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the division of the Mongol Empire . Some scholars believe that 1260 was the year that the Yuan dynasty emerged with the proclamation of a reign title following the collapse of the unified Mongol Empire. The Yuan dynasty is sometimes also called the "Mongol dynasty" by westerners, akin to the Qing dynasty sometimes being referred to as

13776-484: The bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates ( Golden Horde , Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate ) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had permanently divided the Mongol Empire . Instability troubled

13940-751: The butter of Lagong and dried meat of Yamzhog. The city has very unusual and rich historical monuments, natural geological features such as lakes and caves, scenic regions and religiously linked mountains. This has given a boost to the tourism industry. Some of the important landmarks are; the Lagyable Palace; the Yungbulakang Palace, the first palace in Tibet; the Tombs of Tibetan Kings; Jagsamqionpori, Gangobari of Zatong and Habort mountains, which are venerated; lakes such as Yamzogh Yumcog in Nagarzê County and

14104-399: The cave. The second cave to the west of the large cave is where Padmasambhava lived while preaching Buddhism. This cave is interconnected with the bigger cave through a passage. The third cave is 10 metres (33 ft) wide and 55 metres (180 ft) deep. It has a collection of stones in different shapes and sizes. Museum of Shannan is a History Museum, which displays cultural heritage of

14268-703: The central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite division of authority among civil , military, and censorial offices, including the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council ( 樞密院 ; Shūmì Yuàn ) to manage military affairs, and the Censorate to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed

14432-620: The city has undergone substantial progress in recent years following the reform policy and opening of the area by the Tibet Autonomous Region to development support from China and other countries. The economy of the city in 2007 consisted of GDP of RMB 3.3 billion (US$ 441 million), which ranked sixth in the Tibet Autonomous Region. The composition of this GDP consisted of the Agriculture sector (smallest contributor)-10.1%, Secondary Industry of Industry & Construction sector -37.4% and

14596-760: The city have a hoary history. This has generated many opportunities to develop the handicraft industry. The most significant handicrafts of the city, which have worldwide market, are the commercial products of utility, religious use and artistic crafts of the royal families of Tibet of the past. These are: The pulu blanket, Minzholin Tibetan incense and knitted products (of Zhanang County), bagdion apron (of Gonggar County), bracelets, necklaces, incense burner of Qonggyai, carpets and butter bottles of Qusum, popular stone utensils of Zaga and Sangri, Cona handcrafted wooden bowls, butter tea Cup of Jiyayu, knife of Lhunzi (gilded with silver), Nagarze silver tea cup, jade ware of Quingje County and Tibetan quilt. Other famous consumer products are

14760-509: The city have been categorized under four types. The Yarlung State Scenic Region is one type which has the snow-covered mountains, glaciers, pastures, river valley, alpine vegetation and historical monuments and folk customs and art forms. This river area is spread over parts of eight counties of Shannan. Yamzog Yumcog Scenic Region which has lakes, snow-covered mountains, islands, pasture land, hot springs, monasteries and many scenic places, Samyai Scenic Region which has many historical monuments in

14924-498: The city's history in relation to that of Tibet, for over several centuries. The artefacts on display are pottery ware, stone and metal tools, stone tablets, stone carvings, seals, documents and patra-leaf scriptures. Many festivals are held in Lhoka region in its counties, district, monasteries and villages to celebrate the harvest season, the New Year or Losar and natural elements such as birds. A colourful and widely celebrated festival

15088-402: The conversion to Islam , by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Buddhism (especially Tibetan Buddhism ) flourished, although Taoism endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on

15252-556: The counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son, Güyük , as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money , revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia , later renamed Shangdu . Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to

15416-669: The counties of Samyi, Songa and Azar towns in the Zanang County and Sacred Lake Scenic Region which is covered by the Sangri, Qusum and Gyacha Counties, are part of this valley. The region has mountains, valleys, rivers, springs, historical architectural monuments and monasteries. The city has rich water resources of the Yarlung Zangbo or Tsongpo as it is known in the short form. It is the mother river of Tibet. In addition, 41 other rivers flow through Lhoka. The river flowing from west to east has

15580-619: The county, its transliterated names in Simplified Chinese , Hanyu Pinyin , Wylie , Tibetan , population (as of 2003), area and density of population are given in the following table. The population of the city was 330,100 in 2007. Tibetans accounted for 96% of Shannan's total population. There are 14 ethnic groups, including Tibetans, the Han, the Menba, and the Luoba, living in the area. The economy of

15744-621: The decline of the dynasty. Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring Confucianism and promoting Chinese cultural values . His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature ( 奎章閣學士院 ), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to

15908-461: The division of the Mongol Empire, the Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke . In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven . The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty and accorded him the temple name Taizu. In the edict titled Proclamation of

16072-544: The earliest manors in Tibet. The manor possessed a seven storied main hall. It is located in Channang Town, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from Zetang across the river, opposite to the Samye Monastery. It is a seven-storied structure accommodating flat houses, horse stables, a mill, a workshop for weaving and dyeing, a pillbox and a jail. The province has many ancient monasteries in all its counties. The most prominent includes

16236-489: The early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson Kaidu refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain. The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south. Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince Wonjong as the ruler of the Kingdom of Goryeo (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state. Kublai betrothed one of his daughters to

16400-409: The fact that Tibet's earliest agricultural farmland, its first palace and first Buddhist monastery are all located in Lhoka. It also has the distinction of having held the first lhamo performance. Ethnic Tibetans constitute 98% of the population, the remaining 2% being Han , Hui , Mönpa , Lhoba and other ethnic groups. Shannan has 1 district and 11 counties and its capital is Tsetang , which

16564-419: The fields of electricity, mining, farm-implement and vehicle repairing, cement, metallurgy, printing, pharmaceuticals, food processing. Light industries for processing of agricultural and livestock products and pharmaceuticals are widely adopted by replacing manual operation with mechanization and semi-mechanization. However, most textiles and leather processing are yet to be mechanized. The ethnic handicrafts of

16728-690: The first Tibetan Monastery in Tibet, namely, the Samye Monastery. Some of the other important monasteries are the Dorje Drak Monastery , Lhalong Monastery, the Dratang Monastery, the Sekhargutok Monastery, the Sekhargutok Monastery, the Sange Choeling Monastery, Gyigag Monastery and many more. Samye Monastery was built in 763 AD under the direction of Guru Padmasambhava under the patronage of Tibetan king Trisong Detsen . It

16892-582: The first dynasty founded by a non-Han ethnicity that ruled all of China proper . In 1368, following the defeat of the Yuan forces by the Ming dynasty, the Genghisid rulers retreated to the Mongolian Plateau and continued to rule until 1635 when they surrendered to the Later Jin dynasty (which later evolved into the Qing dynasty ). The rump state is known in historiography as the Northern Yuan . After

17056-674: The government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand chancellor Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi ( 《大元通制》 ; 'Comprehensive Institutions of the Great Yuan';), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a coup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on

17220-467: The government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession. Kublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes. Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the Silk Road trade network by protecting

17384-473: The government, sometimes more than high officials, but their official rank was nebulous. Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq in 1264, constructing a new city near the former Jurchen capital Zhongdu , now modern Beijing , in 1266. In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the Mandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan ( 大元 ) in

17548-562: The increase of yaks and horses here there was dramatic development in agriculture. However, continued conflict led to endless famine and eventually the collapse of the Tubo regime. In 1253, Möngke Khan , the emperor of the Yuan dynasty , invaded Tibet and united the squabbling tribes into an administrative region, controlled by the central government of the Yuan dynasty in Beijing . However, the dominant tribe in

17712-510: The invasion and the Yungbulakang Palace was severely damaged. Lhoka region forms one-fifteenth of the total area of the Tibet Autonomous Region. It comprises 12 counties, out of which the eight northern counties are the Nedong, Qusum, Qonggyai, Sangri, Comai, Zhanang, Gyacha and Cona in the middle valley of the Yarlung Zangbo, and the remaining four namely, the Gonggar, Lhunzi, Lohozhag and Nagarze are in

17876-515: The lake intently in silence with deep devotion and reverence and by performing Buddhist rites. The lake thus attracts a lot of pilgrims seeking signs of their future. The lake is said to be "The Life-Spirit-Lake of the Goddess", the goddess being Palden Lhamo , the principal "Protectress" of Tibet. It was here that in 1935, the Regent, Reting Rinpoche , received a clear vision of three Tibetan letters and of

18040-415: The later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies. From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and

18204-604: The liquidation of the Department of State Affairs ( 尚書省 ), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works. Emperor Gegeen Khan , Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform

18368-463: The local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged. However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank until the conquest of the Song dynasty and its people, who made up the fourth class, the Southern Chinese. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in

18532-407: The memory of his ancestors he decided to create the tumuli (means burial ground a mound of earth and stones) or the burial ground or Tombs of Tibetan Kings to bury all his ancestor Kings, from the 29th King onwards with all their ministers and concubines. To accommodate such a large number of tombs, the tumuli extends over an area of 3.85 million square meters. It is the only such tomb in Tibet. Among

18696-560: The monsoon months from June to September. The annual wind speed is 17 metres (56 ft)/sec and December to March are the windy months. The forest area in Shannan is reported to be 1.55 million ha, which is 5% of the total forest cover in Tibet. The forest resource in terms of volume has been assessed as 38.8 billion cum. The forest has rich variety of plant species; 1000 species of trees, precious wood and herbal plants have been identified. Afforestation programmes have been pursued vigorously with

18860-483: The mythical mountain, built in three different architectural styles of Tibetan, Chinese Central Plain and Indian. Frescoes adorn the inner walls while Buddha and other deities are enshrined in the main hall. The main hall has several smaller units which are termed as the Buddha hall, the sutra hall, circumambulation passage surrounding the hall, side halls and circular passages. It is surrounded by four temples which are known as

19024-445: The northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294. Following the conquest of Dali in 1253, the former ruling Duan family were appointed as its leaders. Local chieftains were appointed as Tusi , recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming , and Qing -era governments, principally in

19188-470: The official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native Tang , Song , as well as Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such as Liu Bingzhong and Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and

19352-400: The one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in

19516-672: The period was the Venetian Marco Polo , whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million , known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo ), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, chopsticks, tea houses – which would have been

19680-522: The power generated at present is only 18,300 kW. Yamdrok Yumtso Lake , appears like jasper in a dark blue colour and it is one of the four holy lakes in Tibet. Viewed from the top of the Gampala Pass (4,794 metres (15,728 ft)), the lake appears in the shape of a scorpion . It is located in Nhagartse County on the way to Gyantse and is 50 kilometres (31 mi) from Tsedang Yumtso . It

19844-400: The precipitation in the region and results in a temperate climate. It has short cool summers with winters being long, dry and windy. There is a wide variation in temperature between day and night. The average temperature lies between 7.4–8.9 °C (45.3–48.0 °F). The average annual precipitation reported varies from 300–400 millimetres (12–16 in) and 90% of this rainfall occurs during

20008-533: The prince to solidify the relationship between the two houses. Korean women were sent to the Yuan court as tribute and one concubine became the empress of the Yuan dynasty. Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court. He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to

20172-456: The principle being that they are the dwelling places of protective deities and therefore invested with special spiritual powers. It is the largest lake in southern Tibet and home to the famous Samding Monastery which is on a peninsula jutting into the lake. Samding Monastery is where Dorje Phagmo , one of the few important female lamas in Tibet, stayed and presided, and stands to the south of Lake Yamdrok Yumtso. The Yamdrok Hydropower Station

20336-464: The production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system. Aside from the ancient Roman embassies , the first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of

20500-406: The province of Yunnan . Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, Zhenjin , as the crown prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan , succeeded

20664-497: The realm with its main capital in Dadu (modern-day Beijing ). However, the Han -style dynastic name "Great Yuan" and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire when the dynasty was proclaimed. This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty. In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is not commonly used in

20828-475: The reign of Kublai Khan (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368. The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the Hans , Khitans , Jurchens , Mongols , and Tibetan Buddhists . While

20992-419: The reign of Temür Khan. Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By

21156-516: The reigns of the Sakya sect without altering the basic concept of its original plan. It was renovated recently in the 1980s with funds provided by the government. Tradruk Temple , built in 641 AD in Tsedang, is one of the earliest Buddhist temples in Tibetan history. King Songtsan Gampo built this temple as a protection to his kingdom from the demoness or Ogresses . In later years, it was the winter palace of

21320-553: The result that a forest belt of 25 kilometres (16 mi) stretch has been created in the Zetang City , on the bank of the Yarlung River which helps in erosion control due to wind and river action. Thirty apple orchards set up in the prefecture produce 1,000 tonnes of fruit each year. Shannan is marked by China with a geographical area of 79,700 square kilometres (30,800 sq mi) distributed over 1 district and 11 counties with

21484-656: The resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on

21648-405: The river system has very green pasture land and thick forests. The region is studded with hills, valleys, rivers, streams, lakes, hot springs, limestone ( karst ) caves and many natural scenic regions. The region is also credited with the first "cultivated lands, measured fields, water irrigation, storing the forage grass, moulding metal, and many other techniques". The natural scenic regions of

21812-405: The roof structure is made of earth and timber. It overlooks a farmland which is stated to be the "first farm land in Tibet." The palace is approached through a series of steps built as a measure to defend the palace from enemy attack. The 33rd King of Tibet, Songtsan Gampo, shifted his capital to Lhasa. He was responsible for unifying Tibet as a nation. To commemorate this achievement and to cherish

21976-581: The royal lineage still lived in the Lhoka region. He made Yungbulakang Palace his summer palace, which by this time was an important centre for Buddhism and the storage of Buddhist scriptures. In 641 AD, Gampo married Princess Wencheng of the Tang dynasty . During the Tibetan Empire, a great number of irrigation projects developed along the Yarlong River and the Yarlung Tsangpo River, and with

22140-427: The same year, the 13-year-old Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from Guangxi and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death, Bayan became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghon Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew Toqto'a , who

22304-470: The service sector is the Tertiary Industry as the largest contributor accounted for the balance 52.5%. The PDP per capita was RMB 7,407 (US$ 1,005). Consumer goods alone accounted for substantial GDP. In terms of value-added industrial output, it ranked third, next to Lhasa and Qamdo / Chamdo / Changdu. Tourism is also an important sector contributing to the economy of the region. A Report of 2007 records

22468-544: The son of Xiaozhaci ( 蕭札刺之子重喜 ) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan. Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without

22632-739: The south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er , who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia ) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still live in Henan today. The Prince of Liang , Basalawarmi established

22796-500: The spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant Marco Polo , who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher Columbus to chart

22960-588: The spring bird, which is considered the king of all birds arrives in the naidong qiasalakang temple in Tsedang, the Bird's temple; according to a specific Tibetan calendar date, corresponding to May as per Gregorian calendar . The festival is also observed in a different month at the Reting Monastery and celebrated until the Cuckoo is seen chirping and accepting food offerings in the monastery grounds. The bird temple has

23124-463: The style of a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty is first attested in the I Ching and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force". Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu ( 大都 ; Dàdū ; 'Great Capital') of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history. The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating

23288-645: The support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the War of the Two Capitals . Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdi­cated in favour of his brother Kusala , who was backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey , and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after

23452-490: The theory of the Five Elements (wuxing). The Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the Jin dynasty 's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor. The dragon clothing of Imperial China

23616-402: The throne and ruled as Temür Khan , or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during

23780-408: The throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide . Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of

23944-433: The time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent. The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng ( 李孟 ), a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including

24108-427: The top; four large stupas are in four colours namely white, red, blue and green. When the monastery was built, 7 young men of the royal family resided in the monastery as monks, apart from ordained monks. In view of this combination of royal monks, the lamas and the Buddha deified in the monastery for worship it was given the rank as the first Tibetan Monastery. The monastery has exquisite stone carvings and paintings. It

24272-481: The transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment" ( 儒教推崇 ). The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium named Jingshi Dadian ( 經世大典 ). Tugh Temür supported Zhu Xi 's Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in Buddhism . After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong)

24436-412: The various tombs, the tomb of King Songtsan Gampo is said to be unique as it has underground chambers where images of Shakyamuni and Padmasambhava with great quantities of gold, silver, pears and agates as funeral objects are kept. The coffin of the King is kept in a central chamber flanked by a suit of arms on one side and statues of his knights and battle horses made in gold on the other side. The coffin

24600-588: Was Dai Ön Ulus , also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus . In Mongolian, Dai Ön a borrowing from Chinese, was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" ( 大蒙古國 ; 'Great Mongol State'), which resulted in the form ᠳᠠᠢ ᠥᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ( 大元大蒙古國 ; Dai Ön Yeqe Mongɣul Ulus , lit. "Great Yuan – Great Mongol State") or ᠳᠠᠢ ᠦᠨ ᠺᠡᠮᠡᠺᠦ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ( Dai Ön qemeqü Yeqe Mongɣol Ulus , lit. "Great Mongol State called Great Yuan"). As per contemporary historiographical norm, "Yuan dynasty" typically refers to

24764-530: Was 330,100 as of 2007 with Tibetans accounting for 96% of the total population. The Lhoka region has not only an ancient historical background but is also the most prosperous in Tibet. A legend that attests to the position of Lhoka region in the annals of Tibetan history states that human beings are the creation of a union between a sacred monkey and women. According to archaeological findings and legends and ancient documents, people lived in this area up to four million years ago. A primitive civilization grew up in

24928-423: Was able to mobilize the people to excavate canal, channelling water to irrigate the flatland. A formal forming system came into existence during the reign of Yixiulie , the eleventh king, when he devised standard measurement units for allocating farmland and counting livestock. Six palaces were built in the region between the rule of the ninth and fifteenth kings. Around the 6th century AD, the Yarlung Valley became

25092-413: Was built in 1081 by Drapa Eshepa who was one of the 13 saints in Dranang County. Its allegiance is to the Sakyapa Sect , The monastery built on the pattern of the Somye Monastery has been substantially damaged, and now only walls on three sides remain (about 750 metres (2,460 ft)) and only one of the three floors is intact. It has some valuable frescoes. Sekhargutok Monastery was built in 1080 AD It

25256-450: Was completed and dedicated in 1996 near the small village of Pai-Ti at the lake's western end. This power station is the largest in Tibet. The Holy Lake, also known as the Lhamo Latso, in Gyaca County , is an alpine lake seen in the shape of horse's hoof in the midst of mountains located at an elevation of 5,100 metres (16,700 ft). It is glacier fed and has water surface area of about2 square kilometres (0.77 sq mi). The lake

25420-419: Was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the Department of State Affairs ( 尚書省 ; Shangshu Sheng ) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards. While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since

25584-400: Was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty. The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of Song dynasty astronomer Shen Kuo or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers. There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars. Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East

25748-489: Was established by Kublai (Emperor Shizu or Setsen Khan), the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire from the Borjigin clan, and lasted from 1271 to 1368. In Chinese history , the Yuan dynasty followed the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty . Although Genghis Khan 's enthronement as Khagan in 1206 was described in Chinese as the Han -style title of Emperor and the Mongol Empire had ruled territories including modern-day northern China for decades, it

25912-475: Was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the Liao , Jin , and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with

26076-471: Was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought Arabic numerals to China in the 13th century. The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures. Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called otachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized otachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism. Physicians received official support from

26240-450: Was nominal and each continued its own separate development. In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan ( Chinese : 大元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ), establishing the Yuan dynasty. "Dà Yuán" ( 大元 ) is derived from a clause " 大哉乾元 " ( dà zāi Qián Yuán ; 'Great is Qián', 'the Primal') in the Commentaries on the I Ching section regarding the first hexagram ( 乾 ). The Mongolian-language counterpart

26404-399: Was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Han style, and the conquest was not complete until 1279 when the Southern Song dynasty was defeated in the Battle of Yamen . His realm was, by this point, isolated from the other Mongol-led khanates and controlled most of modern-day China and its surrounding areas, including modern-day Mongolia . It was

26568-414: Was the first of its kind in Tibet, which resulted in a transition from the temple architectural style to the Tibetan monastery style in Tibet. The Cosmic Buddhist design also known as "the universal model described in Buddhist scriptures" adopted for the architectural planning of the monastery has involved a central temple of a hall called the Uze Hall, a three storied structure representing Mt. Sumeru ,

26732-537: Was undertaken against Japan in 1274. The Duan family ruling the Kingdom of Dali (大理) in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty. The Tusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling

26896-412: Was used by the Ilkhanids , the Chinese Huangdi ( Emperor ) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization. The structure of the Yuan government took shape during

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