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53-630: By sharing the S-IVB upper stage, the Saturn IB and Saturn V provided a common interface to the Apollo spacecraft. The only major difference was that the S-IVB on the Saturn V burned only part of its propellant to achieve Earth orbit, so it could be restarted for trans-lunar injection . The S-IVB on the Saturn IB needed all of its propellant to achieve Earth orbit. The Saturn IB launched two uncrewed CSM suborbital flights to

106-730: A GTO and, like the Chinese spacecraft, increasing its apogee over a number of burns. The soft lander Beresheet from the Israel Aerospace Industries , used this maneuver in 2019, but crashed on the Moon. In 2011 the NASA GRAIL satellites used a low delta-v route to the Moon, passing by the Sun-Earth L1 point, and taking over 3 months. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of

159-917: A balanced movement for camera and lenses. This proves useful in wildlife photography as well as in any other case where very long and heavy telephoto lenses are adopted: a gimbal head rotates a lens around its center of gravity , thus allowing for easy and smooth manipulation while tracking moving subjects. Very large gimbal mounts in the form 2 or 3 axis altitude-altitude mounts are used in satellite photography for tracking purposes. Gyrostabilized gimbals which house multiple sensors are also used for airborne surveillance applications including airborne law enforcement, pipe and power line inspection, mapping , and ISR ( intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance ). Sensors include thermal imaging , daylight, low light cameras as well as laser range finder , and illuminators . Gimbal systems are also used in scientific optics equipment. For example, they are used to rotate

212-571: A gimbal incense burner around 180 AD. There is a hint in the writing of the earlier Sima Xiangru (179–117 BC) that the gimbal existed in China since the 2nd century BC. There is mention during the Liang dynasty (502–557) that gimbals were used for hinges of doors and windows, while an artisan once presented a portable warming stove to Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705) which employed gimbals. Extant specimens of Chinese gimbals used for incense burners date to

265-403: A height of 162 km, one uncrewed LM orbital flight, and the first crewed CSM orbital mission (first planned as Apollo 1 , later flown as Apollo 7 ). It also launched one orbital mission, AS-203 , without a payload so the S-IVB would have residual liquid hydrogen fuel. This mission supported the design of the restartable version of the S-IVB used in the Saturn V, by observing the behavior of

318-460: A lunar transfer from a low circular parking orbit around Earth . The large TLI burn , usually performed by a chemical rocket engine, increases the spacecraft's velocity, changing its orbit from a circular low Earth orbit to a highly eccentric orbit . As the spacecraft begins coasting on the lunar transfer arc, its trajectory approximates an elliptical orbit about the Earth with an apogee near to

371-414: A material sample along an axis to study their angular dependence of optical properties. Handheld 3-axis gimbals are used in stabilization systems designed to give the camera operator the independence of handheld shooting without camera vibration or shake. There are two versions of such stabilization systems: mechanical and motorized. Mechanical gimbals have the sled, which includes the top stage where

424-410: A midway course correction is required to reach the Moon. TLI targeting and lunar transfers are a specific application of the n body problem , which may be approximated in various ways. The simplest way to explore lunar transfer trajectories is by the method of patched conics . The spacecraft is assumed to accelerate only under classical 2 body dynamics, being dominated by the Earth until it reaches

477-451: A minimum of three gimbals are needed to allow an inertial navigation system (stable table) to remain fixed in inertial space, compensating for changes in the ship's yaw, pitch, and roll. In this application, the inertial measurement unit (IMU) is equipped with three orthogonally mounted gyros to sense rotation about all axes in three-dimensional space. The gyro outputs are kept to a null through drive motors on each gimbal axis, to maintain

530-509: A model is numerically intensive, but necessary for true mission accuracy. The first space probe to attempt TLI was the Soviet Union 's Luna 1 on January 2, 1959 which was designed to impact the Moon. The burn however didn't go exactly as planned and the spacecraft missed the Moon by more than three times its radius and was sent into a heliocentric orbit. Luna 2 performed the same maneuver more accurately on September 12, 1959 and crashed into

583-505: A result of its extremely low delta-v TLI maneuver, the spacecraft took over 13 months to reach a lunar orbit and 17 months to reach its desired orbit. China launched its first Moon mission in 2007, placing the Chang'e 1 spacecraft in a lunar orbit. It used multiple burns to slowly raise its apogee to reach the vicinity of the Moon. India followed in 2008, launching the Chandrayaan-1 into

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636-440: A ship, the gyroscopes , shipboard compasses , stoves , and even drink holders typically use gimbals to keep them upright with respect to the horizon despite the ship's pitching and rolling . The gimbal suspension used for mounting compasses and the like is sometimes called a Cardan suspension after Italian mathematician and physicist Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576) who described it in detail. However, Cardano did not invent

689-455: A single engine to vector thrust about both the pitch and yaw axes; or sometimes just one axis is provided per engine. To control roll, twin engines with differential pitch or yaw control signals are used to provide torque about the vehicle's roll axis. Gimbals are also used to mount everything from small camera lenses to large photographic telescopes. In portable photography equipment, single-axis gimbal heads are used in order to allow

742-588: Is a propulsive maneuver , which is used to send a spacecraft to the Moon . Typical lunar transfer trajectories approximate Hohmann transfers , although low-energy transfers have also been used in some cases, as with the Hiten probe. For short duration missions without significant perturbations from sources outside the Earth-Moon system, a fast Hohmann transfer is typically more practical. A spacecraft performs TLI to begin

795-424: Is never measured. Similar sensing platforms are used on aircraft. In inertial navigation systems, gimbal lock may occur when vehicle rotation causes two of the three gimbal rings to align with their pivot axes in a single plane. When this occurs, it is no longer possible to maintain the sensing platform's orientation. In spacecraft propulsion , rocket engines are generally mounted on a pair of gimbals to allow

848-453: Is on top, a pen can be dipped and inked — yet the ink never runs out through the holes of the other sides. This was done by the suspension of the inkwell at the center, which was mounted on a series of concentric metal rings so that it remained stationary no matter which way the pot is turned. In Ancient China , the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) inventor and mechanical engineer Ding Huan created

901-449: Is sensitive to its orientation. Because of this, chronometers were normally mounted on gimbals, in order to isolate them from the rocking motions of a ship at sea. Gimbal lock is the loss of one degree of freedom in a three-dimensional, three-gimbal mechanism that occurs when the axes of two of the three gimbals are driven into a parallel configuration, "locking" the system into rotation in a degenerate two-dimensional space. The word lock

954-595: The C-5 for the lunar landing mission, and decided to develop another launch vehicle by upgrading the Saturn I, replacing its S-IV second stage with the S-IVB , which would also be modified for use as the Saturn V third stage. The S-I first stage would also be upgraded to the S-IB by improving the thrust of its engines and removing some weight. The new Saturn IB, with a payload capability of at least 35,000 pounds (16,000 kg), would replace

1007-486: The Hiten satellite to fly by the Moon and place the Hagoromo microsatellite in a lunar orbit. Following that, it explored a novel low delta-v TLI method with a 6-month transfer time (compared to 3 days for Apollo). The 1994 US Clementine spacecraft, designed to showcase lightweight technologies, used a 3 week long TLI with two intermediate Earth flybys before entering a lunar orbit. In 1997 Asiasat-3 became

1060-465: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration . Gimbal A gimbal is a pivoted support that permits rotation of an object about an axis. A set of three gimbals, one mounted on the other with orthogonal pivot axes, may be used to allow an object mounted on the innermost gimbal to remain independent of the rotation of its support (e.g. vertical in the first animation). For example, on

1113-556: The Near East . In the Latin West, reference to the device appeared again in the 9th century recipe book called the Little Key of Painting' ( mappae clavicula ). The French inventor Villard de Honnecourt depicts a set of gimbals in his sketchbook (see right). In the early modern period, dry compasses were suspended in gimbals. In inertial navigation, as applied to ships and submarines,

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1166-425: The "uprated Saturn I", at the same time the "lunar excursion module" was renamed the lunar module . However, the "uprated Saturn I" terminology was reverted to Saturn IB on December 2, 1967. By the time it was developed, the Saturn IB payload capability had increased to 41,000 pounds (19,000 kg). By 1973, when it was used to launch three Skylab missions, the first-stage engine had been upgraded further, raising

1219-755: The ASTP mission, as no use could be found for them and all heavy lift needs of the US space program could be serviced by the cheaper and more versatile Titan III family and also the Space Shuttle . In 1959, NASA's Silverstein Committee issued recommendations to develop the Saturn class launch vehicles, growing from the C-1 . When the Apollo program was started in 1961 with the goal of landing men on

1272-524: The Apollo program were made from LC-34 and LC-37 , Cape Kennedy Air Force Station . The Saturn IB was used between 1973 and 1975 for three crewed Skylab flights, and one Apollo-Soyuz Test Project flight. This final production run did not have alternating black and white S-IB stage tanks, or vertical stripes on the S-IVB aft tank skirt, which were present on the earlier vehicles. Since LC-34 and 37 were inactive by then, these launches utilized Kennedy Space Center's LC-39B . Mobile Launcher Platform No. 1

1325-600: The Arab copy contains sequences of Greek letters which fell out of use after the 1st century, thereby strengthening the case that it is a faithful copy of the Hellenistic original, a view recently also shared by the classicist Andrew Wilson (2002). The ancient Roman author Athenaeus Mechanicus , writing during the reign of Augustus (30 BC–14 AD), described the military use of a gimbal-like mechanism, calling it "little ape" ( pithêkion ). When preparing to attack coastal towns from

1378-517: The Earth. The Apollo 8 TLI was spectacularly observed from the Hawaiian Islands in the pre-dawn sky south of Waikiki, photographed and reported in the papers the next day. In 1969, the Apollo 10 pre-dawn TLI was visible from Cloncurry , Australia . It was described as resembling car headlights coming over a hill in fog, with the spacecraft appearing as a bright comet with a greenish tinge. In 1990 Japan launched its first lunar mission, using

1431-586: The French translation which still provides the basis for modern scholars, regards the Pneumatics as essentially genuine. The historian of technology George Sarton (1959) also asserts that it is safe to assume the Arabic version is a faithful copying of Philo's original, and credits Philon explicitly with the invention. So does his colleague Michael Lewis (2001). In fact, research by the latter scholar (1997) demonstrates that

1484-564: The Moon two days later. The Soviets repeated this success with 22 more Luna missions and 5 Zond missions travelling to the Moon between 1959 and 1976. The United States launched its first lunar impactor attempt, Ranger 3 , on January 26, 1962, which failed to reach the Moon. This was followed by the first US success, Ranger 4 , on April 23, 1962. Another 27 US missions to the Moon were launched from 1962 to 1973, including five successful Surveyor soft landers, five Lunar Orbiter surveillance probes, and nine Apollo missions, which landed

1537-426: The Moon's sphere of influence . Motion in a patched-conic system is deterministic and simple to calculate, lending itself for rough mission design and " back of the envelope " studies. More realistically, however, the spacecraft is subject to gravitational forces from many bodies. Gravitation from Earth and Moon dominate the spacecraft's acceleration, and since the spacecraft's own mass is negligible in comparison,

1590-451: The Moon, NASA chose the Saturn I for Earth orbital test missions. However, the Saturn I's payload limit of 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) to 162 km would allow testing of only the command module with a smaller propulsion module attached, as the command and service module would have a dry weight of at least 26,300 pounds (11,900 kg), in addition to service propulsion and reaction control fuel. In July 1962, NASA announced selection of

1643-399: The S-IB first stage. For earlier launches of vehicles in the Saturn I series, see the list in the Saturn I article. As of 2023 there are two locations where Saturn IB vehicles (or parts thereof) are on display: In 1972, the cost of a Saturn IB including launch was US$ 55,000,000 (equivalent to $ 401,000,000 in 2023). Trans-lunar injection A trans-lunar injection ( TLI )

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1696-424: The Saturn I for Earth orbit testing, allowing the command and service module to be flown with a partial fuel load. It would also allow launching the 32,000-pound (15,000 kg) lunar excursion module separately for uncrewed and crewed Earth orbital testing, before the Saturn V was ready to be flown. It would also give early development to the third stage. On May 12, 1966, NASA announced the vehicle would be called

1749-482: The camera is attached, the post which in most models can be extended, with the monitor and batteries at the bottom to counterbalance the camera weight. This is how the Steadicam stays upright, by simply making the bottom slightly heavier than the top, pivoting at the gimbal. This leaves the center of gravity of the whole rig, however heavy it may be, exactly at the operator's fingertip, allowing deft and finite control of

1802-472: The camera to seem as if it is floating through the air, an effect achieved by a Steadicam in the past. Gimbals can be mounted to cars and other vehicles such as drones , where vibrations or other unexpected movements would make tripods or other camera mounts unacceptable. An example which is popular in the live TV broadcast industry, is the Newton 3-axis camera gimbal . The rate of a mechanical marine chronometer

1855-475: The early Tang dynasty (618–907), and were part of the silver -smithing tradition in China. The authenticity of Philo's description of a cardan suspension has been doubted by some authors on the ground that the part of Philo's Pneumatica which describes the use of the gimbal survived only in an Arabic translation of the early 9th century. Thus, as late as 1965, the sinologist Joseph Needham suspected Arab interpolation . However, Carra de Vaux, author of

1908-560: The end of the S-IVB burn. AS-206, 207, and 208 inserted the Command and Service Module in a 150-by-222-kilometer (81-by-120-nautical-mile) elliptical orbit which was co-planar with the Skylab one. The SPS engine of the Command and Service Module was used at orbit apogee to achieve a Hohmann transfer to the Skylab orbit at 431 kilometers (233 nautical miles). The first five Saturn IB launches for

1961-479: The first commercial satellite to reach the Moon's sphere of influence when, after a launch failure, it swung by the Moon twice as a low delta-v way to reach its desired geostationary orbit. It passed within 6200 km of the Moon's surface. The 2003 ESA SMART-1 technology demonstrator satellite became the first European satellite to orbit the Moon. After being launched into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), it used solar powered ion engines for propulsion. As

2014-420: The first humans on the Moon. For the Apollo lunar missions, TLI was performed by the restartable J-2 engine in the S-IVB third stage of the Saturn V rocket. This particular TLI burn lasted approximately 350 seconds, providing 3.05 to 3.25 km/s (10,000 to 10,600 ft/s) of change in velocity , at which point the spacecraft was traveling at approximately 10.4 km/s (34150 ft/s) relative to

2067-490: The gimbal, nor did he claim to. The device has been known since antiquity, first described in the 3rd c. BC by Philo of Byzantium , although some modern authors support the view that it may not have a single identifiable inventor. The gimbal was first described by the Greek inventor Philo of Byzantium (280–220 BC). Philo described an eight-sided ink pot with an opening on each side, which can be turned so that while any face

2120-668: The instrument unit at the Space Systems Center in Huntsville, Alabama . Located at the top of the S-IVB stage, it consisted of a Launch Vehicle Digital Computer (LVDC), an inertial platform, accelerometers, a tracking, telemetry and command system and associated environmental controls. It controlled the entire rocket from just before liftoff until battery depletion. Like other rocket guidance systems, it maintained its state vector (position and velocity estimates) by integrating accelerometer measurements, sent firing and steering commands to

2173-512: The liquid hydrogen in weightlessness . In 1973, the year after the Apollo lunar program ended, three Apollo CSM/Saturn IBs ferried crews to the Skylab space station. In 1975, one last Apollo/Saturn IB launched the Apollo portion of the joint US- USSR Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). A backup Apollo CSM/Saturn IB was assembled and made ready for a Skylab rescue mission, but never flown. The remaining Saturn IBs in NASA's inventory were scrapped after

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2226-413: The main engines and auxiliary thrusters, and fired the appropriate ordnance and solid rocket motors during staging and payload separation events. As with other rockets, a completely independent and redundant range safety system could be invoked by ground radio command to terminate thrust and to destroy the vehicle should it malfunction and threaten people or property on the ground. In the Saturn IB and V,

2279-468: The nickname "Cluster's Last Stand". The four outboard engines were mounted on gimbals , allowing them to be steered to control the rocket. Eight fins surrounding the base thrust structure provided aerodynamic stability and control. Data from: General characteristics Engine The S-IVB was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company at Huntington Beach, California . The S-IVB-200 model

2332-451: The orientation of the IMU. To accomplish this, the gyro error signals are passed through " resolvers " mounted on the three gimbals, roll, pitch and yaw. These resolvers perform an automatic matrix transformation according to each gimbal angle, so that the required torques are delivered to the appropriate gimbal axis. The yaw torques must be resolved by roll and pitch transformations. The gimbal angle

2385-525: The payload capability to 46,000 pounds (21,000 kg). The S-IB stage was built by the Chrysler corporation at the Michoud Assembly Facility , New Orleans . It was powered by eight Rocketdyne H-1 rocket engines burning RP-1 fuel with liquid oxygen (LOX). Eight Redstone tanks (four holding fuel and four holding LOX) were clustered around a Jupiter rocket LOX tank, which earned the rocket

2438-400: The radius of the Moon's orbit. The TLI burn is sized and timed to precisely target the Moon as it revolves around the Earth. The burn is timed so that the spacecraft nears apogee as the Moon approaches. Finally, the spacecraft enters the Moon's sphere of influence , making a hyperbolic lunar swingby. In some cases it is possible to design a TLI to target a free return trajectory , so that

2491-518: The range safety system was permanently disabled by ground command after safely reaching orbit. This was done to ensure that the S-IVB stage would not inadvertently rupture and create a cloud of debris in orbit that could endanger the crew of the Apollo CSM. Acceleration of the Saturn IB increased from 1.24 G at liftoff to a maximum of 4.35 G at the end of the S-IB stage burn, and increased again from 0 G to 2.85 G from stage separation to

2544-415: The sea-side, military engineers used to yoke merchant-ships together to take the siege machines up to the walls. But to prevent the shipborne machinery from rolling around the deck in heavy seas, Athenaeus advises that "you must fix the pithêkion on the platform attached to the merchant-ships in the middle, so that the machine stays upright in any angle". After antiquity , gimbals remained widely known in

2597-428: The spacecraft will loop around behind the Moon and return to Earth without need for further propulsive maneuvers. Such free return trajectories add a margin of safety to human spaceflight missions, since the spacecraft will return to Earth "for free" after the initial TLI burn. The Apollos 8, 10 and 11 began on a free return trajectory, while the later missions used a functionally similar hybrid trajectory, in which

2650-462: The spacecraft's trajectory may be better approximated as a restricted three-body problem . This model is a closer approximation but lacks an analytic solution, requiring numerical calculation. More detailed simulation involves modeling the Moon's true orbital motion; gravitation from other astronomical bodies; the non-uniformity of the Earth's and Moon's gravity ; including solar radiation pressure ; and so on. Propagating spacecraft motion in such

2703-506: The whole system with the lightest of touches on the gimbal. Powered by three brushless motors , motorized gimbals have the ability to keep the camera level on all axes as the camera operator moves the camera. An inertial measurement unit (IMU) responds to movement and utilizes its three separate motors to stabilize the camera. With the guidance of algorithms, the stabilizer is able to notice the difference between deliberate movement such as pans and tracking shots from unwanted shake. This allows

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2756-471: Was modified, adding an elevated platform known as the "milkstool" to accommodate the height differential between the Saturn IB and the much larger Saturn V. This enabled alignment of the Launch Umbilical Tower's access arms to accommodate crew access, fueling, and ground electrical connections for the Apollo spacecraft and S-IVB upper stage. The tower's second stage access arms were modified to service

2809-498: Was similar to the S-IVB-500 third stage used on the Saturn V , with the exception of the interstage adapter, smaller auxiliary propulsion control modules, and lack of on-orbit engine restart capability. It was powered by a single Rocketdyne J-2 engine. The fuel and oxidizer tanks shared a common bulkhead, which saved about ten tons of weight and reduced vehicle length over ten feet. General characteristics Engine IBM built

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