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164-567: The Ryti–Ribbentrop letter of agreement ( Finnish : Ryti–Ribbentrop-sopimus ) was a personal letter from President of Finland Risto Ryti to German Führer Adolf Hitler signed on 26 June 1944. It was sent during the Soviet Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive , which had started on 9 June and threatened to knock Finland out of the Continuation War . The letter was a product of a week of Finno-German negotiations, where
328-531: A Finnic language of the Uralic language family, spoken by the majority of the population in Finland and by ethnic Finns outside of Finland. Finnish is one of the two official languages of Finland, alongside Swedish . In Sweden , both Finnish and Meänkieli (which has significant mutual intelligibility with Finnish ) are official minority languages . Kven , which like Meänkieli is mutually intelligible with Finnish,
492-567: A combat radius of over 1,800 miles (2,900 km) when using underwing drop tanks , began to escort the bombers in large formations to and from the target area in early 1944. From that point onwards, the Luftwaffe began to suffer casualties in aircrews it could not sufficiently replace. By targeting oil refineries and rail communications, Allied bombers crippled the German war effort by late 1944. German civilians blamed Göring for his failure to protect
656-803: A "j", e.g. vesj [vesʲ] "water", cf. standard vesi [vesi] . The first known written account in Helsinki slang is from the 1890 short story Hellaassa by young Santeri Ivalo (words that do not exist in, or deviate from, the standard spoken Finnish of its time are in bold): Kun minä eilen illalla palasin labbiksesta , tapasin Aasiksen kohdalla Supiksen , ja niin me laskeusimme tänne Espikselle , jossa oli mahoton hyvä piikis . Mutta me mentiin Studikselle suoraan Hudista tapaamaan, ja jäimme sinne pariksi tunniksi, kunnes ajoimme Kaisikseen . There are two main registers of Finnish used throughout
820-669: A German infantry division, an assault gun brigade and the Luftwaffe Detachment Kuhlmey , allowed the Finns to eventually stop the Soviet offensive. These formations, however, had also been sent to Finland in the days prior to the signing of the agreement. On the other hand, their continued stay in Finland could be attributed to the agreement. Similarly, Markku Jokisipilä estimates that Finnish stockpiles of artillery shells would have lasted to
984-551: A Latin-script alphabet derived from the Swedish alphabet, and is phonemic to a great extent. Vowel length and consonant length are distinguished, and there are a range of diphthongs , although vowel harmony limits which diphthongs are possible. Finnish belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family ; as such, it is one of the few European languages that is not Indo-European . The Finnic branch also includes Estonian and
1148-565: A Swedish airline. Göring was often hired for private flights. During the winter of 1920–1921, he was hired by Count Eric von Rosen to fly him to his castle from Stockholm. Invited to spend the night, Göring may at this time have first seen the swastika emblem, which Rosen had set in the chimney piece as a family badge. This was also the first time that Göring saw his future wife; the count introduced his sister-in-law, Baroness Carin von Kantzow ( née Freiin von Fock). Estranged from her husband of 10 years, she had an eight-year-old son. Göring
1312-482: A bridgehead that would eventually reach a width of 100 kilometres (62 mi) and a depth of 20 kilometres (12 mi). It soon became clear, however, that the German forces would not be able to reach the Svir from the south. The Finns were hesitant to advance southwards, themselves, and the front stabilized into stationary or trench warfare. Despite the extremely close Finno-German collaboration, Finland consistently rejected
1476-447: A career as a soldier from a very early age, Göring enjoyed playing with toy soldiers and dressing up in a Boer uniform his father had given him. He was sent to boarding school at age eleven, where the food was poor, and discipline was harsh. He sold a violin to pay for his train ticket home, and then took to his bed, feigning illness, until he was told he would not have to return. He continued to enjoy war games, pretending to lay siege to
1640-468: A considerable influence upon the spoken word, because illiteracy is nonexistent and many Finns are avid readers. In fact, it is still not entirely uncommon to meet people who "talk book-ish" ( puhuvat kirjakieltä ); it may have connotations of pedantry, exaggeration, moderation, weaseling or sarcasm (somewhat like heavy use of Latinate words in English, or more old-fashioned or "pedantic" constructions: compare
1804-515: A draft of a Finnish declaration that promised the Finns would continued to fight the Soviets, albeit without reference to fighting "alongside" the Germans. This draft, however, was rejected by Ribbentrop as being too vague and non-binding. He replied with a draft letter, to be signed and sent by Ryti. A key point of the letter was a promise that the Finns would not "lay down their arms" unless in agreement with
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#17328513095671968-514: A failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch . Göring, who was with Hitler leading the march to the War Ministry, was shot in the groin. Fourteen Nazis and four policemen were killed; many top Nazis, including Hitler, were arrested. With Carin's help, Göring was smuggled to Innsbruck , where he received surgery and was given morphine for the pain. He remained in hospital until 24 December. This
2132-526: A falling-out with Epenstein. The family was forced to leave Veldenstein and moved to Munich ; Göring's father died shortly afterwards. It was in Bavaria where Göring developed his "romantic sense of Germanness" that further evolved under Nazism. When World War I began in August 1914, Göring was stationed at Mülhausen with his regiment. During the first year of World War I, Göring served with his infantry regiment in
2296-508: A few minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea and in Russia's Republic of Karelia . The closest relative of Finnish is either Ingrian , or depending on the definition, Karelian . Finnic languages form a dialect continuum, where for instance Finnish and Estonian are not separated by any single isogloss that would separate dialects considered "Finnish" from those considered "Estonian", despite
2460-409: A former cavalry officer, had been the first governor-general of German South West Africa (modern-day Namibia ). Heinrich had three children from a previous marriage. Göring was the fourth of five children by Heinrich's second wife, Franziska Tiefenbrunn (1859–15 July 1943), a Bavarian peasant. Göring's elder siblings were Karl, Olga, and Paula; his younger brother was Albert . At the time that Göring
2624-405: A language of administration, journalism, literature, and science in Finland, along with Swedish. In 1853 Daniel Europaeus published the first Swedish-Finnish dictionary, and between 1866 and 1880 Elias Lönnrot compiled the first Finnish-Swedish dictionary. In the same period, Antero Warelius conducted ethnographic research and, among other topics, he documented the geographic distribution of
2788-662: A law abolishing the Prussian State Council , the second chamber of the Prussian legislature that represented the interests of the Prussian provinces. In its place, he created a revised non-legislative Prussian State Council to serve merely as a body of advisors to him. Göring would serve as President of the council. It would consist, ex officio , of the Prussian cabinet ministers and state secretaries, as well as hand-picked Nazi Party officials and other industry and society leaders selected solely by Göring. In October 1933, Göring
2952-519: A luncheon held on Hitler's birthday in 1942, Göring said, "The only one who really knows about the Reichstag is I, because I set it on fire!" In his own Nuremberg testimony, Göring denied this story. During the early 1930s, Göring was often in the company of Emmy Sonnemann , an actress from Hamburg . They were married on 10 April 1935, in Berlin. The wedding was celebrated on a huge scale. A large reception
3116-468: A more systematic writing system. Along the way, Finnish lost several fricative consonants in a process of sound change . The sounds [ð] and [θ(ː)] disappeared from the language, surviving only in a small rural region in Western Finland. In the standard language, however, the effect of the lost sounds is thus: Modern Finnish punctuation, along with that of Swedish, uses the colon (:) to separate
3280-445: A north–south split as well as an east–west split. The northern dialects of Proto-Finnic, from which Finnish developed, lacked the mid vowel [ ɤ ] . This vowel was found only in the southern dialects, which developed into Estonian , Livonian , and Votian . The northern variants used third person singular pronoun hän instead of southern tämä (Est. tema ). While the eastern dialects of Proto-Finnic (which developed in
3444-572: A political alliance with Germany, instead framing its actions to the Western powers as a separate, defensive war. Over the winter of 1941–42, the Finnish leadership became increasingly worried about the direction of the war. Finland, however, remained dependent on Germany for both food and military supply. Only after the collapse of the siege of Leningrad in January 1944 and the bombing of several Finnish cities did
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#17328513095673608-546: A separate taxonomic " Finno-Samic " node is controversial. The Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California , United States, classifies Finnish as a level III language (of four levels) in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers. Finnish is spoken by about five million people, most of whom reside in Finland. There are also notable Finnish-speaking minorities in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Estonia, Brazil, Canada, and
3772-577: A special Prussian police force, with Rudolf Diels at its head. The force was called the Geheime Staatspolizei ( transl. Secret State Police ), or Gestapo . Göring, thinking that Diels was not ruthless enough to use the Gestapo effectively to counteract the power of the SA, handed over control of the Gestapo to Himmler on 20 April 1934. By this time, the SA numbered over two million men. Hitler
3936-612: A suburb of Munich. Göring joined the Nazi Party in 1922 after hearing a speech by Adolf Hitler . He was given command of the Sturmabteilung (SA) as the Oberster SA-Führer on 1 March 1923, succeeding Hans Ulrich Klintzsch , and headed the organization until it was banned in November 1923. He was appointed an SA- Gruppenführer on 18 December 1931. On 1 January 1933, he
4100-440: A total amount of Finnish-speakers roughly between 7,200 and 15,600. In the latest census , around 1000 people in Russia claimed to speak Finnish natively; however, a larger amount of 14,000 claimed to be able to speak Finnish in total. There are also forms of Finnish spoken by diasporas outside Europe, such as American Finnish , spoken by Finnish Americans , and Siberian Finnish , spoken by Siberian Finns . Today, Finnish
4264-503: Is abbreviation of word-final vowels, and in many respects they resemble Estonian. The Tavastian dialects ( hämäläismurteet ) are spoken in Tavastia . They are closest to the standard language, but feature some slight vowel changes, such as the opening of diphthong-final vowels ( tie → tiä , miekka → miakka , kuolisi → kualis ), the change of d to l (mostly obsolete) or trilled r (widespread, nowadays disappearance of d
4428-591: Is one of two official languages of Finland (the other being Swedish), and has been an official language of the European Union since 1995. However, the Finnish language did not have an official status in the country during the period of Swedish rule , which ended in 1809. After the establishment of the Grand Duchy of Finland , and against the backdrop of the Fennoman movement , the language obtained its official status in
4592-727: Is popular) and the personal pronouns ( me: meitin ('we: our'), te: teitin ('you: your') and he: heitin ('they: their')). The South Ostrobothnian dialects ( eteläpohjalaismurteet ) are spoken in Southern Ostrobothnia . Their most notable feature is the pronunciation of "d" as a tapped or even fully trilled /r/ . The Central and North Ostrobothnian dialects ( keski- ja pohjoispohjalaismurteet ) are spoken in Central and Northern Ostrobothnia . The Lapland dialects ( lappilaismurteet ) are spoken in Lapland . The dialects spoken in
4756-624: Is spoken in the Norwegian counties of Troms and Finnmark by a minority of Finnish descent. Finnish is typologically agglutinative and uses almost exclusively suffixal affixation . Nouns , adjectives , pronouns , numerals and verbs are inflected depending on their role in the sentence . Sentences are normally formed with subject–verb–object word order, although the extensive use of inflection allows them to be ordered differently. Word order variations are often reserved for differences in information structure . Finnish orthography uses
4920-588: The Battle of Britain , the Luftwaffe attempted to defeat Britain via strategic bombing . On 12 October 1940 Hitler cancelled Sea Lion due to the onset of winter. By the end of the year, it was clear that British morale was not being shaken by the Blitz , though the bombings continued through May 1941. In spite of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact , signed in 1939, Nazi Germany began Operation Barbarossa —the invasion of
5084-827: The Battles of the Netherlands , of Belgium and of France in May 1940. After the Fall of France , Hitler awarded Göring the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for his successful leadership. During the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony , Hitler promoted Göring to the rank of Reichsmarschall des Grossdeutschen Reiches ( transl. Reich Marshal of the Greater German Reich ), a specially created rank which made him senior to all field marshals in
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5248-846: The Fall of France in 1940, he was bestowed the specially created rank of Reichsmarschall , which gave him seniority over all officers in Germany's armed forces . By 1941, Göring was at the peak of his power and influence. As the Second World War progressed, Göring's standing with Hitler and the German public declined after the Luftwaffe proved incapable of preventing the Allied bombing of Germany's cities and resupplying surrounded Axis forces in Stalingrad . Around that time, Göring increasingly withdrew from military and political affairs to devote his attention to collecting property and artwork, much of which
5412-594: The Finnish Diet of 1863. Finnish also enjoys the status of an official minority language in Sweden . Under the Nordic Language Convention , citizens of the Nordic countries speaking Finnish have the opportunity to use their native language when interacting with official bodies in other Nordic countries without being liable to any interpretation or translation costs. However, concerns have been expressed about
5576-447: The French invasion of Russia in 1812. In late October or early November 1941, Hitler and Göring decided on the mass deportation of Soviet prisoners of war —and a larger number of Soviet civilians—to Germany for forced labor , but epidemics soon caused the halting of prisoner-of-war transports. Those who were deported to Germany faced conditions not necessarily any better than existed in
5740-602: The July 1932 election , the Nazis won 230 seats to become far and away the largest party in the Reichstag . By longstanding tradition, the Nazis were thus entitled to select the President of the Reichstag , and elected Göring to the post. He would retain this position until 23 April 1945. The Reichstag fire occurred on the night of 27 February 1933. Göring was one of the first to arrive on
5904-751: The Kriegsmarine , including 6 submarines and the cruisers Prinz Eugen and Niobe , were ordered to the area. This help was contingent on the Finns holding the VKT-line of defense. The requested six divisions would not be available at this time. On 21 June, the German High Command officially replied to the Finns that it was prepared to send the Finns one assault gun brigade, one detachment of aircraft, 30 assault guns, 40 Pak 40 anti-tank guns, 10,000 shots for Panzershreck anti-tank weapons, and some 85,000 rounds of artillery shells in various calibers. In turn,
6068-702: The Lapland War . The Finnish military ties to Germany date back to World War I and the Finnish Civil War . During World War I, some 1,900 Finnish volunteers of the Jäger Movement traveled in secret to Germany where they received military training and formed the 27th Royal Prussian Jäger Battalion . The Battalion fought as part of the Imperial German Army on the Eastern Front of World War I . Following
6232-575: The Nuremberg trials in 1946. He requested at trial for an execution by firing squad, but was denied, and instead he was sentenced to death by hanging. He committed suicide by ingesting cyanide the night before his scheduled execution. Göring was born on 12 January 1893 at the Marienbad Sanatorium in Rosenheim , Bavaria . His father, Heinrich Ernst Göring (31 October 1839 – 7 December 1913),
6396-521: The Ural Mountains region and/or the bend of the middle Volga . The strong case for Proto-Uralic is supported by common vocabulary with regularities in sound correspondences, as well as by the fact that the Uralic languages have many similarities in structure and grammar. Despite having overlapping geographical distributions, Finnic languages and Sami languages are not closely related, and the hypothesis of
6560-684: The Zähringer Lion with swords, the Friedrich Order , the House Order of Hohenzollern with swords third class, and finally, in May 1918, the coveted Pour le Mérite . According to Hermann Dahlmann , who knew both men, Göring had Loerzer lobby for the award. He finished the war with 22 victories . A thorough post-war examination of Allied loss records showed that only two of his awarded victories were doubtful. Three were possible and 17 were certain, or highly likely. On 7 July 1918, following
6724-418: The occupied Soviet Union . By the end of the war, at least 1.3 million Soviet prisoners of war had been deported to Germany or its annexed territories. Of these, 400,000 did not survive and most of these deaths occurred in the winter of 1941/1942. After the attack on Pearl Harbor , Göring, along with Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel and Admiral Erich Raeder , urged Hitler to immediately declare war on
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6888-506: The stem of a word and its grammatical ending in some cases, for example after acronyms , as in EU:ssa 'in the EU'. (This contrasts with some other alphabetic writing systems, which would use other symbols, such as e.g. apostrophe, hyphen.) Since suffixes play a prominent role in the language, this use of the colon is quite common. In the 19th century Johan Vilhelm Snellman and others began to stress
7052-514: The Allies; he refused. Many of his pilots intentionally crash-landed their planes to keep them from falling into enemy hands. Like many other German veterans, Göring was a proponent of the stab-in-the-back myth , the belief which held that the German Army had not really lost the war, but instead was betrayed by the civilian leadership: Marxists, Jews, and especially the republicans , who had overthrown
7216-569: The Czechs as an inferior race that must be conquered. Chamberlain and Hitler had a series of meetings that led to the signing of the Munich Agreement (29 September 1938), which turned over control of the Sudetenland to Germany. In March 1939, Göring threatened Czechoslovak president Emil Hácha with the bombing of Prague . Hácha then agreed to sign a communique accepting the German occupation of
7380-532: The Finnish army mobilizing on 10 June 1941. Following the start of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June, the Soviet Air Force struck various targets in Finland. These included both military targets, such as airfields used by the Germans, as well as civilian targets in Helsinki and other major Finnish cities. Following the bombings, the Finnish parliament announced on 25 June that war had broken out between Finland and
7544-453: The Finnish dialects. The most important contributions to improving the status of Finnish were made by Elias Lönnrot . His impact on the development of modern vocabulary in Finnish was particularly significant. In addition to compiling the Kalevala , he acted as an arbiter in disputes about the development of standard Finnish between the proponents of western and eastern dialects, ensuring that
7708-502: The Finnish leadership already during the Winter War, urging them to seek peace as the losses would be returned later. Later in the fall of 1940, the Finnish government allowed German troop movements to northern Norway. Concrete negotiations for the future war between military officials began in 1941, potentially as early as January, but at the latest on 25 May 1941 in Salzburg . The Finns and
7872-433: The Finnish parliament accepted the Soviet demands. A cease-fire was agreed to begin on 4 September, ending the war between the Finns and the Soviets. As part of the Soviet demands, the Finns were to evict any remaining German forces from Finland. Accordingly, on 2 September 1944, the Finns informed the Germans of severing all ties between the nations, and demanded that Germans leave Finland. Despite initial peaceful movements by
8036-515: The Finns also wanted closer political ties. Hitler reacted to the Finnish request for aid by first ordering that the troops assigned to operations Tanne Ost and Tanne West , contingency plans for the capture of Suursaari and Åland from the Finns, be put on high alert. Soon after, however, he decided to send one brigade of assault guns, a division of infantry, and a detachment of aircraft to Finland as aid. He also ordered shipments of military material to be expedited. Finally, several light ships of
8200-495: The Finns and the Germans. It appeared to the Germans that Finnish forces would not be able to halt the offensive on their own, and preparations were made to evacuate all German citizens from Finland. The Finnish General Headquarters, meanwhile, estimated that six to eight German divisions would be needed to defeat the Soviet offensive in addition to material aid. This request for troops was then conveyed to German officials in Finland on 20 June. According to historian Markku Jokisipilä,
8364-448: The Finns prepare for peace talks. The Germans answered these peace feelers by a weapons and grain embargo, which further increased the Finnish dependence on German aid. The situation deteriorated further when the Soviet Union launched the Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive on 9 June 1944. The situation had not stabilized by 17 June, and the Finns were being pushed back, especially on the Karelian Isthmus , causing increasing concern among both
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#17328513095678528-411: The Finns would have known that such a request was unrealistic given the larger German strategic situation, and that the request was likely also intended to test whether the Germans had sufficient forces to retaliate against Finland in case it decided to seek an exit from the war. The German representative in Finland, Waldemar Erfurth , reported this request to the German High Command , who understood that
8692-508: The German government. The agreement was criticized heavily both in Finland and internationally, but resulted in the renewal of German weapons shipments. The Social Democratic Party threatened to leave the government. While it did not act on the threat following internal debate, it published a statement where it denounced the letter and the idea that Finland was not in a separate defensive war. Internationally, United States severed diplomatic ties with Finland on 30 June. Historians disagree about
8856-413: The German intentions. The Finns were informed that a division from Heeresgruppe Nord had been ordered to reinforce the Finns, and that the first half of the promised assault gun brigade would arrive in Helsinki later that day. In all, the Germans could be expected to arrive at the front by 27 June. In negotiations with the Finnish President Risto Ryti during the night of 22–23 June, Ribbentrop indicated
9020-447: The German monarchy. Atop the frustration of military defeat, Göring also experienced the personal disappointment of being snubbed by his fiancée's upper-class family, who broke off the engagement when he returned penniless from the front. Göring remained in aviation after the war. He tried barnstorming and briefly worked at Fokker . After spending most of 1919 living in Denmark , he moved to Sweden and joined Svensk Lufttrafik ,
9184-447: The Germans agreed that Germany would take responsibility for operations in northern Finland, while the Finnish army was in charge of operations in the southeast of Finland and east of Lake Ladoga . The Finns would advance into Soviet Eastern Karelia where they would link up with German forces on the Svir . Forward elements of the German troops began arriving in Finland on 1 June, while follow-on talks continued in Helsinki to 6 June, with
9348-439: The Germans expected the Finns to hold the VKT-line of defenses. The situation, however, remained confused. In a phone call later that day, Erfurth was informed that the decision for sending aid had not, in fact, yet been officially made. Concurrently with these discussions, the Finnish leadership was privately discussing a need to exit the war, and decided to send out further peace feelers in secret. Some disagreement remains over
9512-402: The Germans sought a political commitment to the war, while the Finns sought increased military aid in the form of both troops and materiel. In the letter, Ryti agreed not to seek a separate peace in the war with the Soviet Union without approval from Nazi Germany. The letter was intentionally phrased by the Finns in a way where it would not bind Ryti's successors, as Finland had already contacted
9676-412: The Germans would be able to send further help in the form of aircraft and two or three assault gun brigades, and that a further one or two divisions of infantry could be "considered." On 23 June, Ribbentrop informed Erfurth that all help, including that currently en route, was contingent on a clear, official, "confessions" to Germany and that the "theory" of a Finnish separate war was no longer acceptable to
9840-401: The Germans, the situation soon deteriorated in the wake of an attempted German landing on the Finnish-held Suursaari , resulting in the Finno-German Lapland War , which ended on 27 April 1945 when the last German forces left Finnish territory. Finnish language Finnish ( endonym : suomi [ˈsuo̯mi] or suomen kieli [ˈsuo̯meŋ ˈkie̯li] ) is
10004-429: The Germans. Debate remains about whether the rest of the German military and political leadership was aware of Ribbentrop's hard line. By 26 June, Mannerheim had been convinced that the Finns had to accept the German demands, but sought ways to make an agreement less binding. In the end, following Finno-German negotiations over some of the exact verbiage driven by the Finnish minister of foreign affairs Henrik Ramsay , it
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#173285130956710168-439: The Germans. The decision would have to be made by 25 June, when Ribbentrop was to travel to Bulgaria, and this information was conveyed to the Finnish representatives the following day. While the Finnish political and military leadership continued discussions on how to reply to the German demands, a Soviet reply to the Finnish peace feelers arrived in Helsinki. In it, the Soviet Union demanded an official declaration, signed by both
10332-403: The Greater German Reich Adolf Hitler Your Highness! In reference to discussions held with you, I wish to declare my satisfaction on the fact that Germany will fulfill the wish of the Finnish government regarding military aid and that, in the light of the Soviet attacks in Karelia, will without delay give aid to the Finnish Army by sending German troops and materiel. In addition, I have noticed
10496-401: The Göring family, who were surviving on Heinrich's pension, first with a family home in Berlin-Friedenau, and then a small castle called Veldenstein, near Nuremberg . Göring's mother became Epenstein's mistress around this time and remained so for some fifteen years. Epenstein acquired the minor title of Ritter (knight) von Epenstein through service and donations to the Crown. Interested in
10660-404: The Nazi cause, such as Prince August Wilhelm of Prussia and the conservative-minded businessmen, Fritz Thyssen and Hjalmar Schacht . The Great Depression led to a disastrous downturn in the German economy, and in the 1930 election , the Nazi Party won 6,409,600 votes and 107 seats. In May 1931, Hitler sent Göring on a mission to the Vatican , where he met the future Pope Pius XII . In
10824-423: The Nazis to agitate. The SA was reorganised, but with Franz Pfeffer von Salomon as its head rather than Göring, and the Schutzstaffel (SS) was founded in 1925, initially as a bodyguard for Hitler. Membership in the party increased from 27,000 in 1925 to 108,000 in 1928 and 178,000 in 1929. In the May 1928 elections the Nazi Party only obtained 12 seats out of an available 491 in the Reichstag . Göring
10988-714: The Sixth Army—some 91,000 men out of an army of 285,000—surrendered in early February 1943; only 5,000 of these captives survived the Soviet prisoner of war camps to see Germany again. Meanwhile, the strength of the US and British bomber fleets had increased. Based in Britain, they began operations against German targets . The first thousand-bomber raid was staged on Cologne on 30 May 1942. Air raids continued on targets farther from England after auxiliary fuel tanks were installed on US fighter aircraft . Göring refused to believe reports that American fighters had been shot down as far east as Aachen in winter 1942–1943. His reputation began to decline. The American P-51 Mustang , with
11152-463: The Soviet Union attacked Finland. The attack followed the signing of the Soviet–German Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact which in a secret appendix assigned Finland into the Soviet sphere of influence. While the international reactions to the war were strongly against the Soviet Union, the international outrage materialized in only limited support, focused on materiel rather than troops. The British and French planned for an expeditionary force in December 1939, but
11316-415: The Soviet Union in secret, seeking to exit the war. During the negotiations, the Germans sent to Finland one infantry division, a brigade of assault guns, and a Luftwaffe detachment. The Finns also received significant amounts of anti-tank weaponry. Because most of the German aid either predated the agreement, or alternatively arrived too late to meaningfully contribute to the Finnish success in stabilizing
11480-406: The Soviet Union. The Finnish Army of Karelia began offensive operations in south-eastern Finland on the night of 9–10 July 1941, with Finnish troops crossing the border soon after midnight. The Finnish forces reached Svir by 8 September, with forces of the Finnish VI corps arriving at Kuuttilahti, Lodeynoye Pole and the Svir railway station. The Finns crossed the river on 12 September, establishing
11644-425: The Soviet Union—on 22 June 1941. Initially, the Luftwaffe was at an advantage, destroying thousands of Soviet aircraft in the first month of fighting. Hitler and his top staff were sure that the campaign would be over by Christmas, and no provisions were made for reserves of men or equipment. But, by July, the Germans had only 1,000 planes remaining in operation, and their troop losses were over 213,000 men. The choice
11808-637: The Soviets informed the Finns that they were prepared for peace negotiations, with the main demand being that Finland would need to change its government. As a result, on 1 August 1944, Ryti resigned the presidency and was replaced by Mannerheim on 4 August. The Germans attempted to keep the Finns involved in the war by sending Chief of the German High Command Wilhelm Keitel to Helsinki on 17 August, but Mannerheim informed Keitel he did not consider himself to be bound by Ryti's agreement. Finno-Soviet negotiations continued until 2 September, when
11972-622: The Soviets to encircle and trap it there without reinforcements or supplies. When the Sixth Army was surrounded by the end of November in Operation Uranus , Göring promised that the Luftwaffe would be able to deliver a minimum of 300 tons of supplies to the trapped men every day. On the basis of these assurances, Hitler demanded that there be no retreat; they were to fight to the last man. Though some airlifts were able to get through, supplies delivered never exceeded 120 tons per day. The remnants of
12136-520: The United States. Hitler decided that the summer 1942 campaign would be concentrated in the south; efforts would be made to capture the oilfields in the Caucasus . The Battle of Stalingrad , a major turning point of the war, began on 23 August 1942 with a bombing campaign by the Luftwaffe. The German Sixth Army entered the city, but because of its location on the front line, it was still possible for
12300-618: The United States. The majority of the population of Finland (90.37% as of 2010 ) speak Finnish as their first language . The remainder speak Swedish (5.42%), one of the Sámi languages (for example Northern , Inari , or Skolt ), or another language as their first language. Finnish is spoken as a second language in Estonia by about 167,000 people. The Finnic varities found in Norway's Finnmark (namely Kven ) and in northern Sweden (namely Meänkieli ) have
12464-1541: The agreement had been crafted specifically so as to not bind his successors. The final text of the letter, as sent by Ryti, is as follows (Finnish on the left, English translation on the right): Suur-Saksan Valtakunnan Johtaja Adolf Hitler Korkeutenne! Viitaten kanssanne käytyihin keskusteluihin haluan lausua tyydytykseni siitä, että Saksa tulee täyttämään Suomen hallituksen toivomuksen, joka koskee aseellista apua, ja että se, huomioon ottaen venäläisten hyökkäykset Karjalassa, viipymättä antaa apua Suomen sotavoimille lähettämällä saksalaisia joukkoja ja materiaalia. Lisäksi olen todennut Valtakunnanulkoministerin antaman lupauksen, jonka mukaan Saksan valtakunta tulevaisuudessakin tulee antamaan Suomelle kaikkea sen omiin mahdollisuuksiin kuuluvaa apua, lyödäkseen yhdessä Suomen sotavoimien kanssa venäläisten Suomea vastaan tekemän rynnistyksen takaisin. Saan tässä yhteydessä vakuuttaa Teille, että Suomi on päättänyt käydä Saksan rinnalla sotaa Neuvostovenäjää vastaan siksi, kunnes se uhka, jolle Suomi on alttiina Neuvostoliiton taholta, on poistettu. Huomioon ottaen sen aseveljen avun, jota Saksa antaa Suomelle nykyisessä vaikeassa asemassaan, selitän Suomen tasavallan presidenttinä, etten muuta kuin yhteisymmärryksessä Saksan valtakunnan hallituksen kanssa tee rauhaa Neuvostoliiton kanssa enkä salli, että nimittämäni Suomen hallitus tai kukaan muukaan henkilö ryhtyy aselepoa tai rauhaa koskeviin neuvotteluihin muuten kuin yhteisymmärryksessä Saksan valtakunnan hallituksen kanssa. Führer of
12628-713: The area of Mülhausen , a garrison town less than 2 km from the French frontier. He was hospitalized with rheumatism , a result of the damp of trench warfare . While he was recovering, his friend Bruno Loerzer convinced him to transfer to what would become, by October 1916, the Luftstreitkräfte ( transl. air combat forces ) of the German army, but his request was turned down. Later that year, Göring flew as Loerzer's observer in Feldflieger Abteilung 25 (FFA 25); Göring had informally transferred himself. He
12792-524: The border created between Sweden and Finland in 1809 when Russia annexed Finland. This caused the speakers of Meänkieli to be isolated from the developments of standard Finnish and instead be influenced by the Swedish language. However, it is still mutually integible with Finnish, and is thus sometimes considered a dialect of the Finnish language. The Kven language is spoken in Finnmark and Troms , in Norway. Its speakers are descendants of Finnish emigrants to
12956-773: The castle Veldenstein and studying Teutonic legends and sagas. He became a mountain climber, scaling peaks in Germany, at the Mont Blanc massif , and in the Austrian Alps . At age 16, he was sent to a military academy in Berlin-Lichterfelde , from which he graduated with distinction. Göring joined the Prince Wilhelm Regiment (112th Infantry, Garrison: Mülhausen ) of the Prussian Army in 1912. The next year his mother had
13120-442: The civil war, the jäger volunteers would go on to take leading roles in the post-civil war Finnish Army , which was consequently heavily influenced by a German military tradition. Following the civil war, Germanophilic , Russophobic and anti-communist stances were prevalent especially among the ruling elites and the military leadership. These anti-communist sentiments were common even among those Finnish officers whose background
13284-437: The colloquial language) ei kö teillä ole e(i) ks teil(lä) oo "don't you (pl.) have (it)?" (compare eiks to standard Estonian confirmatory interrogative eks ) Hermann G%C3%B6ring Hermann Wilhelm Göring (or Goering ; German: [ˈhɛʁman ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈɡøːʁɪŋ] ; 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader, and convicted war criminal. He
13448-404: The country. One is the "standard language" ( yleiskieli ), and the other is the " spoken language " ( puhekieli ). The standard language is used in formal situations like political speeches and newscasts. Its written form, the "book language" ( kirjakieli ), is used in nearly all written texts, not always excluding even the dialogue of common people in popular prose. The spoken language, on
13612-407: The death of Wilhelm Reinhard , successor to Manfred von Richthofen , Göring was made commander of the "Flying Circus", Jagdgeschwader 1 . His arrogance made him unpopular with the men of his squadron. In the last days of the war, Göring was repeatedly ordered to withdraw his squadron, first to Tellancourt airdrome, then to Darmstadt . At one point, he was ordered to surrender the aircraft to
13776-478: The difference between saying "There's no children I'll leave it to" and "There are no children to whom I shall leave it"). More common is the intrusion of typically literary constructions into a colloquial discourse, as a kind of quote from written Finnish. It is quite common to hear book-like and polished speech on radio or TV, and the constant exposure to such language tends to lead to the adoption of such constructions even in everyday language. A prominent example of
13940-474: The discussions within the German leadership between 21 and 22 June. In any case, on 22 June 1944, Hitler sent his minister of foreign affairs Joachim von Ribbentrop to Helsinki. Ribbentrop was instructed to force the Finnish government to sign a political treaty with Germany in exchange for continued weapons shipments and other military aid. On the same day, the German cruisers Prinz Eugen and Admiral Hipper arrived in Helsinki, prompting Finnish concerns about
14104-518: The drug, he left the facility briefly, but had to return for further treatment. He returned to Germany when an amnesty was declared in 1927 and resumed working in the aircraft industry. Carin Göring, ill with epilepsy and tuberculosis , died of heart failure on 17 October 1931. Meanwhile, the Nazi Party was in a period of rebuilding and waiting. The economy had recovered, which meant fewer opportunities for
14268-445: The effect of the standard language is the development of the consonant gradation form /ts : ts/ as in metsä : metsän , as this pattern was originally (1940) found natively only in the dialects of the southern Karelian isthmus and Ingria . It has been reinforced by the spelling "ts" for the dental fricative [θː] , used earlier in some western dialects. The spelling and the pronunciation this encourages however approximate
14432-522: The end of the year. Jokisipilä cites historian Osmo Kolehmainen, who states that the German aid had an "almost inconsequential" effect on the stabilization of the front, with the exception of the Luftwaffe detachment. Only a few weeks later, on 12 July, the Soviet offensive was officially halted, with troops transferred further south. Soon after, Hitler decided to pull back any German presence in southern Finland. Two assault gun brigades that had been ordered to Finland were instead redirected to other sectors of
14596-654: The existence of the Luftwaffe was formally acknowledged, with Göring as Reich Aviation Minister. During a cabinet meeting in September 1936, Göring and Hitler announced that the German rearmament programme must be sped up. On 18 October, Hitler named Göring as Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan to undertake this task. Göring created a new organisation to administer the Plan and drew
14760-551: The formal. However, in signalling the former in writing, syncope and sandhi – especially internal – may occasionally amongst other characteristics be transcribed, e.g. menenpä → me(n)empä . This never occurs in the standard variety. he mene vät ne mene e "they go" loss of a number contrast on verbs in the 3rd person ( menee is 3rd person singular in the formal language) ( minä) o le n mä o o n "I am" or "I will be" and no pro-drop (i.e., personal pronouns are usually mandatory in
14924-400: The front, and on 21 July, Detachment Kuhlmey was recalled from Finland. While the Soviet offensive had been halted, the Finns remained in a precarious strategic situation. They were still dependent on German food, and German forces remained in the country. At the same time, the Soviets would have no need for a negotiated peace if Finland waited until a German exit from the war. On 17 July 1944,
15088-446: The future status of Finnish in Sweden, for example, where reports produced for the Swedish government during 2017 show that minority language policies are not being respected, particularly for the 7% of Finns settled in the country. The Uralic family of languages, of which Finnish is a member, are hypothesized to derive from a single ancestor language termed Proto-Uralic , spoken sometime between 8,000 and 2,000 BCE (estimates vary) in
15252-456: The grammatical and phonological changes also include the most common pronouns and suffixes, which amount to frequent but modest differences. Some sound changes have been left out of the formal language. For example, irregular verbs have developed in the spoken language as a result of the elision of sonorants in some verbs of the Type III class (with subsequent vowel assimilation ), but only when
15416-499: The head of my SA. He is the only one of its heads that ran the SA properly. I gave him a dishevelled rabble. In a very short time he had organised a division of 11,000 men. Hitler and the Nazi Party held mass meetings and rallies in Munich and elsewhere during the early 1920s, attempting to gain supporters in a bid for political power. Inspired by Benito Mussolini 's March on Rome , the Nazis attempted to seize power on 8–9 November 1923 in
15580-594: The help of a comrade in arms, which Germany is giving Finland in its current difficult situation, I will note as the President of the Republic, that I will not, unless in agreement with the government of the German Reich, make peace with the Soviet Union, nor will I allow that a Government of Finland or any other person appointed by me to begin negotiations for an armistice or peace with the Soviet Union unless in agreement with
15744-568: The lack of natural resources in Germany and began pushing for Austria to be incorporated into the Reich. The province of Styria had rich iron ore deposits, and the country as a whole was home to many skilled labourers who would also be useful. Hitler had always been in favour of a takeover of Austria, his native country. He met the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg on 12 February 1938, threatening invasion if peaceful unification
15908-470: The language, which he based on Swedish, German, and Latin. The Finnish standard language still relies on his innovations with regard to spelling, though Agricola used less systematic spelling than is used today. Though Agricola's intention was that each phoneme (and allophone under qualitative consonant gradation ) should correspond to one letter, he failed to achieve this goal in various respects. For example, k , c , and q were all used for
16072-529: The last year of his life. After Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Göring was named as minister without portfolio in the new government. One of his first acts as a cabinet minister was to oversee the creation of the Gestapo , which he ceded to Heinrich Himmler in 1934. Following the establishment of the Nazi state, Göring amassed power and political capital to become the second most powerful man in Germany. He
16236-591: The level which private enterprise could economically provide. In 1938, Göring was involved in the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair , which led to the resignations of the War Minister, Generalfeldmarschall Werner von Blomberg , and the army commander, General Werner von Fritsch . Göring had acted as witness at Blomberg's wedding to Margarethe Gruhn, a 26-year-old typist, on 12 January 1938. Information received from
16400-530: The lists of prisoners—numbering in the thousands—and determined who else should be shot. At least 85 people were killed in the period of 30 June to 2 July, which is now known as the Night of the Long Knives . Hitler admitted in the Reichstag on 13 July that the killings had been entirely illegal but claimed a plot had been under way to overthrow the Reich. A retroactive law was passed making the action legal. Any criticism
16564-415: The main cultural and political centres. The standard language, however, has always been a consciously constructed medium for literature. It preserves grammatical patterns that have mostly vanished from the colloquial varieties and, as its main application is writing, it features complex syntactic patterns that are not easy to handle when used in speech. The colloquial language develops significantly faster, and
16728-565: The major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive, which was resumed in October 1941 with the Battle of Moscow . Poor weather conditions, fuel shortages, a delay in building aircraft bases in Eastern Europe, and overstretched supply lines were also factors. Hitler did not give permission for even a partial retreat until mid-January 1942; by this time the losses were comparable to those of
16892-544: The military situation, historians have questioned whether the agreement was a necessity for the Finns. The agreement, which completely bypassed the Finnish Parliament , was criticized heavily both within Finland and internationally. In July, Germany pulled all forces out of southern Finland, and Ryti resigned on 1 August, resulting in a Finno-Soviet armistice on 2 September. As a condition for peace, Finland had to remove any remaining German forces from Lapland, resulting in
17056-520: The military. As a result of this promotion, he was the highest-ranking soldier in Germany until the end of the war. Göring had already received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939 as Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe. The UK had declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, the third day of the invasion of Poland. In July 1940, Hitler began preparations for an invasion of Britain. As part of
17220-491: The ministries of labour and agriculture under its umbrella. He bypassed the Economics Ministry in his policy-making decisions, to the chagrin of Hjalmar Schacht , the minister in charge. Huge expenditures were made on rearmament, in spite of growing deficits. Schacht resigned on 26 November 1937, and Göring took over the Economics Ministry on an interim basis until January 1938. He then managed to install Walther Funk in
17384-411: The modern-day eastern Finnish dialects, Veps, Karelian, and Ingrian) formed genitive plural nouns via plural stems (e.g., eastern Finnish kalojen < * kaloi -ten ), the western dialects of Proto-Finnic (today's Estonian, Livonian and western Finnish varieties) used the non-plural stems (e.g., Est. kalade < * kala -ten ). Another defining characteristic of the east–west split
17548-607: The most part, the dialects operate on the same phonology and grammar. There are only marginal examples of sounds or grammatical constructions specific to some dialect and not found in standard Finnish. Two examples are the voiced dental fricative found in the Rauma dialect , and the Eastern exessive case . The Southwest Finnish dialects ( lounaissuomalaismurteet ) are spoken in Southwest Finland and Satakunta . Their typical feature
17712-466: The necessity of the agreement. There exists a general agreement that especially the Panzerfaust and Panzerschrek anti-tank weapons were the most important part of the German aid. The weapons used to halt the Soviet offensive, however, were already in Finland by the time the agreement was signed. Some historians, such as Vesa Nenye et al. , state that the German military materiel, together with support from
17876-419: The need to improve the status of Finnish. Ever since the days of Mikael Agricola, written Finnish had been used almost exclusively in religious contexts, but now Snellman's Hegelian nationalistic ideas of Finnish as a fully-fledged national language gained considerable support. Concerted efforts were made to improve the status of the language and to modernize it, and by the end of the century Finnish had become
18040-453: The original pronunciation, still reflected in e.g. Karelian /čč : č/ ( meččä : mečän ). In the spoken language, a fusion of Western /tt : tt/ ( mettä : mettän ) and Eastern /ht : t/ ( mehtä : metän ) has resulted in /tt : t/ ( mettä : metän ). Neither of these forms are identifiable as, or originate from, a specific dialect. The orthography of informal language follows that of
18204-596: The other hand, is the main variety of Finnish used in popular TV and radio shows and at workplaces, and may be preferred to a dialect in personal communication. Standard Finnish is prescribed by the Language Office of the Research Institute for the Languages of Finland and is the language used in official communication. The Dictionary of Contemporary Finnish ( Nykysuomen sanakirja 1951–61), with 201,000 entries,
18368-508: The outbreak of the Second World War , Hitler appointed Göring as the chairman of a new six-person Council of Ministers for the Defense of the Reich which was set up to operate as a war cabinet. The invasion of Poland, the opening action of World War II, began at dawn on 1 September 1939. Later in the day, speaking to the Reichstag , Hitler designated Göring as his successor as Führer of all Germany, "If anything should befall me", with Hess as
18532-447: The phoneme / k / . Likewise, he alternated between dh and d to represent the allophonic [ ð ] (like th in English this ), between dh and z to represent / θː / (like th in thin , but longer in duration), and between gh and g to represent the allophonic [ ɣ ] . Agricola did not consistently represent vowel length in his orthography. Others revised Agricola's work later, striving for
18696-519: The pilot's training course, Göring was assigned to Jagdstaffel 5 . Seriously wounded in the hip in aerial combat, he took nearly a year to recover. He then was transferred to Jagdstaffel 26 , commanded by Loerzer, in February 1917. He steadily scored air victories until May, when he was assigned to command Jagdstaffel 27 . Serving with Jastas 5, 26 and 27, he continued to win victories. In addition to his Iron Crosses (1st and 2nd Class), he received
18860-506: The plan, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had to be neutralized. Bombing raids commenced on British air installations and on cities and centres of industry. Göring had by then already announced in a radio speech, "If as much as a single enemy aircraft flies over German soil, my name is Meier!", something that would return to haunt him, when the RAF began bombing German cities on 11 May 1940. Though he
19024-419: The plans remained "diffused" and vague to the end of the war. Similarly, the lack of German support came as a shock to many in Finland. After the end of the Winter War in early 1940, Finnish officers began discussions with Germans about a possible future war with the Soviet Union. While historians have been unable to establish exactly what was discussed when and by whom, it is known that Hermann Göring messaged
19188-516: The plebiscite was cancelled. By 5:30 the next morning, German troops that had been massing on the border marched into Austria, meeting no resistance. Although Joachim von Ribbentrop had been named Foreign Minister in February 1938, Göring continued to involve himself in foreign affairs. That July, he contacted the British government with the idea that he should make an official visit to discuss Germany's intentions for Czechoslovakia. Neville Chamberlain
19352-483: The police showed that the young bride was a prostitute. Göring felt obligated to tell Hitler, but also saw this event as an opportunity to dispose of Blomberg. Blomberg was forced to resign. Göring did not want Fritsch to be appointed to that position and thus be his superior. Several days later, Heydrich revealed a file on Fritsch that contained allegations of homosexual activity and blackmail. The charges were later proven to be false, but Fritsch had lost Hitler's trust and
19516-531: The position, who also took control of the Reichsbank when Schacht was forced out of that post as well in January 1939. In this way, both of these institutions effectively were brought under Göring's control under the auspices of the Four Year Plan. In July 1937, the Reichswerke Hermann Göring was established under state ownership – though led by Göring – with the aim of boosting steel production beyond
19680-441: The president and the minister of foreign affairs, that the Finns truly were prepared to surrender. This caused further chaos in the Finnish leadership, who were divided about the correct steps to take. In a meeting on 24 June, the Finnish leadership estimated that the situation on the Finnish fronts had stabilized, with Soviet forces suffering heavy casualties and transferring their focus further south. The Germans were presented with
19844-401: The prisoners should be shot, but Rudolf Diels , head of the Prussian political police, ignored the order. Some researchers, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock , are of the opinion that the Nazi Party itself was responsible for starting the fire. At the Nuremberg trials , General Franz Halder testified that Göring admitted responsibility for starting the fire. He said that, at
20008-497: The promise of the Reich's foreign minister, according to which the German Reich will continue to give Finland all the help it is able to so that it can, together with the Finnish Army, turn back the Soviet assault on Finland. At this conjuncture, I can ensure You, that Finland has decided to wage war alongside Germany against the Soviet Union until the threat posed by the Soviet Union against Finland has been eliminated. In light of
20172-714: The region in the 18th and 19th centuries. Kven is an official minority language in Norway. The Eastern dialects consist of the widespread Savonian dialects ( savolaismurteet ) spoken in Savo and nearby areas, and the South-Eastern dialects now spoken only in Finnish South Karelia . The South Karelian dialects ( eteläkarjalaismurteet ) were previously also spoken on the Karelian Isthmus and in Ingria . The Karelian Isthmus
20336-422: The remainder of Bohemia and Moravia . Although many in the party disliked him, before the war Göring enjoyed widespread personal popularity among the German public because of his perceived sociability, colour and humour. As the Nazi leader most responsible for economic matters, he presented himself as a champion of national interests over allegedly corrupt big business and the old German elite. The Nazi press
20500-570: The scene. Marinus van der Lubbe , a Communist radical, was arrested and claimed sole responsibility for the fire. Göring immediately called for a crackdown on Communists. The Nazis took advantage of the fire to advance their own political aims. The Reichstag Fire Decree , passed the next day on Hitler's urging, suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed, and some 4,000 Party members were arrested. Göring demanded that
20664-564: The second alternate. Big German victories followed one after the other in quick succession. With the help of the Luftwaffe, the Polish Air Force was defeated within a week. The Fallschirmjäger seized vital airfields in Norway ( Operation Weserübung ) and captured Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium on 10 May 1940, the first day of the Battle of France . Göring's Luftwaffe played critical roles in
20828-401: The second syllable of the word is short. The result is that some forms in the spoken language are shortened, e.g. tule-n → tuu-n ('I come'), while others remain identical to the standard language hän tulee "he comes", never * hän tuu ). However, the longer forms such as tule can be used in spoken language in other forms as well. The literary language certainly still exerts
20992-640: The start of the Finnish Civil War on 27 January 1918, the volunteers returned to Finland to fight on the side of the Whites . They took various roles in the White army, with some 400 jägers being promoted to officers and approximately 660 becoming non-commissioned officers . The jägers were soon joined by Imperial German forces who also took part on the side of the Whites and captured the capital Helsinki by mid-April. After
21156-636: The status of official minority languages, and thus can be considered distinct languages from Finnish. However, since these languages are mutually intelligible , one may alternatively view them as dialects of the same language . No language census exists for Norway, neither for Kven, standard Finnish, or combined. As of 2023, 7,454 first- or second-generation immigrants from Finland were registered as having Norwegian residency, while as of 2021, 235 Finns were registered as foreigners studying at Norwegian higher education. Great Norwegian Encyclopedia estimates Kven speakers at 2,000-8,000. Altogether, this results in
21320-459: The travel journal, the words are those of a Finnish bishop whose name is unknown. The erroneous use of gelen (Modern Finnish kielen ) in the accusative case, rather than kieltä in the partitive, and the lack of the conjunction mutta are typical of foreign speakers of Finnish even today. At the time, most priests in Finland spoke Swedish . During the Middle Ages, when Finland
21484-422: The two standard languages being not mutually intelligible. Finnish demonstrates an affiliation with other Uralic languages (such as Hungarian and Sami languages ) in several respects including: Several theories exist as to the geographic origin of Finnish and the other Uralic languages. The most widely held view is that they originated as a Proto-Uralic language somewhere in the boreal forest belt around
21648-495: The use of Finnish through parish clerk schools, the use of Swedish in church, and by having Swedish-speaking servants and maids move to Finnish-speaking areas. The first comprehensive writing system for Finnish was created by Mikael Agricola , a Finnish bishop, in the 16th century. He based his writing system on the western dialects . Agricola's ultimate plan was to translate the Bible , but first he had to develop an orthography for
21812-492: The vicinity of the Ural Mountains . Over time, Proto-Uralic split into various daughter languages , which themselves continued to change and diverge, yielding yet more descendants. One of these descendants is the reconstructed Proto-Finnic , from which the Finnic languages developed. Current models assume that three or more Proto-Finnic dialects evolved during the first millennium BCE. These dialects were defined geographically, and were distinguished from one another along
21976-626: The western dialects preferred by Agricola retained their preeminent role, while many originally dialect words from Eastern Finland were introduced to the standard language, thus enriching it considerably. The first novel written in Finnish (and by a Finnish speaker) was Seven Brothers ( Seitsemän veljestä ), published by Aleksis Kivi in 1870. The dialects of Finnish are divided into two distinct groups, Western and Eastern. The dialects are largely mutually intelligible and are distinguished from each other by changes in vowels, diphthongs and rhythm, as well as in preferred grammatical constructions. For
22140-403: The western parts of Lapland are recognizable by retention of old "h" sounds in positions where they have disappeared from other dialects. One form of speech related to Northern dialects, Meänkieli , which is spoken on the Swedish side of the border is recognized in Sweden as its own distinct language, having its own standardized language separate from Finnish. This form of speech developed from
22304-492: Was a prescriptive dictionary that defined official language. An additional volume for words of foreign origin ( Nykysuomen sivistyssanakirja , 30,000 entries) was published in 1991. An updated dictionary, The New Dictionary of Modern Finnish ( Kielitoimiston sanakirja ) was published in an electronic form in 2004 and in print in 2006. A descriptive grammar (the Large grammar of Finnish , Iso suomen kielioppi , 1,600 pages)
22468-426: Was among the first to be promoted to the recently created rank of SA- Obergruppenführer , and he held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945. Through the early years, Carin—who liked Hitler—often played hostess to meetings of leading Nazis, including her husband as well as Hitler, Rudolf Hess , Alfred Rosenberg , and Ernst Röhm . Hitler later recalled his early association with Göring: I liked him. I made him
22632-558: Was appointed commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe (air force), a position he held until the final days of the regime. Upon being named Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan in 1936, Göring was entrusted with the task of mobilizing all sectors of the economy for war, an assignment which brought numerous government agencies under his control. In September 1939, Hitler gave a speech to the Reichstag designating him as his successor. After
22796-501: Was born, his father was serving as consul general in Haiti , and his mother had returned home briefly to give birth. She left the six-week-old baby with a friend in Bavaria and did not see the child again for three years, when she and Heinrich returned to Germany. Göring's godfather was Hermann Epenstein , a wealthy Jewish physician and businessman his father had met in Africa. Epenstein provided
22960-576: Was by then in prison. Hitler penned Mein Kampf while incarcerated, before being released in December 1924. Meanwhile, personal problems continued to multiply for Göring. By 1925, Carin's mother was ill. The Görings—with difficulty—raised the money in the spring of 1925 for a journey to Sweden via Austria, Czechoslovakia , Poland, and Danzig (now Gdańsk). Göring had become a violent morphine addict; Carin's family were shocked by his deterioration. Carin, who
23124-450: Was confident the Luftwaffe could defeat the RAF within days, Göring, like Admiral Erich Raeder , commander-in-chief of the Kriegsmarine (navy), was pessimistic about the chance of success of the planned invasion (codenamed Operation Sea Lion ). Göring hoped that a victory in the air would be enough to force peace without an invasion. The campaign failed, and Sea Lion was postponed indefinitely on 17 September 1940. After their defeat in
23288-402: Was decided that the Finnish government would completely bypass the parliament , and instead send a letter, signed personally by Ryti, which stated that no Finnish government or official authorized by Ryti would start peace negotiations without consulting with Germany. The letter had neither the official support of the Finnish government, nor was it passed through parliament. Ryti later stated that
23452-476: Was deeply concerned that Ernst Röhm , the chief of the SA, was planning a coup. Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich plotted with Göring to use the Gestapo and SS to crush the SA. Members of the SA got wind of the proposed action and thousands of them took to the streets in violent demonstrations on the night of 29 June 1934. Enraged, Hitler ordered the arrest of the SA leadership. Röhm was shot dead in his cell when he refused to commit suicide; Göring personally went over
23616-609: Was discovered and sentenced to three weeks' confinement to barracks, but the sentence was never carried out. By the time it was supposed to be imposed, Göring's association with Loerzer had been made official. They were assigned as a team to FFA 25 in the Crown Prince 's Fifth Army. They flew reconnaissance and bombing missions, for which the Crown Prince invested both Göring and Loerzer with the Iron Cross , first class. After completing
23780-472: Was elected as a representative from Bavaria. Having secured a seat in the Reichstag , Göring gained a more prominent place in the Nazi movement, since Hitler saw him as a public relations officer for Nazism in this capacity. Göring continued to be elected to the Reichstag in all subsequent elections during the Weimar and Nazi regimes. Electoral success also afforded Göring with access to powerful sympathizers to
23944-460: Was evacuated during World War II and refugees were resettled all over Finland. Most Ingrian Finns were deported to various interior areas of the Soviet Union. Palatalization , a common feature of Uralic languages, had been lost in the Finnic branch, but it has been reacquired by most of these languages, including Eastern Finnish, but not Western Finnish. In Finnish orthography, this is denoted with
24108-515: Was followed on 11 April 1933 by his appointment as Minister-President of Prussia, Prussian interior minister and chief of the Prussian police. On 25 April 1933, Hitler also delegated his powers as Reichsstatthalter (Reich Governor) of Prussia to Göring. On 18 May 1933, Göring secured passage of an enabling act through the Landtag of Prussia that conferred all legislative powers on the cabinet. Using this authority, on 8 July 1933 Göring enacted
24272-502: Was forced to resign. Hitler used the dismissals as an opportunity to reshuffle the leadership of the military. Göring asked for the post of War Minister but was turned down; he was appointed to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall . Hitler took over as supreme commander of the armed forces and created subordinate posts to head the three main branches of service. As minister in charge of the Four-Year Plan, Göring became concerned with
24436-498: Was held the night before at the Berlin Opera House . Fighter aircraft flew overhead on the night of the reception and the day of the ceremony, at which Hitler was best man. Göring's daughter, Edda , was born on 2 June 1938. Final solution Parties When Hitler was named chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, Göring was appointed as Reichsminister without portfolio and Reichskommissar of Aviation. This
24600-460: Was ill with epilepsy and a weak heart, had to allow the doctors to take charge of Göring; her son was taken by his father. Göring was certified a dangerous drug addict and was placed in Långbro Asylum on 1 September 1925. He was violent to the point where he had to be confined in a straitjacket , but his psychiatrist felt he was sane; the condition was caused solely by the morphine. Weaned off
24764-699: Was immediately infatuated and asked her to meet him in Stockholm. They arranged a visit at the home of her parents and spent much time together through 1921, when Göring left to study political science at the University of Munich . Carin obtained a divorce, followed Göring to Munich, and married him on 3 February 1922. Their first home together was a hunting lodge at Hochkreuth in the Bavarian Alps , near Bayrischzell , some 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Munich. Later in 1922, they moved to Obermenzing [ de ] ,
24928-520: Was in favour of a meeting, and there was talk of a pact being signed between Britain and Germany. In February 1938, Göring visited Warsaw to quell rumours about the upcoming invasion of Poland . He had conversations with the Hungarian government that summer as well, discussing their potential role in an invasion of Czechoslovakia. At the Nuremberg Rally that September, Göring and other speakers denounced
25092-621: Was in the Russian Army. At the same time, this Germanophilia was not accompanied by keen Nazi sympathy. For example, Marshal Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim , who commanded the White forces during the Finnish Civil War and would go on to command the Finnish military during World War II, "preferred alliances with the Western Powers and the Scandinavian countries rather than with Germany." The Finno-Soviet Winter War began on 26 November 1939, when
25256-426: Was made a member of Hans Frank 's Academy for German Law at its inaugural meeting. In July 1934, he was appointed Reichforstmeister , with the rank of a Reichsminister , as the head of the newly created Reich Forestry Office . Wilhelm Frick , the Reich interior minister, and the head of the SS, Heinrich Himmler , hoped to create a unified police force for all of Germany, but Göring on 26 April 1933 established
25420-485: Was made to concentrate the attack on only one part of the vast front; efforts would be directed at capturing Moscow. After the long, but successful, Battle of Smolensk , Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to halt its advance to Moscow and temporarily diverted its Panzer groups north and south to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev . The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilize fresh reserves; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of
25584-405: Was met with arrests. One of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles , which had been in place since the end of World War I, stated that Germany was not allowed to maintain an air force. After the 1928 signing of the Kellogg–Briand Pact , police aircraft were permitted. Göring was appointed Air Traffic Minister in May 1933. Germany began to accumulate aircraft in violation of the Treaty, and in 1935
25748-444: Was not forthcoming. The Nazi Party was made legal in Austria to gain a power base, and a referendum on reunification was scheduled for March. When Hitler did not approve of the wording of the plebiscite, Göring telephoned Schuschnigg and Austrian head of state Wilhelm Miklas to demand Schuschnigg's resignation, threatening invasion by German troops and civil unrest by the Austrian Nazi Party members. Schuschnigg resigned on 11 March and
25912-452: Was on Göring's side. Other leaders, such as Hess and Ribbentrop, were envious of his popularity. In Britain and the United States, some viewed Göring as more acceptable than the other Nazis and as a possible mediator between the western democracies and Hitler. Göring and other senior officers were concerned that Germany was not yet ready for war, but Hitler insisted on pushing ahead as soon as possible. On 30 August 1939, immediately prior to
26076-550: Was one of the most powerful figures in the Nazi Party , which governed Germany from 1933 to 1945. A veteran World War I fighter pilot ace , Göring was a recipient of the Pour le Mérite . He also served as the last commander of Jagdgeschwader 1 (JG I), the fighter wing once led by Manfred von Richthofen . An early member of the Nazi Party, Göring was among those wounded in Adolf Hitler 's failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923. While receiving treatment for his injuries, he developed an addiction to morphine which persisted until
26240-545: Was published in 2004. There is also an etymological dictionary, Suomen sanojen alkuperä , published in 1992–2000, and a handbook of contemporary language ( Nykysuomen käsikirja ). Standard Finnish is used in official texts and is the form of language taught in schools. Its spoken form is used in political speech, newscasts, in courts, and in other formal situations. Nearly all publishing and printed works are in standard Finnish. The colloquial language has mostly developed naturally from earlier forms of Finnish, and spread from
26404-480: Was stolen from Jewish victims of the Holocaust . Informed on 22 April 1945 that Hitler intended to commit suicide, Göring sent a telegram to Hitler requesting his permission to assume leadership of the Reich. Considering his request an act of treason, Hitler removed Göring from all his positions, expelled him from the party, and ordered his arrest. After the war, Göring was convicted of conspiracy , crimes against peace , war crimes , and crimes against humanity at
26568-509: Was the beginning of his morphine addiction, which lasted until his imprisonment at Nuremberg. Meanwhile, the authorities in Munich declared Göring a wanted man. The Görings—acutely short of funds and reliant on the good will of Nazi sympathizers abroad—moved from Austria to Venice . In May 1924 they visited Rome, via Florence and Siena . Sometime in 1924, Göring met Mussolini through his contacts with members of Italy's Fascist Party; Mussolini had also expressed an interest in meeting Hitler, who
26732-543: Was the use of the reflexive suffix -(t)te , used only in the eastern dialects. The birch bark letter 292 from the early 13th century is the first known document in any Finnic language . The first known written example of Finnish itself is found in a German travel journal dating back to c. 1450 : Mÿnna tachton gernast spuho sommen gelen Emÿna daÿda (Modern Finnish: " Minä tahdon kernaasti puhua suomen kielen, [mutta] en minä taida; " English: "I want to speak Finnish, [but] I am not able to"). According to
26896-511: Was under Swedish rule , Finnish was only spoken . At the time, the language of international commerce was Middle Low German , the language of administration Swedish , and religious ceremonies were held in Latin . This meant that Finnish speakers could use their mother tongue only in everyday life. Finnish was considered inferior to Swedish, and Finnish speakers were second-class members of society because they could not use their language in any official situations. There were even efforts to reduce
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