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121-689: The settlement was first mentioned in the documents of the Novgorod Republic in the 15th century, when its name was spelled as "Khrapsha". It passed to Sweden following the Treaty of Stolbovo but was recaptured by Peter the Great during the Great Northern War . Upon hearing about the curative properties of Ropsha's mineral springs, the tsar planned to make it his summer retreat; a timber palace and small church were built there. Subsequently, when he discovered

242-448: A contract called a ryad ( Russian : ряд ), which protected the interests of Novgorodian boyars and laid out the prince's rights and responsibilities. The ryads that have been preserved in archives describe the relationship of Novgorod with twelve invited princes: five of them from Tver, four from Moscow, and three from Lithuania. First and foremost among the prince's functions, he was a military leader. He also patronized churches in

363-478: A stepennoy posadnik . Posadniks were almost invariably boyars – the city's highest aristocracy. The precise makeup of the veche is also uncertain, although it appears to have comprised members of the urban population, as well as of the free rural population. Whether it was a democratic institution or one controlled by the boyars has been hotly debated. The posadniks, tysiatskys, and even the bishops and archbishops of Novgorod, were often elected or at least approved by

484-458: A cousin of Ivan III, to be accepted. According to tradition, Marfa Boretskaya , the wife of the posadnik Isak Boretsky, was the main proponent of an alliance with Poland–Lithuania to save the republic. According to this legend, Boretskaya invited the Lithuanian princeling Mikhailo Olelkovich and asked him to become her husband and the ruler of Novgorod. She also concluded an alliance with Casimir ,

605-578: A critical conflict took place between Moscow and Novgorod, when Moscow annexed the Dvina Lands along the course of the Northern Dvina . These lands were crucial to Novgorod's well-being since much of the city's furs came from there. This territory was returned to Novgorod the following year. In the 12th to 15th centuries, the Novgorod Republic expanded east and northeast. The Novgorodians explored

726-419: A decided preference for light colors, and collected beautiful jewels. Alexandra loved dancing and was particularly skillful at the mazurka , enjoying court balls until dawn. Neither arrogant nor frivolous, Alexandra was not without intelligence and had an excellent memory; her reading was quite extensive; her judgment of men sure, slightly ironical. However, she took no active interest in politics and fulfilled

847-466: A few months, became ill and died of typhus at the age of 34, shortly after Charlotte's twelfth birthday. As the eldest daughter, Charlotte was now the most senior lady at the court and had to undertake her mother's duties. For the rest of her life, Charlotte treasured her mother's memory. In February 1814, Grand Duke Nicholas Pavlovich, future Tsar of Russia, and his brother Grand Duke Michael Pavlovich , visited Berlin. Arrangements were made between

968-557: A foothold in Karelia . On August 12, 1323, Sweden and Novgorod signed the Treaty of Nöteborg , regulating their border for the first time. The Novgorod Republic was saved from the direct impact of the Mongol invasions as it was not conquered by the Mongols. In 1259, Mongol tax-collectors and census-takers arrived in the city, leading to political disturbances and forcing Alexander Nevsky to punish

1089-463: A large measure of democratic participation far in advance of the rest of Europe, but that share several similarities with the democratic traditions of Scandinavian peasant republics . The people had the power to elect city officials and they even had the power to elect and remove the prince. The Chronicle writer then goes on to describe a "town meeting" where these decisions would have been made, which included people from all social classes ranging from

1210-652: A military garrison; a cavalry division was stationed there until 1918. During the Russian Civil War Ropsha saw some heavy fighting, as General Yudenich wrested it from the Bolsheviks on two occasions. From September 1941 to January 1944, during the siege of Leningrad , Ropsha was occupied by the troops of Nazi Germany. During World War II , from 1941 to 1944, Ropsha was mentioned in the Nazi military reports to Adolf Hitler 's office as an important commanding hill with

1331-535: A new residence. There, Nicholas ordered that the Palace of Oreanda be built for her. She was only able to visit the palace once however; the Crimean War began in 1852. Towards the end of 1854, Alexandra Feodorovna fell ill and came close to death, though she managed to recover. In 1855, Tsar Nicholas I contracted influenza, and he died on 6/18 February. Alexandra Feodorovna survived her husband by five years. She retired to

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1452-447: A number of pro-Lithuanian boyars and confiscating their lands. In 1478, Ivan III sent his army to take direct control of the city. He destroyed the veche , tore down the veche bell, the ancient symbol of participatory governance, civil society, and legal rights, and destroyed the library and archives , thus ending the independence of Novgorod. After the takeover, Ivan took more than four-fifths of Novgorod's land: half for himself and

1573-471: A number of town officials (by cutting off their noses) for defying him as the grand prince of Vladimir (soon to be the khan's tax-collector in Russia) and his Mongol overlords. Alexandra Fyodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia) Alexandra Feodorovna (Russian: Алекса́ндра Фёдоровна , IPA: [ɐlʲɪˈksandrə ˈfjɵdərəvnə] ), born Princess Charlotte of Prussia (13 July 1798 – 1 November 1860),

1694-556: A protracted series of wars with Moscow beginning in the late 14th century in order to keep these lands. Losing them meant economic and cultural decline for the city and its inhabitants. The ultimate failure of the Novgorodians to win these wars led to the downfall of the Novgorod Republic. Novgorod supported Dmitry Shemyaka against Vasily Vasilievich in the Muscovite War of Succession (1425–1453). After Vasily II returned to throne,

1815-612: A repudiation of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy (1456), and went to war against the city. The army of Moscow won a decisive victory in the Battle of Shelon River in July 1471, which severely limited Novgorod's freedom to act thereafter, although the city maintained its formal independence. For the next six years, pro-Moscow and anti-Moscow factions in Novgorod competed with one another. Ivan III visited Novgorod several times during this period, persecuting

1936-614: A sister of Frederick William IV and of William I, German Emperor . She was known as Charlotte, a name popular in the Prussian royal family, and nicknamed Lottchen by her family. The princess's childhood was marked by the Napoleonic Wars and she was raised under difficult financial conditions. Her father was a kind, religious man but a weak and indecisive ruler who, following military defeats in 1806, lost half of his kingdom. Charlotte's mother, admired for her beauty, intellect, and charm,

2057-532: A stillborn daughter, which brought on a deep depression. Her doctors advised a holiday, and in the autumn of 1820 Nicholas took her to see her family in Berlin, where they remained until the summer of 1821, returning again in the summer of 1824. They did not come back to St. Petersburg until March 1825 when Tsar Alexander I required their presence in Russia. Alexandra Feodorovna spent her first years in Russia trying to learn

2178-512: A strategic artillery post having unobstructed direct view on central Leningrad . From the artillery positions in Ropsha the Germans continued artillery bombardments of Leningrad and its southern suburbs for two years. During that time, the Germans robbed and vandalized the imperial estate; a special unit looted the palace and moved its valuable art collection to Nazi Germany. Then the palace was destroyed by

2299-583: A struggle with Novgorod for the Russian fur trade , and thus, an economic rivalry for fur, land and trade ports. Some Novgorodian boyars were opposed to Moscow as a result, while others pursued a pro-Muscovite policy in the hopes that good relations with Moscow would reduce disruption in Novgorod's trade ; Novgorod was also dependent on the Russian lands to its southwest for important imports such as grain. Some Novgorodians were also attracted to Moscow due to it being

2420-502: A time when Russia has need of every ruble. But I cough and my sick lungs cannot go without a southern climate". After returning from a trip abroad in July 1860, she did not cease to be ill. In the autumn of 1860, her doctors told her that she would not live through the winter if she did not travel once more to the south. Knowing the danger, she preferred to stay in St. Petersburg so that she might die on Russian soil. The night before her death, she

2541-465: A torture chamber arranged in Ropsha Palace and their screams would spook the neighbourhood. Despite macabre stories of his cruelty and misdeeds, a neighbour, Chancellor Golovkin , found it prudent to arrange the marriage of his son to Romodanovsky's daughter. After the 1722 wedding, Ropsha Palace was overhauled and expanded under the supervision of Golovkin's friend, Ivan Yeropkin . In connection with

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2662-831: A turbulent period marked by the bloody repression of the Decembrist revolt . She and her husband were consecrated and crowned at the Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin on 3 September 1826. Alexandra enjoyed her husband's confidence in affairs of state, but she had no interest in politics other than her personal attachment to Prussia , her native country. She was the obedient and admiring supporter of her husband's views. As empress, Alexandra Feodorovna had no interest in charity work. Her chief interests were in family affairs, balls and jewels. By 1832 Nicholas and Alexandra had seven children whom they raised with care. In 1837, when much of

2783-408: A war between Moscow and Novgorod took place, which ended after the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy was signed in 1456. The treaty marked the beginning of the fall of Novgorod's independence as it lost certain freedoms. Moscow began to gradually seize land in the northern territories that were formerly under Novgorod's control for the next decade and half due to a desire for luxury furs in the area. This led to

2904-414: Is a much later term, although the polity was described as a republic as early as in the beginning of the 16th century. Soviet historians frequently used the terms Novgorod Feudal Republic and Novgorod Boyar Republic . The area of Novgorod was populated by various East Slavic tribes that were constantly at war with one another for supremacy. However, these tribes came together during the beginning of

3025-427: Is not definitely known; the country was divided into several tysyachi ( Russian : тысячи , lit.   'thousands') in the core lands of the country, and volosti ( Russian : волости ) in lands in the east and north that were being colonized or just paid tribute. The city of Novgorod and its vicinity, as well as a few other towns, were not part of any of those. Pskov achieved autonomy from Novgorod in

3146-642: Is now in northwestern Russia . As a result, in Russian historiography, Novgorod is traditionally seen as the birthplace of the country's monarchy . The Primary Chronicle (PVL) states that when Oleg the Wise conquered Kiev (modern Kyiv ) in 882, which marks the founding of Kievan Rus' , he ordered Novgorod to pay the Varangian princes in Kiev 300 grivny a year. In 1014, the PVL mentions this tribute had increased: "When Yaroslav

3267-420: Is unclear. Many were between various boyar factions or, if a revolt did involve the peasants or tradesmen against the boyars, it did not consist of the peasants wanting to overthrow the existing social order, but was more often than not a demand for better rule on the part of the ruling class. There did not seem to be a sense that the office of prince should be abolished or that the peasants should be allowed to run

3388-557: The Life of Alexander Nevsky . Novgorod was also spared by the Mongol armies during the Mongol invasions after Alexander Nevsky agreed to pay tribute. Historians such as J. L. I. Fennell have called the proportions of Nevsky's victories as having been overblown; he also argued that there was no existence of a unified Western scheme of aggression against Russia and that Nevsky appeased the Mongols, while many Russian historians have argued that Nevsky

3509-698: The Alexander Palace in Tsarskoe Selo , and remained on good terms with her late husband's mistress Varvara Nelidova , whom she appointed as her personal reader. The Dowager Empress's health became more and more fragile with the years. Unable to spend the harsh winters in Russia, she was forced to make long sojourns abroad in Switzerland , Nice and Rome . She wrote in September 1859, "I am homesick for my country and I reproached myself for costing so much money at

3630-492: The Chamber of Facets after 1433). The executives of Novgorod, at least nominally, were always the princes of Novgorod, invited by Novgorodians from neighboring states, even though their power waned in the 13th and early 14th centuries. It is unclear if the archbishop of Novgorod was the true head of state or chief executive of the Novgorod Republic, but in any case, he remained an important town official. In addition to overseeing

3751-630: The East–West Schism , Novgorod struggled from the beginning of the 13th century against Swedish, Danish, and German crusaders. During the Swedish–Novgorodian Wars , the Swedes invaded lands where some of the population had earlier paid tribute to Novgorod. The Germans had been trying to conquer the Baltic region since the late 12th century. Novgorod went to war 26 times with Sweden and 11 times with

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3872-594: The Gulf of Finland in the west to the northern Ural Mountains in the east. Its capital was the city of Novgorod . The republic prospered as the easternmost trading post of the Hanseatic League , and its people were much influenced by the culture of the Byzantines , with the Novgorod school of icon painting producing many fine works. Novgorod won its independence in 1136 after the Novgorodians deposed their prince and

3993-614: The Livonian Brothers of the Sword . The German knights , along with Danish and Swedish feudal lords, launched a series of uncoordinated attacks in 1240–1242. Russian sources mention that a Swedish army was defeated in the Battle of the Neva in 1240. The Baltic German campaigns ended in failure after the Battle on the Ice in 1242. After the foundation of the castle of Vyborg in 1293 the Swedes gained

4114-537: The Lopukhina Conspiracy , the Golovkins fell into disgrace and their possessions were seized by Empress Elizabeth , who asked a court architect, Bartolomeo Rastrelli , to prepare plans for a new palace at Ropsha. As Rastrelli was busy with other projects, his designs for Ropsha were never executed. Towards the end of her reign, Elizabeth granted the estate to her nephew and heir, the future Peter III of Russia . It

4235-665: The Northern Crusades , the Novgorodian prince Alexander Yaroslavich defeated the Swedes at the Battle of the Neva in July 1240, from which he received the sobriquet Nevsky ("of the Neva"). Alexander then defeated German crusaders at the Battle on the Ice in 1242, after the forces of the exiled prince of Pskov and men from the Bishopric of Dorpat attacked Pskov Land and Votia , a tributary of Novgorod. This later led to him being depicted as an ideal ruler in chronicles such as

4356-498: The Novgorod veche began to elect and dismiss princes at its own will. The veche also elected the posadnik , who was the chief executive of the city, and from 1156, the archbishop of Novgorod , subject to approval by the Russian metropolitan . The tysyatsky was also elected by the veche , who was originally the military commander, and served the interests of the common people. Novgorodian nobles known as boyars dominated

4477-461: The Winter Palace was destroyed by fire, Nicholas reportedly told an aide-de-camp, "Let everything else burn up, only just save for me the small case of letters in my study which my wife wrote to me when she was my betrothed". Reportedly, after more than twenty-five years of fidelity, Nicholas took a mistress, Varvara Nelidova , one of Alexandra's ladies-in-waiting, after the doctors had forbidden

4598-613: The northwest and north of European Russia , as well as the eastern part of Finland . To the east, it was bordered by the Principality of Tver and to the west, it was bordered by Lithuania as well as various Baltic powers, including the Teutonic Order and the bishoprics of Dorpat and Courland as well as the Hanseatic cities of Riga and Reval . The economy of the Novgorod Republic included farming and animal husbandry (e.g.,

4719-413: The posadniki (burgomaster), to the chernye liudi ( lit.   ' black folks ' ) or the lowest free class. The precise constitution of the medieval Novgorodian republic is uncertain, although traditional histories have created the image of a highly institutionalized network of veches (public assemblies) and a government of posadniki (burgomaster), tysyatskys ("thousandmen"; originally

4840-429: The veche , and the offices of posadnik and tysyatsky remained in the hands of boyar families. The boyars also gave funding to the ushkuyniki , who contributed to the expansion of Novgorod's trade and colonies in the north of European Russia . By the 14th century, the prince of Moscow (who was almost always the grand prince of Vladimir ) was usually the prince of Novgorod as well. As Moscow grew in power in

4961-429: The 1130s mentioned 30 administrative posts in the territory of Novgorod, where revenues were collected regularly and sent as a tithe to the Novgorod bishop. Throughout the 12th century, Novgorod utilized the Baltic - Volga - Caspian trade route, not only for trading but also for bringing food from the fertile Oka region to their city. In 1136, the Novgorodians dismissed their prince Vsevolod Mstislavich , and over

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5082-424: The 12th century, while most are from after 1262. Thus it is difficult to determine Novgorod's political structure due to the paucity of sources. The prince, while his status in Novgorod was not inheritable and his power was much reduced, remained an important figure in Novgorodian life. Of around 100 princes of Novgorod, many, if not most, were invited in or dismissed by the Novgorodians. At least some of them signed

5203-424: The 13th century; its independence was confirmed by the Treaty of Bolotovo in 1348. Several other towns had special status as they were owned jointly by Novgorod and one of the neighbouring states. The Novgorod Republic was the largest of the Russian states in terms of area until it was surpassed by Moscow following its annexation of other independent principalities in the 15th century. The Novgorod Republic occupied

5324-408: The 15th century, Novgorod began to lose its autonomy. In a 1471 peace treaty with Moscow following the Battle of Shelon , Novgorod pledged allegiance to Moscow, with its system of government temporarily left intact. The end of the republic and the veche came in 1478 when Ivan III once again invaded and seized the city as part of his campaign to annex all other Russian states. The state

5445-580: The 9th century to try to form a negotiated settlement to end military aggression amongst each other. According to the legendary calling of the Varangians (recorded in diverging variations in the Primary Chronicle and Novgorod First Chronicle ), in the year 862, the Varangian brothers Rurik , Sineus and Truvor were each "invited" to reign in Novgorod, Beloozero , and Izborsk , respectively, in what

5566-671: The Baltic trade network established by the Hanseatic League . From Novgorod's northeastern lands ("The Lands Beyond the Portages" as they were called in the chronicles), the area stretching north of Lakes Ladoga and Onega up to the White Sea and east to the Ural Mountains had so much fur that medieval travel accounts tell of furry animals raining from the sky. The Novgorodian merchants traded with Swedish, German, and Danish cities. In early years,

5687-505: The Catholic faith: Thus did Great Prince Ivan advance with all his host against his domain of Novgorod because of the rebellious spirit of its people, their pride and conversion to Latinism. With a great and overwhelming force did he occupy the entire territory of Novgorod from frontier to frontier, inflicting on every part of it the dread powers of his fire and sword. The city-state of Novgorod had developed procedures of governance that held

5808-742: The Empress from sexual activity due to her poor health and recurring heart-attacks. In actuality, Nicholas has at least three known illegitimate children born prior to 1842. Nicholas continued to seek refuge from the cares of state in Alexandra's company. "Happiness, joy, and repose – that is what I seek and find in my old Mouffy". he once wrote. In 1845, Nicholas wept when court doctors urged the Empress to visit Palermo for several months due to poor health. "Leave me my wife", he begged her physicians, and when he learned that she had no choice, he made plans to join her briefly. Nelidova went with them, and though Alexandra

5929-657: The Nazis using explosive devices. On January 19, 1944, Ropsha was retaken from the Nazi occupation as part of the Leningrad–Novgorod Offensive ending the siege. However, the palace remained in ruins and was in disrepair due to the magnitude of German damage in World War II. Inscribed with other imperial estates into the World Heritage List , the edifice may still be viewed in its half-ruined state. Re-building

6050-898: The Novgorodians sailed the Baltic themselves (several incidents involving Novgorodian merchants in Gotland and Denmark are reported in the Novgorodian First Chronicle ). Orthodox churches for Novgorodian merchants have been excavated on Gotland . Likewise, merchants from Gotland had their own St. Olaf church and trading house in Novgorod. However, the Hanseatic League disputed the right of Novgorodian merchants to carry out sea trade independently and to deliver cargoes to Western European ports by their own ships. Silver, cloth, wine and herring were imported from Western Europe. The amount of fur, especially squirrel and other relatively cheap furs, that Novgorod supplied to Hanseatic merchants

6171-741: The Pskovian army, while the pretender was captured, handed over to Yaroslav of Suzdal and imprisoned in Pereslavl-Zalessky . In 1234, Yaroslav of Suzdal campaigned against the bishopric of Dorpat. The 1234 peace agreement was based on that of 1224; it did not involve any territorial issues, but only a prisoner exchange and Dorpat's promise to stop supporting factions in Pskov and Novgorod that opposed Yaroslav of Suzdal. Yaroslav went to Kiev in 1235, leaving his 15- or 16-year-old son Aleksandr Yaroslavich behind in Novgorod. According to Russian sources, during

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6292-587: The Republic's hunger. In autumn 1231, Yaroslav took Novgorodian troops on a campaign to Chernigov against his rival Michael. In 1232, there were anti-Yaroslav rebellions in Novgorod and Pskov, but only the latter was successful in chasing the Suzdalians out of town. In 1233, Boris Negochevich and other Novgorodian nobles joined forces with Yaroslav Vladimirovich (pretender-prince of Pskov) and some Sword Brothers, occupying Izborsk in 1233, but they were soon expelled by

6413-467: The Ropsha Palace and park to its original grandeur remains a difficult task due to severe damages and losses that require a costly reconstruction, and also because of risks related to remaining land-mines and other explosives left after the Nazi siege of Leningrad. As of 2012, Ropsha Estate was deserted and at the verge of collapse. In October 2016, the palace was leased to the state-owned Rosneft oil corporation for 99 years. The company promised to restore

6534-565: The Ropsha palace was rebuilt in a Neoclassical style to a design by Georg von Veldten . A large paper factory was built nearby and the English gardener Thomas Gray laid out an English park with a mosaic of ponds full of fish. Paul apparently planned to rename Ropsha, in commemoration of the dramatic events of 1762, but was assassinated himself before this came to pass. Although the ponds of Ropsha remained an imperial fishing ground under his sons, Alexander I and Nicholas I , they rarely visited

6655-588: The Russian court, the change of religion affected her and she was overwhelmed by her new surroundings. She gained the favor of her mother-in-law, Maria Feodorovna , but did not get along well with the Empress Elizabeth Alexeievna , consort of her brother-in-law. "I was very weak, very pale and (they claimed) very interesting-looking", she recalled later. Pregnant with her first child, Alexandra traveled to Moscow where, on 29 April [ O.S. 17 April] 1818, she gave birth to her first son,

6776-573: The Russian name "Alexandra Feodorovna". On her nineteenth birthday, 13 July [ O.S. 1 July] 1817, she and Nicholas were married in the Grand Church of the Winter Palace . "I felt myself very, very happy when our hands joined", she would later write about her wedding. "With complete confidence and trust, I gave my life into the hands of my Nicholas, and he never once betrayed it". At first, Alexandra Feodorovna had problems adapting to

6897-566: The Suzdalian dynasty's power grew amongst citizens of both Pskov and Novgorod. As they rejected support for his campaign against Riga, suspecting a ploy to seize Pskov along the way after the previous failed attempt, Yaroslav was forced to abandon his plans and disband his expensive army. When a bad harvest exacerbated the famine,the Novogorodians rose in revolt against the prince, who fled with his family and supporters to Pereslavl-Zalessky . With

7018-643: The Suzdalian princely threat gone, the Pskovians sent the Livonian auxiliaries home, while the veche elected Michael of Chernigov as Novgorod's new knyaz in 1230. The NPL notes that in subsequent years, Pskov remained allied with Riga and the Rigans, and later Dorpat (modern Tartu ) and Odenpäh (modern Otepää ). Meanwhile, Yaroslav Vladimirovich, a son of the previous Pskovian prince Vladimir Mstislavich of Pskov  [ et ] sought to leverage his family ties with

7139-405: The Varangians at the death of Yaroslav the Wise (1054). Chronicles state that the Novgorodians paid tribute to the grand prince of Kiev by 1113. Some time after this, the administration of the principality seemed to have matured. The Novgorodian tysyatsky and posadniki appointed boyars from the cities and collected revenues for administration in the territories it held. A charter from

7260-535: The archbishops of Novgorod and others raised horses for the Novgorodian army), while hunting , beekeeping , and fishing were also widespread. In most of the regions of the republic, these different "industries" were combined with farming. Iron was mined on the coast of the Gulf of Finland . Staraya Russa and other localities were known for their saltworks . Flax and hop cultivation were also of significant importance. Countryside products, such as furs, beeswax , honey , fish, lard , flax, and hops, were sold on

7381-612: The areas around Lake Onega , along the Northern Dvina , and coastlines of the White Sea . At the beginning of the 14th century, the Novgorodians explored the Arctic Ocean , the Barents Sea , the Kara Sea , and the West-Siberian river Ob . The lands to the north of the city, rich with fur , sea fauna and salt among others were of great economic importance to the Novgorodians, who fought

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7502-470: The auspices of Ivan III and his son Ivan Ivanovich . The Novgorod Judicial Charter, along with the Pskov Judicial Charter , were later used for Ivan III's Sudebnik of 1497 which served as the legal code for the entire Russian state. Novgorod was called a republic by Sigismund von Herberstein in his Notes on Muscovite Affairs written at least half a century after the conquest of Novgorod. Soviet-era Marxist scholarship frequently described

7623-417: The beginning of Russian history, two Russian principalities, Novgorod and Rostov-Suzdal, were engaged in exploring, conquering, exploiting, and colonizing the area west of the Ural Mountains". From the late 11th century, the Novgorodians asserted greater control over the determination of their rules, and rejected a politically dependent relationship to Kiev. The PVL claims that Novgorod ceased paying tribute to

7744-547: The bishops Hermann of Dorpat and Albert of Riga (died 1229) to gain his father's throne. The famine in Novgorod continued, and in 1230 another popular revolt erupted against supporters of the brand new prince Michael of Chernigov, including tysiatskii Boris Negochevich. The desperate Novgorodian people asked for Yaroslav of Suzdal to return, which he did at the end of 1230, but the famine got even worse in spring 1231, until German merchants sailing from overseas were able to import sufficient amounts of grain and flour to relieve

7865-445: The boyars' wealth would flow to the grand prince and Muscovite boyars, and the Novgorodians would fall into decline; most of them also did not earn enough to pay for war. By 1470, with the pro-Lithuanian faction being dominant, the Novgorodian boyars questioned Ivan's sovereignty over Novgorod as their prince. Novgorod negotiated with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for a new prince to be sent over. This led to Mikhailo Olelkovich ,

7986-404: The boyars. The Cathedral of St. Sophia – the main ecclesiastic establishment of Novgorod – was their chief rival in terms of landownership . Its votchinas were located in the most economically developed regions of Novgorod Land. The Yuriev Monastery , Arkazhsky Monastery , Antoniev Monastery and some other privileged monasteries are known to have been big landowners. There were also

8107-459: The center of Russian Orthodoxy as opposed to Lithuania, where Catholicism was dominant and its culture was being increasingly polonized , though some Novgorodian clergy adopted a pro-Lithuanian policy for political reasons due to fears that embracing the grand prince of Moscow would eventually lead to the end of Novgorod's independence. Most Novgorodian boyars had hoped to maintain the republic's independence since if Novgorod were to be conquered,

8228-486: The church in Novgorod, he headed embassies, oversaw certain court cases of a secular nature, and carried out other secular tasks. However, the archbishops appear to have worked with the boyars to reach a consensus and almost never acted alone. The archbishop was not appointed, but elected by Novgorodians, and approved by the metropolitan bishop of Russia . The archbishops were probably the richest single land-owners in Novgorod, and they also made money off court fees, fees for

8349-584: The city (there was a Carpenter's End and a Potters' End, for example). The merchants were organised into associations, of which the most famous were those of wax traders (called Ivan's Hundred ) and of the merchants engaged in overseas trade. Like much of the rest of Novgorod's medieval history, the precise composition of these organizations is uncertain. It is quite possible that the "ends" and "streets" were simply neighborhood administrative groups rather than guilds or "unions". Street organizations were known to build churches in their neighborhoods and to have buried

8470-443: The city and held court, although it was often presided over by his namestnik or lieutenant when he was personally absent from the city. The posadnik had always to be present in the court and no court decision could be made without his approval. Also, without the posadnik's approval the prince could neither give out Novgorod lands nor issue laws. Besides, the prince could not own land in Novgorod and could not himself collect taxes from

8591-445: The city. Throughout the republican period, the archbishop of Novgorod was the head of the Orthodox church in the city. The Finnic population of Novgorod Land underwent Christianization. The sect of the strigolniki spread to Novgorod from Pskov in the middle of the 14th century, with its members renouncing ecclesiastic hierarchy, monasticism and sacraments of priesthood, communion, repentance and baptism, before they disappeared by

8712-401: The dead of their neighborhoods during outbreaks of the plague, but beyond that their activities are uncertain. "Streets" and "ends" may have taken part in political decision-making in Novgorod in support of certain boyar factions or to protect their interests. Merchant "elders" are also noted in treaties and other charters, but only about a hundred of these charters exist. A half dozen date from

8833-399: The dominance of rich merchant families in politics. Some scholars argue that the archbishop was the head of the executive branch of the government, although it is difficult to determine the exact competence of the various officials. It is possible that there was a Council of Lords ( Russian : Совет Господ ) that was headed by the archbishop and met in the archiepiscopal palace (and in

8954-706: The early 15th century. Another sect, known as the Heresy of the Judaizers by its opponents, appeared in Novgorod in the second half of the 15th century and subsequently enjoyed support at the court in Moscow, before ultimately they were persecuted and several councils of the Russian Church condemned them. Like other Russian states, the military of Novgorod consisted of a levy and the prince's retinue ( druzhina ). While potentially all free Novgorodians could be mobilised, in reality

9075-493: The future Tsar Alexander II . The next year, 18 August [ O.S. 6 August] 1819 in Krasnoye Selo , she had a daughter, Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna . That summer, Tsar Alexander I announced privately to Nicholas and Alexandra his intention of eventually abdicating during his lifetime and that Nicholas would succeed him since their brother Constantine intended to marry morganatically. In 1820 Alexandra delivered

9196-416: The head of the town militia, but later a judicial and commercial official), other members of aristocratic families, and the archbishops of Novgorod . The veche tradition convinced Novgorodians that they had the right to be consulted on important issues, though in practice, the posadniki came from a few rich merchant families. In the early years of the republic, the prince and posadnik shared power until

9317-482: The key fortress of Orekhov . The Pskovites sent a small detachment and took advantage of the situation by only agreeing to accompany the Novgorodian army on the condition that Pskov would be formally granted its independence. Novgorod sent an allied force to lay siege to the fortress and signed the Treaty of Bolotovo (1348) on the way to Orekhov. As per the terms of the treaty, the posadniki of Novgorod no longer had any administrative or judicial function in Pskov and

9438-399: The king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania. The prospects of changing allegiance in favor of the allied Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania caused a major commotion among the commoners. Janet Martin and Gail Lenhoff have recently argued that Boretskaya was scapegoated, probably by Archbishop Feofil ( r.  1470–1480 ) in order to shift the blame from him for his betrayal of

9559-612: The language and customs of her adopted country under the tutelage of the poet Vasily Zhukovsky , whom she characterized as being "too much of a poet to be a good tutor". The Imperial family spoke German and wrote their letters in French , which was widely spoken at the Russian court, and as a consequence, Alexandra never completely mastered the Russian language . Alexandra Feodorovna wrote in her memoirs of her first years in Russia, "We both were truly happy only when we found ourselves alone in our apartments, with me sitting on his knees while he

9680-504: The late 16th century peasants could leave their land in the weeks preceding and coming after George's Day in Autumn . Marxist scholars such as Aleksandr Khoroshev often spoke of a class struggle in Novgorod. There were some 80 major uprisings in the republic, which often turned into armed rebellions. The most notable among these took place in 1136, 1207, 1228–1229, 1270, 1418, and 1446–1447. The extent to which these were based on "class struggle"

9801-551: The law-courts of the archbishop of Novgorod would only be run by representatives chosen by the Pskovites. However, the archbishop of Novgorod continued to head the church in Pskov and kept the title of archbishop of Novgorod the Great and Pskov until 1589. As Moscow grew in strength, however, the Muscovite princes became a serious threat to Novgorod. Ivan I , Simeon , and other princes sought to limit Novgorod's independence. In 1397,

9922-424: The main profit of the shift. In spite of unfavorable natural conditions, Novgorod's rural population was dependent upon agriculture and stock-rearing, while hunting and fishing were also important. The agricultural basis was also insecure, as the land passed almost fully into the hands of ruling boyars and clergy, with only a small area belonging to merchants. The peasants of Novgorod also paid dues to their lords in

10043-410: The market and exported to other Russian cities or abroad. The real wealth of Novgorod, however, came from the fur trade. Hanseatic merchants were particularly attracted to the Russian trade due to its vast resources of furs and beeswax, with Novgorod being the leading supplier of furs. The city was the main entrepôt for trade between Rus' and northwestern Europe as it was located at the eastern end of

10164-555: The metayage, monetary payments also gained significant importance by the second half of the 15th century. Some scholars argue that the feudal lords tried to legally tie down the peasants to their land. Certain categories of feudally dependent peasants, such as davniye lyudi (давние люди), polovniki (половники), poruchniki (поручники), and dolzhniki (должники), were deprived of the right to leave their masters. The boyars and monasteries also tried to restrict other categories of peasants from switching their feudal lords. However, until

10285-587: The more favourable location of Strelna and contrived a system of pipes to bring water from the Ropsha heights to the fountain cascades projected in Peterhof, he abandoned his previous plans for Ropsha and made a present of it to his senior associate, Prince Fyodor Romodanovsky , or the "Caesar-Pope" as he was wont to style him. Prince Romodanovsky was an old man of harsh disposition, who kept tame bears in his palace to scare infrequent visitors. Being in charge of Peter's secret police, he would bring political prisoners to

10406-542: The next century and half, were able to invite in and dismiss a number of princes. However, these invitations or dismissals were often based on who was the dominant prince in Rus' at the time, and not on any independent thinking on the part of Novgorod. Rostov-Suzdal comprised the territory of the important Oka region and lands along the vital Sheksna River. This river lay in the Northern Volga tributary region. Whoever controlled

10527-708: The northern end of both the Volga trade route and the route from the Varangians to the Greeks along the Dnieper River system. A vast array of goods were transported along these routes and exchanged with local Novgorod merchants and other traders. The merchants of Gotland retained the Gothic Court trading house well into the 12th century. Later, German merchantmen also established trading houses in Novgorod. Scandinavian royalty would intermarry with Russian princes and princesses. After

10648-626: The northern rivers that flowed into the Arctic, there are chronicles which mention that one expedition reached the Pechora River in 1032, and trading was established as early as 1096 with the Yugra tribes. The Chronicle mentions Novgorodians traveling "beyond the portage" as early as 1079. They also traveled to Pomorye, the "summer [southern] coast" of the "Cold [White] Sea" in search of furs as well as fish and salt. Historian George Lantzeff remarked that "in

10769-678: The notable botanist Sir Joseph Banks at Spring Grove House at Isleworth in London. When Alexandre Dumas, père visited the estate in 1858, the palace belonged to Empress Alexandra Feodorovna . In the ensuing decades, it was seldom inhabited, though Grand Duchess Xenia , sister of Nicholas II , chose to spend her wedding night there. From the 1890s, the palace had started to deteriorate. Nicholas II turned Ropsha Palace and parks into his favorite hunting and fishing retreat. The Tsar surrounded himself with aristocrats from all over Europe for hunting, fishing, and dining in Russian style. Ropsha also had

10890-402: The number of recruits depended on the level of danger faced by Novgorod. The professional formations included the retinues of the archbishop and prominent boyars , as well as the garrisons of fortresses. Firearms were first mentioned in 1394, and in the 15th century, fortress artillery was used, and cannons were installed on ships. During the era of Kievan Rus' , Novgorod was a trade hub at

11011-440: The palace and to create access for tourists to the estate after restoration. 59°43′25″N 29°51′38″E  /  59.72361°N 29.86056°E  / 59.72361; 29.86056 Novgorod Republic The Novgorod Republic ( Russian : Новгородская республика , romanized :  Novgorodskaya respublika ) was a medieval state that existed from the 12th to 15th centuries in northern Russia , stretching from

11132-471: The palace to Admiral Ivan Chernyshev , who sold it for 12,000 rubles to Ivan Lazarev , a jeweller of Armenian origin. It is widely believed that Lazarev was just a cutout acting at the behest of Catherine's son Paul . The latter, unable to overtly acquire the grounds for fear of his mother's ire, was still drawn to the place where his father had been murdered. It was only after Catherine's death that Tsar Paul took over Ropsha from Lazarev. During Paul's reign,

11253-575: The place. It was more popular with noble anglers who even named a special breed of scaly carp after Ropsha. Isaac Oldaker (1772 – c.1852), who was born in Marston Montgomery , Derbyshire, was 'Gardener to his Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias,' in charge of the gardens at Ropsha Palace from 1804 to 1812, when he retired on pension because of ill health, returned to England, and subsequently worked for

11374-461: The political system of Novgorod as a "feudal republic", placing it within the Marxist historiographic periodization ( slavery – feudalism – capitalism – socialism – communism ). Many scholars today, however, question whether Russia ever really had a feudal political system parallel to that of the medieval West. Historians have also described Novgorod's political system as an oligarchy due to

11495-596: The prince's power was gradually restricted, while the archbishop of Novgorod increasingly played the role of head of state, particularly during times of feuds. Just before 1300, a series of reforms further curtailed the prince's powers within the local administration while those of the archbishop rose. The Council of Lords ( Russian : Совет господ , romanized :  Sovet gospod ) was also formed, and boyar families from each district were represented, typically by former posadniki , with each posadnik beginning to hold office for only one year. As feuds continued to grow,

11616-436: The products of agriculture, fishing, forestry, and stock-rearing. Foreign coins and silver were used as a currency before Novgorod started minting its own novgorodka coins in 1420. More than half of all privately owned lands in Novgorod had been concentrated in the hands of some 30–40 noble boyar families by the 14th and 15th centuries. These vast estates served as material resources, which secured political supremacy of

11737-522: The reign of Yury . In part, Tver's proximity (the Tver principality was contiguous with Novgorod Land) threatened Novgorod. It was feared that a Tverian prince would annex Novgorod's territory, and thus weaken the republic. At the time, though, Moscow did not border Novgorod, and since the Muscovite princes were further afield, they were more acceptable as princes of Novgorod. They could come to Novgorod's aid when needed but would be too far away to meddle too much in

11858-555: The republic's affairs. The city of Pskov , initially part of Novgorod Land, became de facto independent as early as the 13th century after opening a trading post for merchants of the Hanseatic League . Several princes such as Vsevolod Mstislavich ( d.  1138 ) and Dovmont ( d.  1299 ) reigned in Pskov without any deference to, or consultation with, the prince or other officials in Novgorod. Pskov won its formal independence in August 1348 after Magnus IV of Sweden captured

11979-406: The rest for his allies. The formal annexation of Novgorod marked a major step in the unification of Russia around Moscow, with Ivan III later adopting the title of sovereign of all Russia . The Novgorod Chronicle which had been critical of Ivan III before the fall of Novgorod thus described the conquest in its aftermath, justifying it on the grounds of purported conversion of Novgorodians to

12100-417: The river was able to block food supplies causing a famine in Novgorod. Perhaps due to these fears, Novgorod led a failed invasion of Suzdal in 1134. They tried again and succeeded in 1149. Alternatively, Novgorod, in a bid to appease Suzdal, accepted some Suzdalians as rulers of Novgorod. Despite these events, Suzdal still blocked off trade to Novgorod twice and intercepted Novgorod's tributes. In 1228, there

12221-554: The role of being an empress consort, rather than being active in the public sphere. She loved her family very dearly and even developed facial tics whilst fearing the Decembrist Uprising and its plans to kill her family. The facial tics were a trait that ran in the royal German-Russian-British family in many branches. Alexandra Feodorovna became Empress consort upon her husband's accession as Tsar Nicholas I in December 1825 during

12342-441: The so-called zhityi lyudi (житьи люди), who owned less land than the boyars, and unprivileged small votchina owners called svoyezemtsy (своеземцы, or private landowners). The most common form of labor exploitation – the system of metayage – was typical for the afore-mentioned categories of landowners. Their household economies were mostly serviced by slaves ( kholops ), whose number had been constantly decreasing. Along with

12463-427: The structure was again changed so that each district had its own posadnik , with the number of posadniki increasing to 24 in 1423, though this failed to achieve stability, and feuds continued until the last days of independence. The Novgorod Judicial Charter , inherited from the earlier Russkaya Pravda , served as the legal code of the Novgorod Republic from 1440. The latest version was supplemented in 1471 under

12584-556: The terms of the Treaty of Yazhelbitsy, which forbade Novgorod from conducting foreign affairs without grand princely approval. While the extent of Boretskaya's role in the Lithuanian party is probably exaggerated, Novgorod did indeed try to turn to the king of Poland. A draft treaty, allegedly found among the loot after the Battle of Shelon River, was drawn up between Casimir and the Novgorodians. The Muscovite authorities saw Novgorod's behavior as

12705-602: The territory of Novgorod. He lived from money given to him by the city. According to several ryads , the prince could not extradite or prosecute a Novgorodian outside of Novgorod Land. The princes had two residences, one on the Marketplace (called Yaroslav's Court ), and another in Rurikovo Gorodische (Рюриково городище) several miles south of the Trade Side of the city. The administrative division of Novgorod Republic

12826-408: The two dynasties for Nicholas to marry Charlotte, then fifteen years old, to strengthen the alliance between Russia and Prussia. Nicholas was only second in line to the throne, as the heir was his brother Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich who, like Tsar Alexander I, was childless. On a second visit the following year, Nicholas fell in love with the then-seventeen-year-old Princess Charlotte. Nicholas

12947-524: The use of weights and measures in the marketplace, and through other means. Another important executive was the posadnik of Novgorod, who chaired the veche , co-chaired courts together with the prince, oversaw tax collection and managed current affairs of the city. Most of the prince's major decisions had to be approved by the posadnik. In the mid-14th century, instead of one posadnik, the veche began electing six. These six posadniks kept their status for their lifetimes, and each year elected among themselves

13068-462: The veche. Tradespeople and craftsmen also participated in the political affairs of Novgorod. Traditional scholarship argues that they were organized into five kontsy ("ends" in Russian) – i.e., the boroughs of the city they lived in; each end was then organized by the streets in which they lived. The ends and streets often bore names indicating that certain trades were concentrated in certain parts of

13189-544: Was Empress of Russia as the wife of Emperor Nicholas I ( r.  1825–1855 ). Empress Alexandra Feodorovna was born as Princess Friederike Luise Charlotte Wilhelmine of Prussia, at the Charlottenburg Palace in Berlin on 13 July [ O.S. 1 July] 1798. She was the eldest surviving daughter and fourth child of Frederick William III, King of Prussia , and Duchess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz , and

13310-525: Was a failed Novgorodian campaign against the Tavastians in present-day southern Finland , as reported in the Novgorod First Chronicle (NPL). The Novgorodian troops were disaffected by prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich , a quarrel broke out within the army and the troops refused to fight. In the same year, Yaroslav tried to militarily overrun the rebellious town of Pskov (possibly because its throne

13431-466: Was being wise, with cooperation with the Mongols being the only sensible option at the time which averted further tragedy. Tver , Moscow and Lithuania fought over control of Novgorod and its enormous wealth from the 14th century. Upon receiving the jarlig for grand prince of Vladimir in 1304, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver sent his governors to Novgorod . A series of disagreements with Mikhail pushed Novgorod towards closer ties with Moscow during

13552-588: Was called Novgorod and Great Novgorod ( Russian : Великий Новгород , romanized :  Velikiy Novgorod ) with the form Sovereign Lord Novgorod the Great ( Russian : Государь Господин Великий Новгород , romanized :  Gosudar' Gospodin Velikiy Novgorod ) becoming common in the 15th century. Novgorod Land and Novgorod volost usually referred to the land belonging to Novgorod. Novgorod Republic ( Russian : Новгородская республика , romanized :  Novgorodskaya respublika ) itself

13673-470: Was considerable. The Lübeck company of Wittenborg exported between 200,000 and 500,000 Lübeck marks from Novgorod to Livonia in the 1350s. Anna Khoroshkevich assumed that exports increased throughout the 14th century and was at its height in the beginning of the 15th century, but by the second half of the century, Novgorod suffered from the effects of exhaustion of its resources with hunting grounds moving considerably further north and Muscovite merchants accruing

13794-721: Was considered more decisive than her husband. When the Prussians were defeated at the battle of Jena , Louise fled to Königsberg , taking her children with her, Charlotte then being eight years old. In East Prussia , they were given protection by Tsar Alexander I . "My daughter Charlotte is reserved and concentrated, but like her father, her seemingly cold appearance conceals the beating of her hot compassionate heart", wrote Queen Louise about her daughter. On 27 October 1806, Berlin fell under Napoleon 's control and Charlotte grew up in war-torn Memel, Prussia . In December 1809, Queen Louise finally returned to Berlin with her children, but after

13915-431: Was in Novgorod, he paid two thousand grivny a year as tribute to Kiev, and another thousand was given to his garrison in Novgorod." The "Russian–Scandinavian cultural symbiosis" became prevalent following the establishment of the Rus' state. The Novgorodians were the first to reach the regions between the Arctic Ocean and Lake Onega . Even though there is no definitive account of the precise timing of their arrival at

14036-452: Was jealous in the beginning, she soon came to accept the affair and remained on good terms with her husband's mistress. Alexandra Feodorovna was always frail and in poor health. At forty, she looked far older than her years, becoming increasingly thin. For a long time, she suffered from a nervous twitching that became a convulsive shaking of her head. In 1837, she chose a resort in the Crimea for

14157-562: Was loving and tender". Nicholas nicknamed his wife "Mouffy". For eight years, during the reign of Tsar Alexander I, the couple lived quietly. Tsar Alexander I had no surviving children and his heir, Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich, renounced his succession rights in 1822, making Nicholas heir to the throne. In 1825 the Tsar gave Alexandra the Peterhof Palace , where she and Nicholas lived. It would remain her favorite summer residence. Alexandra

14278-907: Was tall and handsome with classical features. The feeling was mutual, "I like him and am sure of being happy with him". She wrote to her brother, "What we have in common is our inner life; let the world do as it pleases, in our hearts we have a world of our own". Hand-in-hand, they wandered over the Potsdam countryside, and attended the Berlin Court Opera . By the end of his visit, in October 1816, Nicholas and Charlotte were engaged. They were third cousins as great-great-grandchildren of Frederick William I of Prussia . On 9 June 1817 (O.S.) Princess Charlotte came to Russia with her brother William . After arriving in St. Petersburg she converted to Russian Orthodoxy , and took

14399-412: Was tall, thin, had a small head, and a pronounced brow. She had an air of regal majesty. Her quick, light walk was graceful. She was frail, often in poor health. Her voice was hoarse , but she spoke rapidly and with decision. Alexandra Feodorovna was an avid reader and enjoyed music. Her favorite Russian writer was Lermontov . She was kind and liked privacy and simplicity. She dressed elegantly, with

14520-440: Was there that he was brought under guard after the coup d'état of 1762, and it was there that Peter III was allegedly murdered under shady circumstances. Later the same year, Catherine the Great resolved that "Ropsha is not to be mentioned again" and presented the ill-famed place to her lover, Count Grigory Orlov . The reputation of the manor was too sinister for any improvement on the grounds to be effected and Orlov soon ceded

14641-476: Was vacant ), but the Pskovians closed their gates in time and denied him entry. Yaroslav retreated to Novgorod, claimed no ill will towards Pskov, but raised another army supposedly for the purpose of attacking Riga (a stronghold of the Livonian Brothers of the Sword ). But the Pskovians distrusted him and allied with Riga instead, while the troop raising caused food prices in Novgorod to spike, stoking civil discontent against prince Yaroslav as well; opposition to

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