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141-512: Russian painter and philosopher Nicholas Roerich (1874–1947) initiated the modern movement for the defense of cultural objects, for the idea of "Peace of Civilizations". Besides the recognition as one of the greatest Russian painters, Roerich's most notable achievement during his lifetime was the Roerich Pact signed on 15 April 1935 by the representatives of American states in the Oval Office of

282-750: A casus belli ." By 1898 they had acquired mining and forestry concessions near the Yalu and Tumen rivers, causing the Japanese much anxiety. Japan decided to attack before the Russians completed the Trans-Siberian Railway. The Russians and the Japanese both contributed troops to the Eight-Nation Alliance sent in 1900 to quell the Boxer Rebellion and to relieve the international legations besieged in

423-693: A sphere of influence in Korea and Manchuria. Seeing Russia as a rival, Japan offered to recognize Russian dominance in Manchuria in exchange for recognition of the Korean Empire as being within the Japanese sphere of influence. Russia refused and demanded the establishment of a neutral buffer zone between Russia and Japan in Korea, north of the 39th parallel . The Imperial Japanese Government perceived this as obstructing their plans for expansion into mainland Asia and chose to go to war. After negotiations broke down in 1904,

564-614: A Russian–German alliance emerged, France would be compelled to join it. He also hoped that having Russia pursue an expansionist policy in Asia would distract and keep Russia out of the Balkans, thus removing the main source of tension between Russia and Germany's ally Austria-Hungary . During the war, Nicholas, who took at face value Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" speeches, placed much hope in German intervention on his side. More than once Nicholas chose to continue

705-498: A White Tsar!" Nevertheless, Tokyo believed that Russia was not serious about seeking a peaceful solution to the dispute. On 13 January 1904, Japan proposed a formula by which Manchuria would remain outside Japan's sphere of influence and, reciprocally, Korea outside Russia's. On 21 December 1903, the Katsura cabinet voted to go to war against Russia. By 4 February 1904, no formal reply had been received from Saint Petersburg. On 6 February

846-591: A bigger policy in the Far East that might lead to military complications (with the aim of relieving our eastern border from the fearful pressure and threat of the massive Russian army!). Whereupon, Russia took Port Arthur and trusting us , took her fleet out of the Baltic , thereby making herself vulnerable to us by sea. In Danzig 01 and Reval 02, the same assurance was given again, with result that entire Russian divisions from Poland and European Russia were and are being sent to

987-558: A cause that resulted in humiliating defeat contributed to growing domestic unrest, which culminated in the 1905 Russian Revolution , and severely damaged the prestige of the Russian autocracy. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the Meiji government endeavoured to assimilate Western ideas, technological advances and ways of warfare. By the late 19th century, Japan had transformed itself into

1128-614: A coup in the Kingdom of Korea by a pro-Japanese reformist faction, which led to the conservative government calling upon China for help, leading to a clash between Chinese and Japanese soldiers in Seoul. At the time, Tokyo did not feel ready to risk a war with China, and the crisis was ended by the Convention of Tientsin , which left Korea more strongly in the Chinese sphere of influence, though it did give

1269-698: A cowardly and shameful way over the Panama Canal question, so as to be left in 'peace' by the Yankees. Will the 'Tsar' likewise betray the interests of the White Race to the Yellow as to be 'left in peace' and not embarrass the Hague tribunal too much?. When Nicholas replied that he still wanted peace, Wilhelm wrote back in a telegram "You innocent angel!", telling his advisors "This is the language of an innocent angel. But not that of

1410-639: A deadly blow to British diplomacy, and that the two emperors, the self-proclaimed "Admiral of the Atlantic" and the "Admiral of the Pacific", would rule Eurasia together, making them able to challenge British sea power as the resources of Eurasia would make their empires immune to a British blockade, and thus allowing Germany and Russia to "divide up the best" of the British colonies in Asia between them. Nicholas had been prepared to compromise with Japan, but after receiving

1551-460: A decision to begin a work for international-law regulation in the field of cultural values protection during the military actions. 1950 – A New York Committee of the Roerich Pact has transferred all the documentation about the Pact to UNESCO. 5th session of general UNESCO conference entrusted the general director with preparation and sending of a draft of convention. Special committee of UNESCO has prepared

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1692-764: A director at the Art Institute of Chicago , offering to arrange for Roerich's art to tour the United States. In the autumn of 1920, the Roerichs traveled to America by sea. The Roerichs remained in the United States from October 1920 until May 1923. A large exhibition of Roerich's art, organized partly by the U.S. impresario Christian Brinton and partly by the Chicago Art Institute , began in New York in December 1920 and toured

1833-636: A distinctive sign to identify the objects that are in need of protection – the Banner of Peace . It consists of a white cloth with a red circle and three red circles inscribed in it. In 1929, Roerich, again in collaboration with Professor Shklyaver, prepared a draft of an international treaty dedicated to protection of cultural values. The scheme was to be a cultural analog to the Red Cross for medical neutrality. In 1930, text of draft agreement with accompanying Roerich's appeal to governments and peoples of all countries

1974-459: A half dozen Japanese divisions, led by competent, intrepid Japanese officers, full of hatred for Christianity – that is a vision of the future that cannot be contemplated without concern, and it is not impossible. On the contrary, it is the realisation of the yellow peril, which I described a few years ago and I was ridiculed by the majority of people for my graphic depiction of it ... Your devoted friend and cousin, Willy, Admiral of

2115-492: A large series of architectural studies, created near 90 paintings of the visited sites. Later many Russian churches were destroyed and these paintings remain the only documenting images. Summarizing these trips, the painter admired the beauty of the ancient monuments. Roerich, expressing his feelings for the state of their protection, in his article "Along the old times" (1903): "Last summer I had an occasion to see many our true antique and little love to it". In 1904, Roerich gave

2256-470: A lawyer, his main interests were literature, philosophy, archaeology , and especially art. Roerich was a dedicated activist for the cause of preserving art and architecture during times of war. He was nominated several times to the longlist for the Nobel Peace Prize . The so-called Roerich Pact (for the protection of cultural objects ) was signed into law by the United States and most other nations of

2397-408: A letter from Wilhelm attacking him as a coward for his willingness to compromise with the Japanese (who, Wilhelm never ceasing reminding Nicholas, represented the "Yellow Peril") for the sake of peace, became more obstinate. Wilhelm had written to Nicholas stating that the question of Russian interests in Manchuria and Korea was beside the point, saying instead it was a matter of Russia: ...undertaking

2538-622: A letter to the British diplomat Cecil Spring Rice , Roosevelt wrote that Wilhelm bore partial responsibility for the war as "he has done all he could to bring it about", charging that Wilhelm's constant warnings about the "Yellow Peril" had made the Russians uninterested in compromise as Nicholas believed that Germany would intervene if Japan attacked. The implicit promise of German support suggested by Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" speeches and letters to Nicholas led many decision-makers in Saint Petersburg to believe that Russia's military weaknesses in

2679-533: A metallic oval in the sky over the Tibet; decades later, UFO enthusiasts would claim the Roerich expedition witnessed a " flying saucer ". Between the summer of 1927 and June 1928, the expedition was thought to have been lost, as communication with them had ceased. They had, in fact, been attacked in Tibet. Roerich wrote that only the "superiority of our firearms prevented bloodshed.... In spite of our having Tibet passports,

2820-570: A modernized industrial state. The Japanese wanted to be recognized as equal with the Western powers. The Meiji Restoration had been intended to make Japan a modernized state, not a Westernized one, and Japan was an imperialist power, looking towards overseas expansionism. In the years 1869–1873, the Seikanron ("Conquer Korea Argument") had bitterly divided the Japanese elite: one faction wanted to conquer Korea immediately, another wanted to wait until Japan

2961-690: A new appreciation of ancient myth and legend." After some months in Finland and Scandinavia , the Roerichs relocated to London, arriving in mid-1919. Engrossed with Theosophical mysticism, they now had millenarian expectations that a new age was imminent, and they wished to travel to India as soon as possible. They joined the English-Welsh chapter of the Theosophical Society. It was in London, in March 1920, that

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3102-777: A number of authors, including two Russians, Vladimir Rosov and Alexandre Andreyev, two Americans (Andrei Znamenski and John McCannon), and the German Ernst von Waldenfels. A series of his studies on the Himalayan Ranges-donated by the artist's son (36 works specifically) are even showcased in the Nicholas Roerich Gallery of the Karnataka Chitrakala Parishath Museum based in Bangalore, India. The hypnotic, immersive nature of his works truly absorbs

3243-495: A report for Russian Emperor Nicholas II and Great Prince Nicholas Nikolayevich containing an appeal to make real state measures for national protection of cultural values. In 1929, Roerich, in cooperation with G. G. Shklyaver (a.k.a. Georges Chklaver), a doctor of international law and political sciences at the University of Paris prepared a project of the Pact for protection of cultural values. Simultaneously Roerich proposed

3384-537: A report to the Emperor's Russian Archeological Society about the sad state of historical monuments and the necessity to take prompt actions to protect them. During the Russo-Japanese war (1904–1905), Roerich expressed an idea about the necessity of a special treaty for the protection of institutions and cultural monuments. In the course of several years after his travel in 1903–1904, Roerich repeatedly pointed out

3525-503: A special institute for world assistance to implementation of the Roerich Pact ideas in public life. It also took a decision to appeal to all the countries to recognize the Pact as international treaty. 1933, 15 November – Organizing Committee of third international Conference dedicated to the Roerich Pact visited the USA President F. Roosevelt. 1934, 4 April – A report of special committee of Pan-American Union dedicated to Roerich Pact

3666-516: A stage where the final issue can with certainty be predicted. In these circumstances the Japanese government cannot but regard with grave concern the situation for which the delays in negotiations are largely responsible. Some scholars have suggested that Nicholas II dragged Japan into war intentionally, in hopes of reviving Russian nationalism. This notion conflicts with a comment made by Nicholas to Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany, saying there would be no war because he "did not wish it". This does not reject

3807-451: A versatile curriculum, and the eventual home of the first Nicholas Roerich Museum ; and an American Agni Yoga Society. They also joined various theosophical societies; their activities with these groups dominated their lives. After leaving New York, the Roerichs, together with their son George and six friends began the five-year Roerich Asian Expedition that in Roerich's own words "started from Sikkim through Punjab , Kashmir , Ladakh ,

3948-442: A world-view of ancient people for us. In 1903, Roerich together with his wife Helena Ivanovna Roerich toured through forty ancient Russian cities, including Yaroslavl , Kostroma , Kazan , Nizhny Novgorod , Vladimir , Suzdal , Yuriev-Polsky , Smolensk , Vilnius , Izborsk and Pskov . In 1904, proceeding the expedition, Nicholas Roerich has visited Uglich , Kalyazin , Kashin and Tver . During these travels Roerich created

4089-663: Is considered a major representative of Russian Symbolism in art. From an early period of his life, he was influenced by apocrypha and medieval sectarian writings such as the mysterious Dove Book . Another of Roerich's artistic subjects was architecture. His acclaimed publication "Architectural Studies" (1904–1905), consisting of dozens of paintings he made of fortresses, monasteries, churches, and other monuments during two long trips through Russia, inspired his decades-long career as an activist on behalf of artistic and architectural preservation. He also designed religious art for places of worship throughout Russia and Ukraine , most notably

4230-510: Is often claimed that Roerich was a major candidate to direct a people's commissariat of culture (the Soviet equivalent of a ministry of culture), which the Bolsheviks considered establishing in 1917–1918, but he refused to accept the job. In fact, Benois was the most likely choice to direct any such commissariat. It seems that Roerich was a preferred choice to manage its department of artistic education;

4371-469: Is significant that ever since the Meiji period demands for a tough foreign policy have come from the common people, that is, from those who are at the receiving end of oppression at home. Tsarist Russia, as a major imperial power, had ambitions in the East. By the 1890s it had extended its realm across Central Asia to Afghanistan , absorbing local states in the process. The Russian Empire stretched from Poland in

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4512-592: The 1924 British Everest Expedition , as well as Sonam Wangfel Laden La , Kusho Doring , and Tsarong Shape , influential Tibetans. According to British intelligence, lamas from the Moru monastery recognized Roerich as the incarnation of the Fifth Dalai Lama due to a mole pattern on his right cheek. It was during his stay in the Himalayas that Roerich learned about the flight of the 9th Panchen Lama , which he interpreted as

4653-530: The Agni Yoga philosophy. Soon Roerich became quite a successful painter. One of his paintings was purchased by Russian Tsar Nicolas II himself. Roerich also worked as stage and costume designer for several operas and ballets by Maurice Maeterlinck and Igor Stravinsky , premiered in St. Petersburg. In 1917, Roerich went to live near a lake in Finland , to strengthen his health. After the border between Russia and Finland

4794-875: The Greater Khingan mountains and Bargan plateau in western Manchuria. In 1935, they explored parts of Inner Mongolia: the Gobi Desert , Ordos Desert , and Helan Mountains . The expedition found almost 300 species of xerophytes , collected herbs, conducted archeological studies, and found antique manuscripts of great scientific importance. Roerich was in India during World War II, where he painted Russian epic heroic and saintly themes, including Alexander Nevsky , The Fight of Mstislav and Rededia, and Boris and Gleb . In 1942, Roerich received Jawaharlal Nehru and his daughter, Indira Gandhi , at his house in Kullu . Together they discussed

4935-591: The Himalayas . Here they established the Urusvati Institute which remains in Naggar with an exhibition about the pact. Nicholas Roerich died on 13 December 1947. An idea about the protection of cultural monuments was formulated for the first time by Nicholas Roerich in 1899. During his excavations at Saint-Petersburg province , Roerich began to point to the necessity of protection of cultural monuments, which reproduce

5076-531: The Imperial Japanese Navy opened hostilities in a surprise attack on the Russian Eastern Fleet at Port Arthur, China, on 9 February [ O.S. 27 January] 1904. The Russian Empire responded by declaring war on Japan. Although Russia suffered a number of defeats, Emperor Nicholas II remained convinced that Russia could still win if it fought on; he chose to remain engaged in

5217-803: The Karakoram Mountains, Khotan , Kashgar , Qara Shar , Urumchi , Irtysh , the Altai Mountains , the Oyrot region of Mongolia, the Central Gobi , Kansu , Tsaidam , and Tibet " with a detour through Siberia to Moscow in 1926. The Roerichs' Asian expedition attracted attention from the foreign services and intelligence agencies of the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan. In fact, prior to this expedition, Roerich had solicited

5358-750: The Liaodong Peninsula and nearly destroying the Chinese Beiyang Fleet in the Battle of the Yalu River . Japan and China signed the Treaty of Shimonoseki , which ceded the Liaodong Peninsula and the island of Taiwan to Japan. After the peace treaty, Russia, Germany, and France forced Japan to withdraw from the Liaodong Peninsula . The leaders of Japan did not feel that they possessed the strength to resist

5499-757: The Pan-American Union in April 1935. Raised in late-19th-century St. Petersburg, Roerich enrolled simultaneously at St. Petersburg University and the Imperial Academy of Arts in 1893. He received the title of "artist" in 1897 and a degree in law the next year. He found early employment with the Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts , whose school he directed from 1906 to 1917. Despite early tensions with

5640-726: The Queen of Heaven fresco for the Church of the Holy Spirit, which the patroness Maria Tenisheva built near her Talashkino estate, and the stained glass windows for the Datsan Gunzechoinei in 1913–1915. His designs for the Talashkino church were so radical that the Orthodox church refused to consecrate the building. During the first decade of the 1900s and in the early 1910s, Roerich, largely by

5781-413: The Roerich Museum was founded in New York. In 1929, it moved to a new building. Presently, the Roerich Museum is located in Manhattan , at the corner of 107th Street and Riverside Drive. In 1929, Roerich's work towards the pact was recognised through a nomination for the Nobel Peace Prize . After leaving America, the Roerichs settled at Naggar in the Kullu Valley from which their estate looked towards

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5922-464: The Russian Pacific Fleet in the port. Russia's acquisition of Port Arthur was primarily an anti-British move to counter the British occupation of Wei-hai-Wei , but in Japan this was perceived as an anti-Japanese move. Germany occupied Jiaozhou Bay , built the Tsingtao fortress , and based the German East Asia Squadron in this port. Between 1897 and 1903, the Russians built the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER) in Manchuria. The Chinese Eastern Railroad

6063-413: The Soviet Union . However, his aversion to communism , "the impertinent monster that lies to humanity," changed in America. Roerich claimed that his spiritual masters, the "Mahatmas" in the Himalayas , were communicating telepathically with him through his wife, Helena, who was a mystic and a clairvoyant. The beings from an esoteric Buddhist community in India were said to have told Roerich that Russia

6204-460: The Treaty of Portsmouth (5 September [ O.S. 23 August] 1905), mediated by US President Theodore Roosevelt . The complete victory of the Japanese military surprised international observers and transformed the balance of power in both East Asia and Europe, resulting in Japan's emergence as a great power and a decline in the Russian Empire's prestige and influence in Europe. Russia's incurrence of substantial casualties and losses for

6345-546: The White House (Washington, DC). It was the first international treaty signed in the Oval Office. Nicholas Roerich was born on 9 October 9, 1874, in St. Petersburg . His parents encouraged him to study law, but seeing their son's inclination for painting, they allowed him to study both, which he did with much success. In 1900, Roerich went to Paris to take lessons from Fernand Cormon , the well known tutor of Van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec . Upon his return to St. Petersburg, he married Helena Shaposhnikova , who later developed

6486-604: The balance of power in Europe , as Wilhelm believed that any Russian entanglement with Japan would break up the Franco-Russian alliance and lead to Nicholas signing an alliance with Germany. This was especially the case as Germany had embarked upon the " Tirpitz Plan " and a policy of Weltpolitik (from 1897) meant to challenge Britain's position as the world's leading power. Since Britain was allied to Japan, if Germany could manipulate Russia and Japan into going to war with each other, this in turn would allegedly lead to Russia turning towards Germany. Furthermore, Wilhelm believed if

6627-449: The international law , especially its principle of the almost unlimited preference of the preservation of cultural values to the military necessity. From the book "Banner of Peace" /Compilers O.N. Zvonareva, T.O. Knizhnik, N.G. Mikhailova. – Second edition, supplemented and revised. – Moscow, ICR, 2005. – (series "Large Roerich's library"). 1930 – A project together with N. Roerich's covering appeal to governments and peoples of all

6768-402: The " Yellow Peril " propaganda by the German government, and the German Emperor Wilhelm II ( r.  1888–1918 ) often wrote letters to his cousin Emperor Nicholas II of Russia, praising him as the "saviour of the white race" and urging Russia forward in Asia. From November 1894 onward, Wilhelm had been writing letters praising Nicholas as Europe's defender from the "Yellow Peril", assuring

6909-459: The " survival of the fittest " were common from the 1880s onward and many ordinary Japanese resented the heavy taxes imposed by the government to modernize Japan, demanding something tangible like an overseas colony as a reward for their sacrifices. Furthermore, the educational system of Meiji Japan was meant to train the schoolboys to be soldiers when they grew up, and as such, Japanese schools indoctrinated their students into Bushidō ("way of

7050-488: The "Great Qing Empire" – started to resemble more and more a Russian province. In December 1897, a Russian fleet appeared off Port Arthur. After three months, in 1898, China and Russia negotiated a convention by which China leased (to Russia) Port Arthur, Talienwan and the surrounding waters. The two parties further agreed that the convention could be extended by mutual agreement. The Russians clearly expected such an extension, for they lost no time in occupying

7191-494: The "backwardness" of China and Korea was proof of the inferiority of those nations, thus giving the Japanese the "right" to conquer them. Count Inoue Kaoru , the foreign minister, gave a speech in 1887 saying "What we must do is to transform our empire and our people, make the empire like the countries of Europe and our people like the peoples of Europe," going on to say that the Chinese and Koreans had essentially forfeited their right to be independent by not modernizing. Much of

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7332-461: The "occupation of Tibet by the British" by claiming that they "infiltrate in small parties... conduct extensive anti-Soviet propaganda" by talking about "anti-religious activity of the Bolsheviks." The plenipotentiary later pointed out to one of Roerich's old university classmates, Georgy Chicherin , that he had "absolutely pro-Soviet leanings, which looked somewhat Buddho-Communistic," and that his son, who spoke 28 Asian languages, helped him in gaining

7473-409: The 1917 Russian Revolution to which the couple, like other many Russian intellectuals, accorded apocalyptic significance. The influence of Theosophy, Vedanta , Buddhism , and other mystical topics can be detected not only in many of Roerich's paintings but also in the many short stories and poems that Roerich wrote before and after the 1917 revolutions, including the Flowers of Morya cycle, which

7614-569: The American–Russian cultural Association (ARCA) was created in New York. Its active participants were Ernest Hemingway , Rockwell Kent , Charlie Chaplin , Emil Cooper , Serge Koussevitzky , and Valeriy Ivanovich Tereshchenko . Its activity was welcomed by scientists such as Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton . Roerich had a lengthy correspondence with Henry Wallace, the 1948 Progressive Party candidate for US president. Roerich died in Kullu on December 13, 1947. His wife, philosopher Helena Roerich , wrote about this day: “The day of cremation

7755-420: The Atlantic. Wilhelm aggressively encouraged Russia's ambitions in Asia because France, Russia's closest ally since 1894, was less than supportive of Russian expansionism in Asia, and it was believed in Berlin that German support of Russia might break up the Franco-Russian alliance and lead to a new German–Russian alliance. The French had made it clear that they disapproved of Nicholas's forward policy in Asia;

7896-501: The Banner of Peace on the board of orbital station " Mir ". 1995, 26 June – Banner of Peace was presented to Gebhardt von Moltke , deputy of secretary for political questions at NATO headquarters in Brussels. 1997 – Banner of Peace was given to the crew of Soviet orbital station " Soyuz-TM " in the frameworks of scientific-enlightener project "Banner of Peace". It was delivered to orbital station "Mir" and remains in cosmos during two years (August 5, 1997 – August 28, 1999), accompanying

8037-498: The Banner of Peace was spread out in Karachi (India). 1942 – The American-Russian culture association (ARCA) was formed in New York. Ernest Hemingway , Charlie Chaplin , Rockwell Kent , Norman Bel Geddes , Edmund Cooper , Serge Koussevitzky , Valeriy Ivanovich Tereshchenko were its active contributors. The association's activity was welcomed by world-known scientists Robert Andrews Millikan and Arthur Compton . 1946, 23 January – first meeting of resumed New York Committee of

8178-438: The Bolshevik regime, prompted not so much by a dislike of communism as by his revulsion at Lenin 's ruthlessness and his fear that Bolshevism would result in the destruction of Russia's artistic and architectural heritage. He illustrated Leonid Andreyev 's anticommunist polemic "S.O.S." and had a widely-published pamphlet, "Violators of Art" (1918–1919). Roerich believed that "the triumph of Russian culture would come about through

8319-405: The British meant, in part, that if any nation allied itself with Russia during any war against Japan, then Britain would enter the war on Japan's side. Russia could no longer count on receiving help from either Germany or France without the danger of British involvement in the war. With such an alliance, Japan felt free to commence hostilities if necessary. The 1890s and 1900s marked the height of

8460-492: The British, led several scholars to place Nicholas Roerich as a participant in the British-Russian colonial Great Game . In 1923, Roerich, the "practical idealist," set out to the Himalayas with his wife and his son Yuri. Roerich initially settled in Darjeeling in the same house that the 13th Dalai Lama had stayed during his exile in India. Roerich spent his time painting the Himalayas with visitors such as Frederick Marshman Bailey , Lady Emily Bulwer-Lytton , and members of

8601-435: The Chinese capital, Beijing. Russia had already sent 177,000 soldiers to Manchuria, nominally to protect its railways under construction. Though the Qing imperial army and the Boxer rebels united to fight against the invasion, they were quickly overrun and ejected from Manchuria. After the Boxer Rebellion, 100,000 Russian soldiers were stationed in Manchuria. The Russian troops settled in and despite assurances they would vacate

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8742-440: The Far East (like the uncompleted Trans-Siberian railroad line) did not matter – they assumed that the Reich would come to Russia's assistance if war should come. In fact, neither Wilhelm nor his Chancellor Prince Bernhard von Bülow (in office: 1900–1909) had much interest in East Asia, and Wilhelm's letters to Nicholas praising him as Europe's saviour against the "Yellow Peril" were really meant to provoke change in

8883-431: The Far East. This would not had happened if our governments had not been in agreement! A recurring theme of Wilhelm's letters to Nicholas was that "Holy Russia" had been "chosen" by God to save the "entire white race" from the "Yellow Peril", and that Russia was "entitled" to annex all of Korea, Manchuria, and northern China up to Beijing. Wilhelm went on to assure Nicholas that once Russia had defeated Japan, this would be

9024-548: The French Premier Maurice Rouvier (in office: May to December 1887) publicly declaring that the Franco-Russian alliance applied only in Europe, not to Asia, and that France would remain neutral if Japan attacked Russia. The American president Theodore Roosevelt (in office 1901–1909), who was attempting to mediate the Russian–Japanese dispute, complained that Wilhelm's "Yellow Peril" propaganda, which strongly implied that Germany might go to war against Japan in support of Russia, encouraged Russian intransigence. On 24 July 1905, in

9165-526: The Japanese government had realised that Russia was not interested in settling the Manchurian or Korean issues. Instead, Russia's goal was buying time – via diplomacy – to further build up militarily. In December 1903, Wilhelm wrote in a marginal note on a diplomatic dispatch about his role in inflaming Russo-Japanese relations: Since 97 – Kiaochow – we have never left Russia in any doubt that we would cover her back in Europe, in case she decided to pursue

9306-444: The Japanese minister in Saint Petersburg, was instructed to present his country's view opposing Russia's consolidation plans in Manchuria. On 3 August 1903 the Japanese minister handed in the following document to serve as the basis for further negotiations: On 3 October 1903 the Russian minister to Japan, Roman Rosen , presented to the Japanese government the Russian counter proposal as the basis of negotiations, as follows: During

9447-417: The Japanese minister to Russia, Kurino Shin'ichirō , was recalled, and Japan severed diplomatic relations with Russia. Potential diplomatic resolution of territorial concerns between Japan and Russia failed; historians have argued that this directly resulted from the actions of Emperor Nicholas II . Crucially, Nicholas mismanaged his government. Although certain scholars contend that the situation arose from

9588-423: The Japanese the right to intervene in Korea. All through the 1880s and early 1890s, the government in Tokyo was regularly criticized for not being aggressive enough in Korea, leading Japanese historian Masao Maruyama to write: Just as Japan was subject to pressure from the Great Powers, so she would apply pressure to still weaker countries – a clear case of the transfer psychology. In this regard it

9729-490: The Pact and Banner of Peace has been conducted. 1948, August – Indian government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru has decided to approve the Roerich Pact. 1948-1949 – Italian association of Roerich Pact at Bologna has organized the work to support the Pact on a broad footing. Committees of the Roerich Pact and Banner of Peace worked in Italy, Belgium, Switzerland, France, England, Portugal, Brazil, Columbia, Uruguay, Bolivia and Cuba. 1949 – 4th UNESCO general conference has taken

9870-489: The Pact. President F. Roosevelt talked in his radio speech: "Presenting this Pact for signing by all the countries, we strive for that its world acceptance becomes a vital principle for preserving of modern civilization. This agreement has more profound significance than the text of this document" [1]. 1937, October – First Congress of Baltic Roerich societies has resolved to create the committees of Roerich Pact in all Roerich societies of Baltic countries. 1938, 17 November –

10011-418: The Prime Minister of Japan, Katsura Tarō (in office 1901–1906), decided if war did come, that Japan was more likely to have the support of the United States and Great Britain if the war could be presented as a struggle for free trade against the highly protectionist Russian empire, in which case, Manchuria, which was the larger market than Korea, was more likely to engage Anglo-American sympathies. Throughout

10152-743: The Roerich Hall Estate in Naggar , India ; the Sree Chitra Art Gallery , Thiruvananthapuram , India; in various art museums in India; and a selection featuring several of his larger works in The Latvian National Museum of Art . A memorial plaque marks the house in Lahaul valley where Roerich lived during summers from 1929 to 1932. Roerich's biography and his controversial expeditions to Tibet and Manchuria have been examined recently by

10293-729: The Roerich Pact was signed by the United States and Latin American nations, agreeing that "historic monuments, museums, scientific, artistic, educational and cultural institutions" should be protected both in times of peace and war, and identified by their flying a distinctive flag, the Banner of Peace , bearing the Pax Cultura emblem. According to the Roerich Museum, "The Banner of Peace symbol has ancient origins. Perhaps its earliest known example appears on Stone Age amulets: three dots, without

10434-440: The Roerichs founded their own school of mysticism, Agni Yoga , which they described as "the system of living ethics." While in London, Roerich also contributed scenic designs for LAHDA , a cooperative group of Russian theatrical artists led by Theodore Komisarjevsky . To earn passage to India, Roerich worked as a stage designer for Thomas Beecham 's Covent Garden Theatre , but the enterprise ended unsuccessfully in 1920, and

10575-503: The Russian legation in Seoul, believing that his life was in danger from Japanese agents, and Russian influence in Korea started to predominate. In the aftermath of the flight of the King, a popular uprising overthrew the pro-Japanese government and several cabinet ministers were lynched in the streets. In 1897, Russia occupied the Liaodong Peninsula, built the Port Arthur fortress, and based

10716-498: The Russian–Japanese talks, the Japanese historian Hirono Yoshihiko noted, "once negotiations commenced between Japan and Russia, Russia scaled back its demands and claims regarding Korea bit by bit, making a series of concessions that Japan regarded as serious compromises on Russia's part". The war might not have broken out had not the issues of Korea and Manchuria become linked. The Korean and Manchurian issues had become linked as

10857-566: The Sacred Union of the East, a spiritual utopia that boiled down to Roerich's ambitious attempts to stir the Buddhist masses of inner Asia to create a highly spiritual co-operative commonwealth under the patronage of Bolshevik Russia. The official mission of his expedition, as Roerich put it, was to act as the embassy of Western Buddhism to Tibet. To the Western media, it was presented as an artistic and scientific enterprise. Roerich reported seeing

10998-583: The School of the Imperial Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. After the October Revolution and the acquisition of power of Lenin's Bolshevik Party , Roerich became increasingly discouraged about Russia's political future. During early 1918, he, Helena, and their two sons George and Svetoslav emigrated to Finland. Two unresolved historical debates are associated with Roerich's departure. First, it

11139-1082: The State Museum of Oriental Arts in Moscow; the Roerich Museum at the International Centre of the Roerichs in Moscow; the Russian State Museum in Saint Petersburg, Russia; a collection in the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow; a collection in the Art Museum in Novosibirsk , Russia; an important collection in the National Gallery for Foreign Art in Sofia , Bulgaria ; a collection in the Art Museum in Nizhny Novgorod Russia; National Museum of Serbia ;

11280-520: The Tsar that God Himself had "chosen" Russia to defend Europe from the alleged Asian threat. On 1 November 1902 Wilhelm wrote to Nicholas that "certain symptoms in the East seem to show that Japan is becoming a rather restless customer" and "it is evident to every unbiased mind that Korea must and will be Russian". Wilhelm ended his letter with the warning that Japan and China would soon unite against Europe, writing: Twenty to thirty million Chinese, supported by

11421-510: The White House. In 1934–1935, the U.S. Department of Agriculture , then headed by the Roerich admirer Henry A. Wallace , sponsored an expedition conducted by Roerich, his wife Helena , and its scientists H. G. MacMillan and James F. Stephens to Inner Mongolia , Manchuria , and mainland China . The expedition's purpose was to collect seeds of plants which prevented soil erosion . The expedition consisted of two parts. In 1934, they explored

11562-405: The area after the crisis, by 1903 the Russians had not established a timetable for withdrawal and had actually strengthened their position in Manchuria. The Japanese statesman Itō Hirobumi started to negotiate with the Russians. He regarded Japan as too weak to evict the Russians militarily, so he proposed giving Russia control over Manchuria in exchange for Japanese control of northern Korea. Of

11703-456: The artist never received full payment for his work. Among the notable people Roerich befriended while in England were the famed British Buddhist Christmas Humphreys , the philosopher-author H. G. Wells , and the poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (whose grand-niece Devika Rani would later marry Roerich's son Svetoslav ). A successful exhibition in London resulted in an invitation from

11844-574: The attention of the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet on the need to form a coherent cultural policy and, most urgently, to protect art and architecture from destruction and vandalism. Meanwhile, illness forced Roerich to leave the capital and reside in Karelia , the district bordering Finland. He had already quit the presidency of the World of Art society, and he now quit the directorship of

11985-454: The autocracy. The Japanese understanding of this can be seen in a telegram from Japanese minister of foreign affairs, Komura, to the minister to Russia, in which he stated: ...the Japanese government have at all times during the progress of the negotiations made it a special point to give prompt answers to all propositions of the Russian government. The negotiations have now been pending for no less than four months, and they have not yet reached

12126-568: The base for it acceptance is a principle of cultural values protection during the war established at the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and also in the Roerich Pact. This Hague convention was signed by representatives from 37 countries. 1970, 14 November – " UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property "

12267-506: The circle as representing the eternity of time, encompassing the past, present, and future. The sacred origins of the symbol, as an illustration of the trinities fundamental to all religions, remain central to the meaning of the Pact and the Banner today." The Roerich Pact sign was superseded by the distinctive marking of cultural property as defined by the Hague Convention of 1954 . However,

12408-518: The claim that Russia played an aggressive role in the East, which it did; rather, it means that Russia unwisely calculated and supposed that Japan would not go to war against Russia's far larger and seemingly superior navy and army. Nicholas held the Japanese in contempt as "yellow monkeys", and he took for granted that the Japanese would simply yield in the face of Russia's superior power, which thus explains his unwillingness to compromise. Evidence of Russia's false sense of security and superiority to Japan

12549-625: The combined might of Russia, Germany and France, and so gave in to the ultimatum. At the same time, the Japanese did not abandon their attempts to force Korea into the Japanese sphere of influence. On 8 October 1895, Queen Min of Korea, the leader of the anti-Japanese and pro-Chinese faction at the Korean court was murdered by Japanese agents within the halls of the Gyeongbokgung palace, an act that backfired badly as it turned Korean public opinion against Japan. In early 1896, King Gojong of Korea fled to

12690-527: The countries was published and communicated to the governments, scientific, artistic and educational institutions of the world. 1931 – An International Union of the Roerich Pact was founded at Bruges under the guidance of a member of Belgium Committee for monument protection Camille Tulpinck  [ nl ] . 1932, 7–9 September - second international conference dedicated to the Roerich Pact had been organized at Bruges. Twenty two countries took part in its work. The Conference has resolved to found at Bruges

12831-600: The country, to San Francisco and back, in 1921 and early 1922. Roerich befriended acclaimed soprano Mary Garden of the Chicago Opera and received a commission to design a 1922 production of Rimsky-Korsakov 's The Snow Maiden for her. During the exhibition, the Roerichs spent significant amounts of time in Chicago, New Mexico, and California. Politically, Roerich was at first anti-Bolshevik. He gave lectures and wrote articles to White Russian populations in which he criticized

12972-410: The determination of Nicholas II to use the war against Japan to spark a revival in Russian patriotism, no historical evidence supports this claim. The Tsar's advisors did not support the war, foreseeing problems in transporting troops and supplies from European Russia to the East. The Tsar himself repeatedly delayed negotiations with the Japanese government as he believed that he was protected by God and

13113-543: The draft of international convention in view of given documents. 1954, 14 May – U.N.O and UNESCO Conference in Hague has accepted the " Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict " and a protocol accompanying it. The Second protocol to the Hague convention was accepted in March 1999 due to initiative and close participation of UNESCO. A text of the Hague convention pointed directly on that

13254-458: The emblem of the Roerich Pact is still a valid protective sign in the relations between the ten states which are bound by the Pact. Nicholas Roerich Nikolai Konstantinovich Rerikh ( Russian : Николай Константинович Рерих ), better known as Nicholas Roerich ( / ˈ r ɛr ɪ k / ; October 9, 1874 – December 13, 1947), was a Russian painter, writer, archaeologist , theosophist , philosopher , and public figure . In his youth he

13395-448: The enclosing circle. Roerich came across numerous later examples in various parts of the world, and knew that it represented a deep and sophisticated understanding of the triune nature of existence. But for the purposes of the Banner and the Pact, Roerich described the circle as representing the totality of culture, with the three dots being Art, Science, and Religion, three of the most embracing of human cultural activities. He also described

13536-555: The expedition was forcibly stopped by Tibetan authorities." They were detained by the government for five months and were forced to live in tents in sub-zero conditions and to subsist on meagre rations. Five men of the expedition died during this time. In March 1928 they were allowed to leave Tibet, and they trekked south to settle in India , where they founded a research center, the Himalayan Research Institute. In 1929 Roerich

13677-430: The fate of the new world: "We spoke about Indian–Russian cultural association [...] it is time to think about useful and creative co-operation." Indira Gandhi would later recall several days spent together with Roerich's family: "That was a memorable visit to a surprising and gifted family where each member was a remarkable figure in himself, with a well-defined range of interests.... Roerich himself stays in my memory. He

13818-634: The favor with the Indians and the Tibetans. The Roerichs settled in New York City, which became the base of their many American operations. They founded several institutions during these years: Cor Ardens ("Flaming Heart") and Corona Mundi ("Crown of the World"), both of which were meant to unite artists around the globe in the cause of civic activism; the Master Institute of United Arts, an art school with

13959-621: The five Genrō (elder statesmen) who made up the Meiji oligarchy, Itō Hirobumi and Count Inoue Kaoru opposed the idea of war against Russia on financial grounds, while Katsura Tarō , Komura Jutarō and Field Marshal Yamagata Aritomo favored war. Meanwhile, Japan and Britain had signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1902 – the British seeking to restrict naval competition by keeping the Russian Pacific seaports of Vladivostok and Port Arthur from their full use. Japan's alliance with

14100-619: The fulfillment of the Matreiya prophecies and the bringing about of the Age of Shambhala. In 1924, the Roerichs returned to the West. On his way to America, Roerich stopped at the Soviet embassy in Berlin, where he told the local plenipotentiary about a Central Asian expedition he wanted to take. He asked for Soviet protection on his way, and shared his impressions of politics in India and Tibet. Roerich commented on

14241-673: The group, he became a member of Sergei Diaghilev 's " World of Art " society and was its president from 1910 to 1916. Artistically, Roerich became known as his generation's most talented painter of Russia's ancient past, a topic that was compatible with his lifelong interest in archeology. He also succeeded as a stage designer by achieving his greatest fame as one of the designers for Diaghilev's Ballets Russes . His best-known designs were for Alexander Borodin 's Prince Igor (1909 and later productions), and costumes and set for The Rite of Spring (1913), composed by Igor Stravinsky . Along with Mikhail Vrubel and Mikhail Nesterov , Roerich

14382-441: The help of the Soviet government and Bolshevik secret police to assist him in his expedition by promising in return to monitor British activities in the area, but he received only a lukewarm response from Mikhail Trilisser , the chief of the Soviet foreign intelligence. The Bolsheviks assisted Roerich with logistics while he was traveling through Siberia and Mongolia. However, they did not commit themselves to his reckless project of

14523-484: The high command of the Imperial Russian Army , as well as the governments of the United States and France with an idea of conclusion of an international agreement aimed on the protection of cultural values during armed conflicts. He created a poster "Enemy of Mankind" denouncing the barbaric destruction of cultural monuments, and picture "Glow" expressing a protest against World War I . In 1915, Roerich wrote

14664-519: The influence of his wife, Helena, developed an interest in eastern religions, as well as alternative belief systems such as Theosophy . Both Roerichs became avid readers of the Vedantist essays of Ramakrishna and Vivekananda , the poetry of Rabindranath Tagore , and the Bhagavad Gita . The Roerichs' commitment to occult mysticism increased steadily. It was especially intense during World War I and

14805-404: The issue dividing Japan and Russia was Manchuria, and chose to pursue a policy of neutrality as the best way of preserving Korean independence as the crisis mounted. In a series of reports to Beijing, Hu Weide, the Chinese ambassador in Saint Petersburg from July 1902 to September 1907, looked closely at whether a Russian or a Japanese victory would be favourable to China, and argued that the latter

14946-458: The issue of control and influence over Korea under the rule of the Joseon dynasty. From the 1880s onward, there had been vigorous competition for influence in Korea between China and Japan. The Korean court was prone to factionalism, and at the time was badly divided between a reformist camp that was pro-Japanese and a more conservative faction that was pro-Chinese. In 1884, a pro-Japanese coup attempt

15087-505: The onlooker, leaving one with a sense of peace and tranquility as one moves with the series through the gallery. H. P. Lovecraft describes Roerich's paintings of Asian mountain landscapes as "strange and disturbing" numerous times in his Antarctic horror story At the Mountains of Madness . Roerich was awarded Order of St. Sava . The minor planet 4426 Roerich in the Solar System

15228-569: The pressure for Japan's wars from 1894 to 1941 came from the ordinary people, who demanded a "tough" foreign policy, and tended to engage in riots and assassination when foreign policy was perceived to be pusillanimous. Though the Meiji oligarchy refused to allow liberal democracy , they did seek to appropriate some of the demands of the "people's rights" movement by allowing an elected Imperial Diet in 1890 (with limited powers and an equally limited franchise) and by pursuing an aggressive foreign policy towards Korea. In 1884, Japan had encouraged

15369-501: The pressure for an aggressive foreign policy in Japan came from below, with the advocates of a "people's rights" movement calling for an elected parliament also favouring an ultra-nationalist line that took it for granted the Japanese had the "right" to annex Korea, as the "people's rights" movement was led by those who favoured invading Korea in the years 1869–1873. As part of the modernization process in Japan, social Darwinist ideas about

15510-655: The protection and defence of the White Race, and with it, Christian civilization, against the Yellow Race. And whatever the Japs are determined to ensure the domination of the Yellow Race in East Asia, to put themselves at its head and organise and lead it into battle against the White Race. That is the kernel of the situation, and therefore there can be very little doubt about where the sympathies of all half-way intelligent Europeans should lie. England betrayed Europe's interests to America in

15651-479: The railway stations . The Russians also began to make inroads into Korea. A large point of Russia's growing influence in Korea was Gojong's internal exile to the Russian legation . A pro-Russian cabinet emerged in the Korean Empire . In 1901, Tsar Nicholas II told Prince Henry of Prussia , "I do not want to seize Korea but under no circumstances can I allow Japan to become firmly established there. That will be

15792-510: The state of antique monuments. He wrote several articles dedicated to the poor state of the churches. In the article "Silent Pogroms" (1911) Roerich wrote about the unskillful restoration of St. John the Forerunner Church at Yaroslavl : "Who would defense a beautiful antique from mad pogroms? It is grievously when the antique dies. But it is more terrible when the antique remains disfigured, false, imitation ...". In 1914, Roerich appealed to

15933-811: The summer; Port Arthur , a naval base in Liaodong Province leased to Russia by the Qing dynasty of China from 1897, was operational year round. Russia had pursued an expansionist policy east of the Urals, in Siberia and the Far East , since the reign of Ivan the Terrible in the 16th century. Since the end of the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895, Japan had feared Russian encroachment would interfere with its plans to establish

16074-526: The territory and in fortifying Port Arthur, their sole warm-water port on the Pacific coast and of great strategic value. A year later, to consolidate their position, the Russians began to build a new railway from Harbin through Mukden to Port Arthur, the South Manchurian Railroad . The development of the railway became a contributory factor to the Boxer Rebellion , when Boxer forces burned

16215-530: The topic is rendered moot by the fact that the Soviets elected not to establish such a commissariat. Second, when Roerich later wished to reconcile with the Soviet Union, he maintained that he had not left Soviet Russia deliberately, but that he and his family, living in Karelia , had been isolated from their homeland when the Finnish Civil War began. However, Roerich had an amply-documented extreme hostility to

16356-473: The war and await the outcomes of key naval battles. As hope of victory dissipated, he continued the war to preserve the dignity of Russia by averting a "humiliating peace". Russia ignored Japan's willingness early on to agree to an armistice and rejected the idea of bringing the dispute to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague. After the decisive naval battle of Tsushima , the war was concluded with

16497-497: The war out of the belief that the Kaiser would come to his aid. Despite previous assurances that Russia would completely withdraw from Manchuria the forces it had sent to crush the Boxer Rebellion by 8 April 1903, that day passed with no reduction in Russian forces in that region. In Japan, university students demonstrated both against Russia and against their own government for not taking any action. On 28 July 1903 Kurino Shin'ichirō ,

16638-425: The war, Japanese propaganda presented the recurring theme of Japan as a "civilized" power (that supported free trade and would implicitly allow foreign businesses into the resource-rich region of Manchuria) vs. Russia the "uncivilized" power (that was protectionist and wanted to keep the riches of Manchuria all to itself). Emperor Gojong of Korea (King from 1864 to 1897, Emperor from 1897 to 1907) came to believe that

16779-419: The warrior"), the fierce code of the samurai. Having indoctrinated the younger generations into Bushidō , the Meiji elite found themselves faced with a people who clamored for war, and regarded diplomacy as a weakness. The British Japanologist Richard Storry wrote that the biggest misconception about Japan in the West was that the Japanese people were the "docile" instruments of the elite, when in fact much of

16920-725: The west to the Kamchatka Peninsula in the east. With its construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway to the port of Vladivostok, Russia hoped to further consolidate its influence and presence in the region. In the Tsushima incident of 1861 Russia had directly assaulted Japanese territory. The first major war the Empire of Japan fought following the Meiji Restoration was against China , from 1894 to 1895. The war revolved around

17061-535: The work of international crews. 1998, 9 October – Banner of Peace was hoisted over the Centre-Museum named after N. Roerich in Moscow. 1999, 5 January – Banner of Peace was presented to President of Kazakhstan Republic Nursultan Nazarbayev at President Palace (Almaty). Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov and Professor Sergey Kapitsa took part in the ceremony. - 26 March – Second protocol to "Convention for protection of cultural values in case of armed conflict" (Hague, 1954)

17202-436: Was a man with extensive knowledge and enormous experience, a man with a big heart, deeply influenced by all that he observed." During the visit, "ideas and thoughts about closer co-operation between India and USSR were expressed. Now, after India wins independence, they have got its own real implementation . And as you know, there are friendly and mutually-understanding relationships today between both our countries." In 1942,

17343-613: Was accepted at 16th session of general UNESCO conference in Paris. 1972, 23 November – " Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage " was accepted at 17th session of general UNESCO conference in Paris. 1974 – Alpinists from Novosibirsk hoisted the Banner of Peace on the Roerich peak near Belukha Mountain (Altai). 1988, 6 May – Banner of Peace was hoisted at North Pole . 1990, 11 February – Soviet cosmonauts Aleksandr Balandin and Anatoly Solovyev took

17484-416: Was approved. 1935, 15 April – A Treaty named "international pact for protection of artistic and scientific institutions, historic monuments, missions and collections" (Roerich Pact) is concluded and signed by representatives of 21 American states at the White House, Washington. A distinctive sign for identification of the protected objects (Banner of Peace) proposed by Roerich was approved in the frameworks of

17625-553: Was begun in 1907 and completed in 1921. After the February Revolution of 1917 and the end of the czarist regime, Roerich, a political moderate who valued Russia's cultural heritage more than ideology and party politics, had an active part in artistic politics. With Maxim Gorky and Aleksandr Benois , he participated with the so-called "Gorky Commission" and its successor organization, the Arts Union (SDI). Both attempted to gain

17766-516: Was closed in 1918 in the context of the October Revolution and Finnish Civil War , the family travelled across several Scandinavian countries to Great Britain and eventually left for North America in 1920. There, Roerich founded two cultural institutions: " Cor Ardens " (Flaming Heart, a fraternity of artists from several countries) and "The Master Institute of United Arts" (an organization for education, science, and philosophy). In 1923,

17907-581: Was destined for a mission on Earth. That led him to formulate his "Great Plan," which envisaged the unification of millions of Asian peoples through a religious movement using the Future Buddha, or Maitreya , into a "Second Union of the East." There, the King of Shambhala would, following the Maitreya prophecies, make his appearance to fight a great battle against all evil forces on Earth. Roerich understood that as "perfection towards Common Good." The new polity

18048-535: Was exceptionally beautiful. Not a single breath of wind and all surrounding mountains were clad in fresh snowy attire.” In the 21st century, the Nicholas Roerich Museum in New York City is a major institution for Roerich's artistic work. Numerous Roerich societies continue to promote his theosophical teachings worldwide. His paintings can be seen in several museums including the Roerich Department of

18189-838: Was fought between the Russian Empire and the Empire of Japan during 1904 and 1905 over rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and the Korean Empire . The major theatres of military operations were in the Liaodong Peninsula and Mukden in Southern Manchuria, the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan . Russia sought a warm-water port on the Pacific Ocean both for its navy and for maritime trade. Vladivostok remained ice-free and operational only during

18330-402: Was further modernized before embarking on a war to conquer Korea; significantly, no one in the Japanese elite ever accepted the idea that the Koreans had the right to be independent, with only the question of timing dividing the two factions. In much the same way that Europeans used the "backwardness" of African and Asian nations as a reason for why they had to conquer them, for the Japanese elite

18471-419: Was influenced by Russian Symbolism , a movement in Russian society centered on the spiritual. He was interested in hypnosis and other spiritual practices and his paintings are said to have hypnotic expression. Born in Saint Petersburg , to a well-to-do Baltic German father and to a Russian mother, Roerich lived in various places in the world until his death in Naggar , India. Trained as an artist and

18612-624: Was named in honor of Roerich. A crater on Mercury , near the south pole, is also named for Roerich. In June 2013 during Russian Art Week in London, Roerich's Madonna Laboris sold at auction at Bonhams shop for £7,881,250, including the buyer's premium, making it the most valuable painting ever sold at a Russian art auction. Russo-Japanese war 1,365,000 (total) 1,200,000 (total) Total: 43,300–71,453 dead Material losses: Total: 80,378–86,100 dead Material losses: Naval battles Land battles Taishō period Shōwa period The Russo-Japanese War

18753-458: Was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by the University of Paris . He received two more nominations in 1932 and 1935. His concern for peace resulted in his creation of the Pax Cultura , the " Red Cross " of art and culture. His work for this cause also resulted in the United States and the 20 other nations of the Pan-American Union signing the Roerich Pact , an early international instrument protecting cultural property, on April 15, 1935 at

18894-447: Was owned jointly by the Russian and Chinese governments, but the company's management was entirely Russian, the line was built to the Russian gauge and Russian troops were stationed in Manchuria to protect rail traffic on the CER from bandit attacks. The headquarters of the CER company was located in the new Russian-built city of Harbin , the "Moscow of the Orient". From 1897 onwards, Manchuria – while still nominally part of

19035-425: Was preferable, as he maintained a Japanese victory presented the better chance for China to regain sovereignty over Manchuria. In December 1903 China decided to remain neutral if war came, because though Japan was the only power capable of evicting Russia from Manchuria, the extent of Japanese ambitions in Manchuria was not clear to Beijing. Russian–Japanese negotiations then followed, although by early January 1904

19176-404: Was presented to Speaker of Indian Parliament Sri Somnath Chatterjee on the occasion of 100th Sviatoslav Roerich's Anniversary. " Pax Cultura " ("Cultural Peace" or "Peace through Culture") is the motto of the cultural artifact protection movement founded by Nicholas Roerich, and is symbolized by a maroon on white emblem consisting of three solid circles in a surrounding circle. On April 15, 1935,

19317-410: Was published in press and distributed in government, scientific, artistic and educational institutions of the whole world. As a result, the committees supporting the Pact were established in many countries. The draft pact was approved by Committee for Museum affairs at League of Nations and also by the Committee of the Pan-American Union . Ultimately, the Pact was signed by 21 states in the Americas and

19458-518: Was put down by Chinese troops, and a "residency" under General Yuan Shikai was established in Seoul. A peasant rebellion led by the Tonghak religious movement led to a request by the Korean government for the Qing dynasty to send in troops to stabilize the country. The Empire of Japan responded by sending their own force to Korea to crush the Tonghak and installed a puppet government in Seoul . China objected and war ensued. Hostilities proved brief, with Japanese ground troops routing Chinese forces on

19599-471: Was ratified by ten of them. In the aftermath of World War II , the Roerich Pact played an important role in forming of international law standards and public activity in the field of protection of cultural heritage. In 1949, at the fourth UNESCO General Conference, a decision was accepted to begin the work for international law regulation in the field of cultural heritage protection in case of armed conflict. Ideas of Roerich Pact still are not implemented in

19740-414: Was signed in Hague. The document was written by six languages: English, Arabic, Spanish, Chinese, Russian and French. 2000, 8 January – Banner of Peace was established at Southern Pole. 2003, 17 October – The Convention about protection of non-material cultural heritage was accepted by 32nd session of the General UNESCO conference. 2004, 25 October – Banner of Peace from the board of cosmic station "Mir"

19881-439: Was to include southwestern Altai , Tuva , Buryatia , Outer and Inner Mongolia , Xinjiang and Tibet, with its capital in "Zvenigorod," the "City of Tolling Bells," which was to be built at the foot of Mount Belukha , in Altai. According to Roerich, the same Mahatmas revealed to him in 1922 that he was an incarnation of the Fifth Dalai Lama . Roerichs' collaboration with Bolshevik diplomats and aim to gather intelligence on

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