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99-471: It is not known when Princess Taihe was born, although it is known that she was a daughter of Emperor Xianzong (r. 805–820) and Emperor Xianzong's wife Consort Guo , and that she was younger than her full brother Li Heng , who was born in 795. She was Emperor Xianzong's 10th daughter over all. Late in Emperor Xianzong's reign, Huigu, then reigned by Baoyi Khan , made repeated overtures to request

198-503: A Tang princess to be married to Baoyi Khan under the Heqin system. Eventually, after a mission headed by the Huigu diplomat Hedagan (合達干), Emperor Muzong agreed to have Princess Taihe's older sister Princess Yong'an married to Baoyi Khan—but as Baoyi died in 821, the marriage never took place. After Baoyi Khan died in 821 and was succeeded by Chongde Khan , Chongde Khan continued to seek marriage with

297-476: A Tang princess, and he sent a delegation including a number of officials and two Huigu princesses, along with a bride price of horses and camels. Later in 821, Li Heng, who was by now emperor (as Emperor Muzong), agreed to marry Princess Taihe to Chongde Khan. When another neighbor state, Tufan , became aware of the Tang-Huigu marriage, it was incensed and attacked Fort Qingsai (青塞堡, in modern Yulin, Shaanxi ), but

396-550: A crown prince, Emperor Xianzong created his oldest son Li Ning , born of his concubine Consort Ji, crown prince. Also in 809, after the death of another warlord, Wang Shizhen the military governor of Chengde Circuit (成德, headquartered in modern Shijiazhuang , Hebei ), Emperor Xianzong was initially poised to let Wang Shizhen's son Wang Chengzong inherit Chengde, after Wang Chengzong offered to surrender two of his six prefectures to imperial control. However, after Wang Chengzong reneged on his promise, Emperor Xianzong commissioned

495-471: A feast and allowed the imperial general Meng Yuanyang ( 孟元陽 ) to take control of Zhaoyi, Wang agreed to formally submit to Emperor Xianzong, claiming that it was Lu who interfered in his relationship with the imperial government. Emperor Xianzong, seeing that the campaign was making no advances, ended it and made Wang the military governor of Chengde. After the end of the Chengde campaign, Zhang Maozhao ( 張茂昭 )

594-410: A feast for them, and it was said that she wept for over a day and kept them for that duration, before they actually departed. Chongde Khan awarded them with great treasure. In 824, Chongde Khan died and was succeeded by his brother Yaoluoge Hesa (藥羅葛曷薩) (as Zhaoli Khan). Princess Taihe remained in Huigu, although it is not clear whether she remarried Zhaoli Khan or any other person. In 832, Zhaoli Khan

693-500: A good equivalent for -z. The most serious attempt to explain these forms seems still to be that of Paul Pelliot in 1920. Pelliot suggested that Middle Chinese -t stands for Turkic -z, which would be quite unusual and would need supporting evidence, but then his references to Mongol plurals in -t suggest that he thinks that the name of the Kirghiz, like that of the Turks, first became known to

792-480: A group of assassins to carry out guerilla warfare tactics around the eastern capital Luoyang , to try to disrupt the campaign against Zhangyi and to create a sense of terror among the officials and the people. When the imperial pressure on Zhangyi still being unrelenting, with the imperial generals Wu Chongyin and Li Guangyan frequently dealing Zhangyi troops defeats (although imperial troops were unable to decisively defeat Zhangyi), Li Shidao decided to assassinate

891-505: A group of generals to escort Princess Taihe back to Tang territory. On the way, though, one of the remnant Huigu leaders who had claimed khan title, Yaoluoge Wuxi (藥羅葛烏希, with title of Wujie Khan) ambushed the Xiajiasi escort and took Princess Taihe. He had her write to Emperor Wuzong requesting that Emperor Wuzong create him the new khan and also lend the border city of Zhenwu (振武, in modern Hohhot , Inner Mongolia ) to him to allow him to plan

990-622: A key leader of the "Li Party.") Also around that time, the Shatuo tribes, which had long been vassals of Tang's long-term adversary Tufan , fearing that Tufan was set to move them to the interior of the Tufan state, rebelled against Tufan and surrendered to Tang, under the leadership of Zhuxie Zhiyi ( 朱邪執宜 ). They were initially settled at Shuofang Circuit (朔方, headquartered in modern Yinchuan , Ningxia ) and later moved to Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan , Shanxi ); their chieftains of

1089-516: A language identical to the Uyghurs. Drompp states that there is no reason to assume the Kyrgyz were non-Turkic in origin, although such a possibility cannot be discounted. According to Lee & Kuang, who cite Chinese historical descriptions as well as genetic data, the turcophone "Qirghiz" may have been of non-Turkic origin, and were later Turkified through inter-tribal marriage. The Kyrgyz were described in

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1188-564: A massive migration of Uyghurs from Mongolia into Turfan , Kumul and Gansu , where they founded the Kingdom of Qocho and Gansu Uyghur Kingdom . When Genghis Khan came to power in the early 13th century, the Yenisei Kyrgyz submitted peacefully to him and were absorbed into his Mongol Empire , putting an end to their independent state. During the time of the Mongol Empire, the territory of

1287-576: A petition to Li Chun as well requesting that he take power away from Wang Pi, Wang Shuwen, and Li Zhongyan. On August 26, an edict was issued in Emperor Shunzong's name for Li Chun to serve as regent. Thereafter, the imperial officials began to report to Li Chun. On August 31, Emperor Shunzong further issued an edict yielding the throne to Li Chun, taking for himself the title of "Retired Emperor" ( Taishang Huang ) and creating Li Chun's mother Consort Wang "Retired Empress." On September 5, Li Chun took

1386-408: A rebuking letter to Wujie Khan and warning of consequences, again ordering him to have Princess Taihe personally report and make requests. Emperor Wuzong also mobilized the forces of the circuits on the northern border, preparing a major retributive campaign against Wujie Khan. In winter 842, he also had the chancellor Li Deyu write a letter in his own name, addressed to Princess Taihe, sending it to

1485-446: A result of Li Jifu's accusations, Wang, Pei, Yang, and Wei were all demoted, and it was said that while no harm came to Niu, Li Zongmin, and Huangfu at that time, they were effectively stuck at the positions they previously served without promotion. As a result, they all sought positions as staff members of military governors. (Niu and Li Zongmin would later become key leaders of the "Niu Party," while Li Jifu's son Li Deyu would become

1584-478: A scout to make contact and found out that these were Princess Taihe's train. He then had the scout again inform Princess Taihe of his plans to attack, and asked her and her servants to remain calm and not move during the attack. At night, he made a surprise attack on Wujie Khan's tent, and Wujie Khan's forces collapsed. Wujie Khan fled, and Shi then escorted Princess Taihe back to Tang territory. On April 4, 843, Princess Taihe arrived at Chang'an. Emperor Wuzong ordered

1683-419: A staff on the same level of staffing as an imperial prince. Princess Taihe's train did not arrive at the Huigu court until late 822. When they approached the Huigu court, Chongde Khan sent a group of several hundred soldiers to welcome her and escort her to the Huigu court, but Hu declined on the basis that his mission was to escort the princess to Chongde Khan and therefore he had to complete that final leg of

1782-400: A stroke and became unable to speak. When Emperor Dezong fell gravely ill in spring 805, Li Song was unable to visit him, and Emperor Dezong, distressed over this, died soon thereafter. After Emperor Dezong's death, the eunuchs in the palace initially considered supporting another person as emperor, but due to the objections of the imperial scholars Wei Cigong ( 衛次公 ) and Zheng Yin , Li Song

1881-508: Is always to get iron," which is rather nonsensical. Ligeti unfortunately used only the Xin Tangshu passage without referring to the Tongdian. His restoration of qaša or qaš seems quite acceptable but I doubt that word simply meant "iron". It seems rather to refer specifically to "meteorite" or " meteoric iron ". American Turkologist Michael Drompp notes that the connection between language and race

1980-461: Is highly inconclusive and the physical appearance of the Kyrgyz is no more credible an indicator of non-Turkic origin than a few possibly non-Turkic words in their lexicon, whose presence can be explained through linguistic borrowing. Yenisei Kyrgyz inscriptions in the eighth century and later are written completely in the Turkic language and Tang Chinese sources clearly state that the Kyrgyz wrote and spoke

2079-751: Is implied by the Chinese forms of the name Kirghiz should not give any comfort to those who want to explain Mongolian and Tungusic cognates with r as Turkic loanwords . The peoples mentioned in sources of the Han period that can be identified as Turkic were the Dingling (later Tiele , from whom the Uyghurs emerged), the Jiankun (later Kirghiz), the Xinli (later Sir/ Xue ), and possibly also

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2178-522: The Kyrgyz , Khakas , Fuyu Kyrgyz , and Altai peoples . Culturally and linguistically, the Yenisei Kyrgyz were Turkic. The Tang Huiyao (961 CE), citing the Protector General of Anxi Ge Jiayun, states that the Kyrgyz, known to the Chinese as the Jiankun, all had red hair and green eyes. The ones with dark eyes and black hair were believed to be descended from Li Ling , a Han dynasty general whom

2277-611: The Qing dynasty , some Öelet, a tribe of Oirat -speaking Dzungars, were deported to the Nonni basin in northeastern China ( Manchuria ) and a group of Yenisei Kyrgyz were also deported along with the Öelet. The Kyrgyz who moved to northeastern China became known as the Fuyu Kyrgyz , but they have now mostly merged with the Mongol and Chinese population. The descendants of the Yenisei Kyrgyz today are

2376-495: The You yang za zu by Duan Chengshi in the 9th century AD as people with yellow hair, green eyes, and red beards. According to Duan, the Kyrgyz were not of wolf descent, unlike the Turks, and were born in a cave north of Quman Mountain as the offspring of a god and a cow. The New Book of Tang (11th century) did not consider the Kyrgyz to be the same as the Tiele tribes but states that they had

2475-399: The chancellor Wei Zhiyi —became the key decision-makers. It was said that this group of individuals feared Li Chun for his intelligence and decisiveness, and initially, Li Chun was not created crown prince. However, the eunuchs Ju Wenzhen ( 俱文珍 ), Liu Guangqi ( 劉光琦 ), and Xue Yingzhen ( 薛盈珍 ), all of whom were favored by Emperor Dezong and who lost their power in the new regime, summoned

2574-425: The eunuch Tutu Chengcui to command the imperial troops to attack Chengde. (As a result of this campaign's launch, when another warlord, Wu Shaocheng the military governor of Zhangyi Circuit (彰義, headquartered in modern Zhumadian , Henan ) subsequently died, he was unable to act against Wu Shaocheng's subordinate Wu Shaoyang , who seized control of the circuit, and was forced to commission Wu Shaoyang, much to

2673-523: The Čaatas culture  [ ru ] and may perhaps be correlated to the Tashtyk culture . Their endonym was variously transcribed in Chinese historical texts as Jiegu (結骨), Hegu (紇骨), Hegusi (紇扢斯), Hejiasi (紇戛斯), Hugu (護骨), Qigu (契骨), Juwu (居勿), and Xiajiasi (黠戛斯), but first appeared as Gekun (or Ko-kun ; Chinese : 鬲昆 ) or Jiankun (or Chien-kun ; Chinese : 堅昆 ) in Records of

2772-750: The "Kök Türks" because no similar description of their appearance exists while Ashina Simo 's ancestry was called into question for his "Hu" Sogdian appearance. Gardizi believed the red hair and white skin of the Kyrgyz was explained by mixing with the "Saqlabs" (Slavs) while the New Book states that the Kyrgyz intermixed with the Dingling . The Yenisei Kyrgyz had a mixed economy based on traditional nomadic animal breeding (mostly horses and cattle) and agriculture. According to Chinese records, they grew Himalayan rye , barley , millet , and wheat . They were also skilled iron workers, jewelry makers, potters, and weavers. Their homes were traditional nomadic tents and, in

2871-447: The Chinese through Mongol speaking intermediaries. There is still less plausibility in the suggestion that the Kirghiz, who first became known as a people conquered by that Xiongnu and then re-emerged associated with other Turkic peoples in the 6th century, should have had Mongol style suffixes attached to all the various forms of their name that were transcribed into Chinese up to the 9th century. The change of r to z in Turkic which

2970-662: The Grand Historian and Book of Han , respectively. Peter Golden reconstructs underlying * Qïrğïz < * Qïrqïz < * Qïrqïŕ and suggests a derivation from Old Turkic qïr 'gray' (horse color) plus suffix -q(X)ŕ/ğ(X)ŕ ~ k(X)z/g(X)z . Around 202 BCE, Xiongnu chanyu Modun conquered the Kyrgyz –then known to Chinese as Gekun (鬲昆), along with the Hunyu (渾庾), Qushe (屈射), Dingling (丁零), and Xinli (薪犁). Duan Chengshi wrote in Miscellaneous Morsels from Youyang that

3069-482: The Huigu remnants along with winter clothes as a gift for Princess Taihe: Before, the Empire was willing to let go its beloved daughter to intermarry with Huigu. This was to seek peace for the Empire, and it was believed that Huigu would assist us in quieting the borders and defend against foreign attacks. But recent Huigu actions were thoroughly unreasonable, and its horses often headed south. Are you, Aunt, not fearful of

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3168-501: The Kirgiz as people who "venerate the Fire and burn the dead", and that they were nomads who hunted. The trisyllabic forms with Chinese -sz for Turkic final -z appear only from the end of 8th century onward. Before that time we have a series of Chinese transcriptions referring to the same people and stretching back to the 2nd century BCE, which end either in -n or -t: Neither -n nor -t provides

3267-493: The Kyrgyz as "large, with red hair, white faces, and green or blue eyes" in Tang Chinese sources and also Tibetan and Islamic sources have tempted a number of researchers to assume that the Kyrgyz may have originally been non-Turkic or at least an ethnically mixed people with a large non-Turkic element. Many scholars supported this idea after identifying what they believed to be non-Turkic words (particularly Palaeo-Siberian ) among

3366-535: The Kyrgyz claimed to have married a Kyrgyz woman and was sent to aid in their governance after he surrendered to the Xiongnu. It is possible that this was an invented tradition used to claim a blood relationship with the Tang imperial house who claimed descent from Li Ling's grandfather, Li Guang . The name Jiankun was later changed to Xiajiasi ; according to a translation clerk, Xiajiasi meant "yellow head and red face" and this

3465-405: The Kyrgyz preserved in Chinese records. Ligeti cited the opinions of various scholars who had proposed to see them as assimilated Germanic , Slav , or Ket , while he himself, following Castrén and Schott, favoured an assimilated Samoyed origin on the basis of an etymology for a supposed Kyrgyz word qaša or qaš for "iron". However Pulleyblank argued: As far as I can see the only basis for

3564-631: The Lao or Kogmen mountains), in modern-day Tuva , just north of Mongolia. The Sayan Mountains were also included in their territory at different times. The Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate existed from 538 to 1219 CE; in 840, it took over the leadership of the Turkic Khaganate from the Uyghurs , expanding the state from the Yenisei territories into Central Asia and the Tarim Basin . The Yenisei Kyrgyz correlated with

3663-720: The Middle East. The Kyrgyz khagans of the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate claimed descent from the Chinese general Li Ling , grandson of the famous Han dynasty general Li Guang . Li Ling was captured by the Xiongnu and defected in the first century BCE and since the Tang imperial Li family also claimed descent from Li Guang, the Kyrgyz khagan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang imperial family. Emperor Zhongzong of Tang had said to them that "Your nation and Ours are of

3762-528: The Prince of Sui, born of his wife, Consort Guo (formerly the Princess of Guangling), crown prince and changed Li You's name to Li Heng, even though he had an older son, Li Kuan ( 李寬 ) the Prince of Li, as it was viewed by officials such as Cui Qun that Li Heng, born of a wife rather than a concubine, was the proper heir. Still, despite repeated petitions by the officials to create Consort Guo empress, Emperor Xianzong

3861-468: The Tufan attack was repelled. On August 28, she departed the Tang capital Chang'an, escorted by the general Hu Zheng (胡証), assisted by the other officials Li Xian (李憲) and Yin You (殷侑). Anticipating a possible attempt to Tufan forces to intercept Princess Taihe's train, Huigu forces were dispatched to escort them as well as to attack Tufan's borders. Emperor Muzong issued an edict permitting Princess Taihe to maintain

3960-623: The Uyghurs out of Mongolia entirely. On February 13, 843 at "Kill the Foreigners" Mountain, the Tang Chinese inflicted a devastating defeat on the Uyghur Qaghan's forces. But rather than replace the Uyghurs as the lords of Mongolia, the Yenisei Kyrgyz continued to live in their traditional homeland and exist as they had for centuries. The defeat and collapse of the Uyghur Khaganate triggered

4059-603: The Yenisei Kyrgyz in northern Mongolia was turned into an agricultural colony called Kem-Kemchik. Kublai Khan , who founded the Yuan dynasty , also sent Mongol and Han officials (along with colonists) to serve as judges in the Kyrgyz and Tuva regions. Some of the Yenisei Kyrgyz were relocated into the Dzungar Khanate by the Dzungars . In 1761, after the Dzungars were defeated by

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4158-518: The Zhuxie clan were given the area of Huanghuadui (黃花堆, in modern Shuozhou , Shanxi ) as their base of operations. (The Shatuo would eventually become a major part of the Tang army, and would yet later yield the ruling families of Later Tang , Later Jin , and Later Han , after Tang's end.) In 809, after much urging by the imperial scholars (翰林學士, Hanlin Xueshi ), led by Li Jiang , that he needed to have

4257-407: The acting military governor. However, Liu then made further demands to be given two neighboring circuits—Dongchuan (東川, headquartered in modern Mianyang , Sichuan ) and Shannan West (山南西道, headquartered in modern Hanzhong , Shaanxi )—as well. When Emperor Xianzong refused his demand, he launched an attack on Dongchuan's capital prefecture Zi Prefecture ( 梓州 ) in spring 806. At the suggestion of

4356-416: The aftermaths of the Chengde campaign, Tutu Chengcui was demoted and, later, after he was involved in a corruption scandal, sent out of the capital to serve as the eunuch monitor for Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou , Jiangsu ). In 811, at Li Jifu's suggestion, Emperor Xianzong appointed several officials—Duan Pingzhong ( 段平仲 ), Wei Guanzhi, Xu Mengrong ( 許孟容 ), and Li Jiang—to review

4455-577: The agricultural areas, wood and bark huts. Their farming settlements were protected by log palisades. The resources of their forested homeland (mainly fur) allowed the Yenisei Kyrgyz to become prosperous merchants as well. They maintained trading ties with China , Tibet , the Abbasid Caliphate of the Middle east, and many local tribes. Kyrgyz horses were also renowned for their large size and speed. The tenth-century Persian text Hudud al-'alam described

4554-524: The anger that the spirits of Emperor Gaozu and Emperor Taizong would have? As you intrude and disturb the Empire's borders, do you not think of the kindness and love of the Grand Empress Dowager [(i.e., Consort Guo)]? You, Aunt, are the mother of the state in Huigu, and you should have enough power to issue orders. If the Khan does not accept your orders, then he will be ending the relationship between

4653-514: The assassination.) Consorts and Issue: Xiajiasi The Yenisei Kyrgyz ( Old Turkic : 𐰶𐰃𐰺𐰴𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣 , romanized:  Qyrqyz bodun ), were an ancient Turkic-speaking people who dwelled along the upper Yenisei River in the southern portion of the Minusinsk Depression from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE. The heart of their homeland was the forested Tannu-Ola mountain range (known in ancient times as

4752-439: The assumption that the Kirghiz were not originally Turkic in language is the fact that they are described as blonds, hardly an acceptable argument in the light of present day ideas about the independence of language and race. As Ligeti himself admitted, other evidence about the Kirghiz language in Tang sources shows clearly that at that time they were Turkic speaking and there is no earlier evidence at all about their language. Even

4851-585: The attendant to Li Chun's studies. However, it appeared that Li Chun disliked Wang Shunwen and his associates, and whenever Lu tried to speak to him on political matters, Li Chun angrily responded, "His Imperial Majesty commissioned you, sir, to teach me about the classics . Why do you discuss other matters?" By summer 805, a group of military governors ( Jiedushi ) that Wang Shuwen had disputes with— Wei Gao , Pei Jun ( 裴均 ), and Yan Shou ( 嚴綬 )—were submitting petitions to Emperor Shunzong requesting that he let Li Chun serve as regent, and Wei Gao further submitted

4950-495: The campaign against Chengde (although he did not pardon Wang). Meanwhile, Pei Du volunteered to head to the Zhangyi front to oversee the operation, and Emperor Xianzong agreed. Later in the year, Li Su the military governor of Tangsuideng Circuit (唐隨鄧, headquartered in modern Zhumadian ) launched a surprise attack against Zhangyi's capital Cai Prefecture ( 蔡州 ), catching its defenders off guard and capturing it, seizing Wu Yuanji. Wu

5049-607: The campaign against Liu not over by that point, that he should not wage another campaign, and therefore allowed Li Shidao to inherit Pinglu. After Liu's and Yang's destruction, another warlord, Li Qi the military governor of Zhenhai Circuit (鎮海, headquartered in modern Zhenjiang , Jiangsu ) became apprehensive, and, as a means of showing loyalty, requested to go to Chang'an to pay homage to Emperor Xianzong. He did not actually intend to do so, however, and after Emperor Xianzong not only approved, but issued an edict summoning him when he did not depart Zhenhai immediately, rebelled against

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5148-471: The chancellor Du Huangchang , Emperor Xianzong commissioned the general Gao Chongwen to attack Liu, assisted by the generals Li Yuanyi ( 李元奕 ) and Yan Li ( 嚴礪 ). In fall 806, Gao captured Xichuan's capital Chengdu and delivered Liu to the capital Chang'an to be executed. Also in spring 806, Yang Huilin, the nephew of the general Han Quanyi ( 韓全義 ) the military governor of Xiasui Circuit (夏綏, headquartered in modern Yan'an , Shaanxi ), seized control of

5247-413: The chancellor Wu Yuanheng , whom Emperor Xianzong had put in charge of the campaign against Zhangyi, as well as the official Pei Du , a major proponent of the campaign. In summer 814, assassins that Li Shidao sent killed Wu Yuanheng and wounded Pei, terrifying the officials and the people at Chang'an. Emperor Xianzong's resolve against Zhangyi did not change, however, and when he came to believe that Wang

5346-400: The chancellors and the other officials to welcome and honor her. She took off her grand clothes and jewels, and she approached the palace, apologizing for the failure of her mission. Emperor Wuzong sent eunuchs to comfort her and put her robes and jewels back on, and then welcomed her into the palace. The next day, she had a reunion with her mother Grand Empress Dowager Guo, and she was created

5445-582: The circuit after Han had been ordered to retire and resisted imperial orders. With imperial forces approaching Xiasui's capital Xia Prefecture ( 夏州 ), Yang was quickly killed by his own subordinate Zhang Chengjin ( 張承金 ), ending his rebellion. Around the same time, the warlord Li Shigu , the military governor of the powerful Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Tai'an , Shandong ), died, and his subordinates supported his brother Li Shidao to succeed him. Du advocated trying to divest Pinglu of some of its territory, but Emperor Xianzong, believing that with

5544-599: The empire was under imperial authority again. Later historians referred to Emperor Xianzong's reign as the Yuanhe Restoration ( 元和中興 ). Emperor Xianzong's reign briefly stabilized Tang from the destructive forces of the military governors, but saw the rise of the power of eunuchs . Emperor Xianzong himself was allegedly murdered by the eunuch Chen Hongzhi ( 陳弘志 ) in 820. (There were nagging suspicions, never proven, that Xianzong's wife Consort Guo and her son Li Heng (the later Emperor Muzong) were involved.) Li Chun

5643-564: The front. A fortune teller assisted her in ascending the litter, and the chieftains of Huigu's nine tribes bore the litter. They made nine right turns before stopping at the tower. The Princess then descended from the litter and ascended the tower, and she sat with the Khan in the same eastern direction. The Huigu officials then bowed to both the Khan and the Khatun. The Khatun had her own headquarter tent, and two chancellors served her. Before Hu and his staff were ready to depart, Princess Taihe held

5742-479: The governmental structure, to streamline it, reduce the number of officials who were not carrying out any crucial tasks, and revise the officials' wage scale. Later in the year, with Emperor Xianzong believing that Li Jifu had often used his own personal likes and dislikes to decide on his policies, he promoted Li Jiang to be a chancellor as well, to counterbalance Li Jifu. Around the new year 812, Li Ning died. In fall 812, Emperor Xianzong created another son Li You

5841-438: The imperial forces were repeatedly dealing defeats to Pinglu troops. Meanwhile, it was said that after the victory over Zhangyi, Emperor Xianzong began to be arrogant and extravagant in his lifestyle, and he favored such officials as Huangfu Bo and Cheng Yi , whom he believed to be capable of increasing revenues for palace use. He eventually made both Huangfu and Cheng chancellors, despite earnest pleas by Pei and Cui Qun, who

5940-605: The imperial government. Before imperial troops could attack him, however, he was captured by his own subordinates and delivered to Chang'an to be executed. Around that time, another warlord, Yu Di the military governor of Shannan East Circuit (山南東道, headquartered in modern Xiangfan , Hubei ), fearing Emperor Xianzong, went to Chang'an and yielded control of the circuit to the imperial government, after Emperor Xianzong had ensured Yu's loyalty by marrying his daughter Princess Puning to Yu's son Yu Jiyou ( 于季友 ). In 808, an incident occurred that, as later historians opined, precipitated

6039-502: The imperial scholars Zheng, Wei Cigong, Li Cheng , and Wang Ya to the palace to draft an edict for Emperor Shunzong creating Li Chun as crown prince, anyway. Zheng showed a piece of paper to Emperor Shunzong reading, "The Crown Prince should be the oldest son." Emperor Shunzong, who was unable to speak, nodded, and an edict was thereafter issued in late spring 805 creating Li Chun crown prince. The edict also changed Li Chun's name (from 淳 to 純—both rendered "Chun" in modern Mandarin ). It

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6138-415: The issues they saw with the governance at the time. The officials that Emperor Xianzong put in charge of the examinations, Yang Yuling ( 楊於陵 ) and Wei Guanzhi ranked them high. However, the chancellor Li Jifu saw these as severe criticisms of himself, and, weeping, accused the reviewing officials, the imperial scholars Pei Ji and Wang Ya , of conflict of interest—as Huangfu was a nephew of Wang's. As

6237-417: The lament of his imperial scholar advisors, who viewed Zhangyi as a far easier target than Chengde.) The campaign against Chengde stalled, however, with one of its original major proponents, Lu Congshi ( 盧從史 ) the military governor of Zhaoyi Circuit (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi , Shanxi ), secretly communicating with Chengde and interfering with the campaign. In summer 810, after Tutu arrested Lu at

6336-429: The later partisan struggles between the "Niu Party" and the "Li Party" that would eventually occur throughout the reigns of the five emperors after Emperor Xianzong. At a special imperial examinations where Emperor Xianzong ordered that low-level officials submit honest opinions about the government, several of the examinees— Niu Sengru , Li Zongmin , and Huangfu Shi ( 皇甫湜 ) stated, without using any veiled language,

6435-485: The major generals, Wamosi , submitted to Tang (which was then ruled by Emperor Muzong's son Emperor Wuzong ), and Emperor Wuzong issued an edict to Wamosi ordering him to seek out Princess Taihe. Meanwhile, though, Princess Taihe was actually taken captive by the Xiajiasi khan Are (阿熱), but Are, who claimed ancestry from the Han dynasty general Li Ling and thus a common ancestry with Tang emperors (through Li Ling's grandfather Li Guang ), treated her with respect and sent

6534-647: The military governor of Chengde's neighboring Yiwu Circuit (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding , Hebei ), who had inherited his position from his father Zhang Xiaozhong , offered to yield the circuit to imperial control, and Emperor Xianzong agreed, sending the official Ren Dijian ( 任迪簡 ) to replace Zhang Maozhao. (After Zhang's departure from Yiwu, however, the Yiwu soldiers mutinied against Ren and put him under house arrest, although eventually another group of soldiers then countered their mutiny and restored Ren, allowing Yiwu to be in imperial hands from this point on.) Also in

6633-560: The mission. After they arrived at the Huigu court and an appropriate date was set, Chongde Khan created her as Khatun —the Khan's wife. The wedding, as described by the Old Book of Tang , went in this manner: The Khan first ascended a tower and sat to the east, and set up a tent under the tower for the Princess. He sent a group of Huigu princesses to teach the Princess in the ways of Huigu. The Princess took off her Tang robes and put on Huigu robes. Accompanied by an old woman servant, she exited

6732-659: The mythological ancestors of Kyrgyz tribe ( Jiānkūn bùluò 堅昆部落) were "a god and a cow" (神與牸牛), (unlike Göktürks , whose mythological ancestress was a she-wolf; or Gaoche , whose mythological ancestors were a he-wolf and a daughter of a Xiongnu chanyu ), and that Kyrgyz's point of origin was a cave north of the Quman mountains (曲漫山), which was identified with either the Sayan or the Tannu-Ola ; additionally, Xin Tangshu mentioned that Kyrgyz army

6831-442: The palace for three days, and encouraged the people to worship it and make donations to the temples. When the official Han Yu spoke against it, Han was exiled to be the prefect of Chao Prefecture (潮州, in modern Chaozhou , Guangdong ). Also in spring 819, after Li Shidao became suspicious of his officer Liu Wu , who was then resisting Tian's attack, and secretly ordered Liu's deputy Zhang Xian ( 張暹 ) to execute Liu and take over

6930-513: The rebuilding of Huigu. Emperor Wuzong responded with an edict that instructed Wujie Khan to remain outside Tang borders and requested Princess Taihe to personally return to Chang'an to report on Huigu's status. Wujie Khan did not follow Emperor Wuzong's orders, and Huigu remnants under him pillaged Tang's northern territory in earnest. He also made another request to borrow the border city of Tiande (天德, in modern Bayan Nur , Inner Mongolia ), which Emperor Wuzong rejected. Emperor Wuzong further wrote

7029-528: The rest of Emperor Xianzong's reign, Weibo became obedient to the imperial government. In 814, Wu Shaoyang died. Emperor Xianzong did not confirm Wu Shaoyang's son Wu Yuanji as his successor. In response, Wu Yuanji began attacking the nearby circuits to create pressure on the imperial government. Emperor Xianzong declared a general campaign against Wu Yuanji. Wu sought aid from Li Shidao and Wang Chengzong, who repeatedly petitioned Emperor Xianzong to pardon Wu Yuanji, to no avail. Li Shidao thereafter retained

7128-454: The royal family, Yaoluoge Hesa (藥羅葛闔馺, not same person as Zhaoli Khan) as khan. That year, it was said that in addition to these wars, there was a major plague and major snow storm, causing great deaths of the Huigu livestock and leading to its sudden decline. In 840, a major Xiajiasi attack on Huigu destroyed the Huigu headquarters, and both Yaoluoge Hesa and Jueluowu were killed in battle. The remaining Huigu forces scattered. In 841, one of

7227-611: The same ancestral clan (Zong). You are not like other foreigners." ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) In 758, the Uyghurs killed the Kyrgyz Khan and the Kyrgyz came under the rule of the Uyghur Khaganate . However, the Yenisei Kyrgyz spent much of their time in a state of rebellion. In 840 they succeeded in sacking the Uyghur capital, Ordu-Baliq in Mongolia's Orkhon Valley and driving

7326-400: The same language and script as the Uyghurs. The New Book states that the Kyrgyz were "all tall and big and have red hair, white faces, and green eyes." They looked similar to the neighboring "Boma tribe" ( Basmyl ), who did not share the same language, implying that the Kyrgyz may have originally been a non-Turkic people. Lee & Kuang consider the Kyrgyz to have been physically distinct from

7425-439: The submission of one of the key holdouts, Weibo Circuit (魏博, headquartered in modern Handan , Hebei ) under Tian Xing , Emperor Xianzong appeared poised to reunite the empire, many parts of which had effectively been ruled independently by regional warlords. Xianzong's first setback was in 813 when he failed to defeat military governor Wang Chengzong . However, by 817, after the defeat of Li Shidao and Wang's submission, all of

7524-401: The tent and approached the tower from the west, bowing. The Khan sat and accepted her bow. She then bowed again and then reentered the tent. She took off her robes and put on Khatun robes, and all of her clothes were madder -colored. She also bore a gold crown with protrusions like horns. She then exited the tent and again bowed to the Khan. A large litter was set up, with a small seat in

7623-402: The throne (as Emperor Xianzong). Immediately after Emperor Xianzong's ascension to the throne, he purged the government of Wang Shuwen and Wang Pi's associates, exiling them. (He would later order Wang Shuwen to commit suicide.) Emperor Xianzong's father Emperor Shunzong died in spring 806. Some later historians would come to believe that Emperor Shunzong did not die of natural causes, but

7722-642: The title of Grand Princess Ding'an (per the New Book of Tang ) or Grand Princess Anding (per the Zizhi Tongjian ). Seven princesses did not attend the welcoming ceremony, and Emperor Wuzong, in anger, took away a portion of their stipend and the silk customarily given to them. This was the last historical reference to her, and it is not known when she died. Emperor Xianzong of Tang Emperor Xianzong of Tang (4 March to 1 April 778 – 14 February 820; r. 805 – 820), personal name Li Chun , né Li Chun ( 李淳 ),

7821-552: The troops. Zhang, who was friendly with Liu, revealed Li Shidao's orders to Liu. Liu responded by launching a surprise attack on Pinglu's capital Yun Prefecture ( 鄆州 ), capturing Li Shidao and his sons and executing them, delivering their heads to Chang'an. Emperor Xianzong made Liu, who had expected to succeed Li Shidao, the military governor of Yicheng Circuit (義成, headquartered in modern Anyang , Henan ), and divided Pinglu into three circuits to weaken it and keep its territory under imperial control. By this point, Emperor Xianzong

7920-412: The two prefectures that Wang surrendered into neighboring Henghai Circuit (橫海, headquartered in modern Cangzhou , Hebei ), which had been obedient to the imperial government. Li Shidao also offered to surrender three of his 12 prefectures to imperial control and send his son as a hostage—but soon reneged on the offer. Emperor Xianzong thus declared a general campaign against his Pinglu Circuit, and soon,

8019-443: The two states. After that, he will no longer be able to use you, Aunt, as his defense. In 843, Wujie Khan launched an attack on Zhenwu. Tang forces, commanded by the general Shi Xiong , prepared a surprise counter-attack. When he arrived near the Huigu camp, he noticed that there were some special wagons lined with rugs, and that the servants in those wagons were wearing red- and green-colored robes that appeared to be Chinese. He sent

8118-473: The warlord Tian Ji'an the military governor of Weibo Circuit died. With Tian Ji'an's son and designated successor Tian Huaijian being young, soon thereafter, the soldiers mutinied and supported Tian Ji'an's relative Tian Xing . Tian Xing offered to subject Weibo to imperial commands, and soon thereafter, Emperor Xianzong made Tian Xing the military governor of Weibo and changed his name to Tian Hongzheng. With Tian Hongzheng as Weibo's military governor, for

8217-539: The word qaša or qaš may, I think, be Turkic. The Tongdian says: "Whenever the sky rains iron, they gather it and use it. They call it jiasha (LMC kiaa-şaa). They make knives and swords with it that are very sharp." The Tang Huiyao is the same except that it leaves out the foreign word jiasha. "Raining iron" must surely refer to meteorites . The editor who copied the passage into the Xin Tangshu unfortunately misunderstood it and changed it to, "Whenever it rains, their custom

8316-461: Was a chancellor by this point as well, against the move. It was said that Huangfu soon was speaking against Cui and Pei, causing both to be sent out of the capital. In spring 819, there was an occasion when Emperor Xianzong had what was alleged to be Gautama Buddha 's finger bone escorted from a temple in Fengxiang (鳳翔, in modern Baoji , Shaanxi ) to the palace in a grand ceremony, kept the bone in

8415-412: Was able to assume the throne (as Emperor Shunzong), although during Wei and Zheng's discussion with the eunuchs, the possibility of having Li Chun take the throne directly was mentioned. As Emperor Shunzong continued to be seriously ill and unable to speak, a group of his close associates—the eunuch Li Zhongyan ( 李忠言 ), his concubine Consort Niu , the imperial scholars Wang Shuwen and Wang Pi , and

8514-415: Was already waging campaigns against Wu Yuanji and Wang, he could not, and did not, declare yet another campaign against Li Shidao as well at that point.) The imperial forces sent against Zhangyi and Chengde were unsuccessful in quickly achieving final victory against them, however. In 817, with suggestion from the chancellor Li Fengji that he should concentrate on one campaign, Emperor Xianzong called off

8613-571: Was an emperor of the Chinese Tang dynasty . He was the eldest son of Emperor Shunzong , who reigned for less than a year in 805 and who yielded the throne to him late that year. Once emperor, Emperor Xianzong set out to curb the power of the military governors ( Jiedushi ), and, when they would not heed his orders, he waged wars against them. His initial campaigns were quite successful, and Xianzong's army defeated warlords such as Liu Pi , Yang Huilin ( 楊惠琳 ) in 806 and Li Qi in 807. In 813, after

8712-537: Was an occasion when Emperor Dezong held Li Chun on his lap and asked, "Who are you, such that you are in my lap?" His response of, "I am the third Son of Heaven " surprised Emperor Dezong, who thereafter showed him much favor. In 788, by which time Li Song (Shunzong) was crown prince, Li Chun was created the Prince of Guangling. In 793, he married Lady Guo , a daughter of the deceased general Guo Ai ( 郭曖 ) and Emperor Daizong's daughter Princess Shengping, as his wife and princess. In 804, Li Song (Shunzong) suffered

8811-461: Was apprehensive that, because of the prominent bloodlines that Consort Guo represented (being the granddaughter of the great general Guo Ziyi and the daughter of a princess), if she were created empress, other consorts would not dare to have sexual relations with him, and therefore repeatedly formed excuses with regard to not being able to find the right date to do so. He would eventually never create her (or any other consort) empress. Later in 812,

8910-484: Was assassinated by his subordinates, and his nephew Yaoluge Hu (藥羅葛胡) succeeded him (as Zhangxin Khan). In 839, after a rebellion by the officials Anyunhe (安允合) and Chaile (柴勒), Zhangxin Khan was able to defeat and kill them, but a subsequent attack by another official, Jueluowu (掘羅勿), along with the Shatuo chief Zhuye Chixin , defeated Zhangxin Khan, and Zhangxin Khan committed suicide. The nobles supported another member of

9009-458: Was born in 778, during the reign of his great-grandfather Emperor Daizong , at the Eastern Palace (i.e., the palace of his grandfather, then- Crown Prince Li Kuo ). His father Li Song was Li Kuo's oldest son, and he himself was Li Song's oldest son. His mother was Li Song's concubine Consort Wang . When Li Chun was five or six, by which time Li Kuo was emperor (as Emperor Dezong), there

9108-816: Was commonly believed that he was assassinated by the eunuch Chen Hongzhi. It was said, however, that Chen's eunuch colleagues declared that Emperor Xianzong had died from Chinese alchemical elixir poisoning due to the medicines that he was taking. Tutu Chengcui tried to support Li Kuan, who had been renamed Li Yun ( 李惲 ), to succeed Emperor Xianzong, but the other eunuchs Liang Shouqian ( 梁守謙 ), Ma Jintan ( 馬進潭 ), Liu Chengjie ( 劉承偕 ), Wei Yuansu ( 韋元素 ), and Wang Shoucheng , supported Li Heng, and they killed Tutu and Li Yun. Li Heng thereafter became emperor (as Emperor Muzong). (Another son of Emperor Xianzong's, Li Yi , after he became emperor in 846, would come to suspect that Consort Guo and Li Heng were involved in Emperor Xianzong's assassination, but no direct evidence tied them to

9207-421: Was murdered by the same eunuchs who had supported Emperor Xianzong's ascension. Meanwhile, Wei Gao died late in 805, and his deputy Liu Pi seized power of Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern Chengdu , Sichuan ), which Wei had governed, rejecting the replacement that Emperor Xianzong sent, Yuan Zi . Emperor Xianzong, believing himself to lack the power to attack Liu at this point, initially made Liu

9306-399: Was responsible for the assassination, he declared a general campaign against Wang as well. He also promoted Pei to be a chancellor. (Later, after investigations by Lü Yuanying ( 呂元膺 ) the defender of Luoyang after a plot by Li Shidao's subordinates to riot at Luoyang was foiled, Emperor Xianzong found out that Li Shidao was responsible for Wu Yuanheng's assassination, but by that point, as he

9405-461: Was said that Wang Shunwen was so concerned about Li Chun that he was heard reading from Du Fu 's poem about the Shu Han regent Zhuge Liang —"He had not even succeeded in his campaigns when he died. This often caused heroes to weep onto their collars." Wang Shuwen and Wei Zhiyi tried to see if their group could persuade Li Chun to favor their positions by having their associate Lu Zhi ( 陸質 ) serve as

9504-694: Was stationed next to Qīngshān 青山 "Blue Mountains", calqued from Turkic Kögmän (> Ch. Quman ) and the river Kem (> 劍 Jiàn ). By the time the Gokturk Empire fell in the eighth century CE, the Yenisei Kyrgyz had established their own thriving state based on the Gokturk model. They had adopted the Orkhon script of the Göktürks and established trading ties with China and the Abbasid Caliphate in Central Asia and

9603-468: Was subsequently delivered to Chang'an to be executed, and the imperial troops under Pei took over Zhangyi. After Wu Yuanji's execution, Li Shidao and Wang Chengzong both became fearful. In 818, Wang offered to surrender two prefectures to imperial control and send his two sons to Chang'an to serve as hostages . He also sought intercession from Tian Hongzheng. With Tian also requesting that Emperor Xianzong accept his offer, Emperor Xianzong did so, merging

9702-438: Was taking medicines made by the alchemist Liu Mi ( 柳泌 ), who claimed that he could bring the emperor immortality . It was said that as a result of these medicines, Emperor Xianzong was becoming increasingly thirsty and irritable. It was said that he was so easily angered that the eunuchs serving him were often punished or even executed for minor faults, causing them to be fearful of him. In spring 820, he died suddenly, and it

9801-476: Was what the Uyghurs called them; Pulleyblank (1990) proposes that "yellow head and red face" was a folk etymology based on Turkic qizqil ~ qïzïl "red". From Xiajiasi 黠戛斯, Soviet scientists reconstructed the exonym Khakass . Edwin G. Pulleyblank surmises that "red face and yellow head" meaning was possibly a folk etymology provided by an interpreter who explained the ethnonym based on Turkic qïzïl ~ qizqil , meaning 'red'. The description of

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