Khatun ( / x ə ˈ t uː n / khə- TOON ) is a title of the female counterpart to a khan or a khagan of the Turkic Khaganates and in the subsequent Mongol Empire .
31-760: Before the advent of Islam in Central Asia , Khatun was the title of the queen of Bukhara . According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam , "Khatun [is] a title of Sogdian origin borne by the wives and female relatives of the Göktürks and subsequent Turkish rulers." According to Bruno De Nicola in Women in Mongol Iran: The Khatuns, 1206–1335 , the linguistic origins of the term "khatun" are unknown, though possibly of Old Turkic or Sogdian origin. De Nicola states that prior to
62-456: A homogenization of practice; as religious authorities could not publish treatises or often even communicate with one another, the store of religious knowledge available vastly decreased. Additionally, Islam was largely removed from the public discourse, especially in terms of its influence on morals and ethical values. What religious practice that was permitted by the Soviet government was regulated by
93-485: Is not a major threat to regional stability compared to the myriad social and economic problems—such environmental devastation around the Aral Sea, endemic poverty, poor education—that plague the region. Central Asian expert Adeeb Khalid, writes that the situation in Central Asia demonstrates most of all that Islam is a complex phenomenon that rejects easy categorization into "good" and "bad," "moderate" and "extremist," and that
124-513: Is written hatun . The general Turkish word for 'woman', kadın , is a doublet derived from the same origin. Valide Hatun was the title held by the "legal mother" of a ruling Sultan of the Ottoman Empire before the 16th century. By the beginning of the 16th century, the title hatun for sultan's mother, princesses, and sultan's main consort was replaced by " sultan " and they started to carry it after their given names. This usage underlines
155-520: The People's Republic of China in Xinjiang . Urban centers were the first to adopt Islam in the region due to many socio-political and economic institutions coming under the influence of Muslim leadership. Rural regions were Islamized significantly later. While urban areas generally tended to be spiritually influenced by the ulema , Sufi mystics held prominent authority in the rural regions. After conquests in
186-517: The Spiritual Administration of the Muslims of Central Asia and Kazakhstan . The policy of glasnost put into practice by Mikhail Gorbachev in the mid-1980s meant that by 1988 the Soviet government relaxed its controls on Islam. As a result, there was a rapid religious revival, including new mosques, literature, and the return of private religious schooling. Many Central Asians were interested in
217-436: The 1920s and 1930s. In 1926, the Soviet government decided it had consolidated control over Central Asia sufficiently to shift official policy from toleration of Islam to condemnation. The government closed private religious schools in favor of state-run public ones. Between 1927 and 1929, the state ran a campaign to shut down mosques in Central Asia. This operation was not well documented, but existing accounts indicate that it
248-508: The Bolsheviks cooperated with the Jadids (Muslims working towards social and cultural reforms such as improved education) to accomplish their goals. In the process, the Bolsheviks created a new political elite favorable towards Marxist ideology by using propaganda and appointing officials favorable towards their policies during the division of Central Asia into separate republics along ethnic lines in
279-650: The IMU. The Central Asian republics offered their territory and airspace for use by the US and its allies in operations against the Taliban in Afghanistan, and the international community recognized the importance of ensuring stability in Central Asia in order to combat terrorism. In Uzbekistan, the government took advantage of this shift in international attitude in order to erode the position of Islam in politics, taking steps such as forbidding
310-2768: The Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Consequently, the title valide hatun also turned into valide sultan . son's ascension son's ascension son's ascension son's death son's ascension (first tenure) (first tenure) son's reinstatement (second tenure) son's first ascension Her return to Ottoman's court on Mehmed's invite Mehmed's death گل بھار مکرمه خاتون son's ascension Three Eastern Tumens Khalkha Chahar Uriankhai Three Western Tumens Ordos Tumed Yunshebu Tümen Choros Torghut Khoid Dörbet Oirat Yingchang Karakorum Hohhot Khagan Khan Khatun Taishi Jinong Khong Tayiji Noyan Tarkhan Councellor Wang Ukhaantu Khan Toghun-Temur (1368–1370) Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara (1370–1378) Uskhal Khan Tögüs Temür (1378–1388) Jorightu Khan Yesüder (1388–1391) Engke Khan (1391–1394) Elbeg Nigülesügchi Khan (1394–1399) Gün Temür Khan (1399–1402) Örüg Temür Khan Gulichi (1402–1408) Öljei Temür Khan Bunyashiri (1403–1412) Delbeg Khan (1411–1415) Oyiradai Khan (1415–1425) Adai Khan (1425–1438) Tayisung Khan Toghtoa Bukha (1433–1452) Agbarjin (1453) Esen Taishi (1453–1454) Markörgis Khan (Ükegtü) (1454–1465) Molon Khan (1465–1466) Manduul Khan (1475–1479) Dayan Khan (1480–1516) Bars Bolud Jinong (deputy) Bodi Alagh Khan (1516–1547) Darayisung Gödeng Khan (1547–1557) Tümen Jasaghtu Khan (1557–1592) Buyan Sechen Khan (1592–1604) Ligdan Khan (1604–1634) Ejei Khan (1634–1635) Altan Khan (1521–1582) Sengge Düüreng Khan (1583–1585) Namudai Sechen Khan (1586–1607) Boshugtu Khung Taiji (1608–1636) Barsu-Bolod (d. 1521) Mergen Jinong (d. 1542) Noyandara Jinong (1543–1572) Buyan Baatur Taiji (1573–1576) Boshugtu Jinong (1577–1624) Erinchen Jinong (1624–1636) Abtai Sain Khan (1567–1588) Eriyekhei Mergen Khan (1589–?) Gombodorji Khan (d. 1655) Chakhun Dorji Khan (1654–1698) Laikhur Khan Subandai Khan Norbu Bisireltü Khan (d. 1661) Chambun Khan (1670?–) Zenggün Shara (d. 1687) Soloi Maqasamadi Sechen Khan (1577–1652) Baba Sechen Khan (1653–?) Sechen Khan (d. 1686) Ubasi Khong Tayiji (c.1609–1623) Badma Erdeni Khong Tayiji (1623–1652) Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji (1652–1667) Islam in Central Asia Islam in Central Asia has existed since
341-576: The Soviet Union in the late 1980s. Islam, as practiced in Central Asia, became much more varied in this short time. Furthermore, Islam was attractive because it offered alternatives and solutions to the myriad political and economic problems facing the republics in the wake of the Soviet Union's collapse. However, the governments of the Central Asian republics were wary of Islam in the political sphere. Their fears of undue influence were soon justified by
SECTION 10
#1732845583370372-621: The Uzbek government massacred over 700 of its own civilians demonstrating following a trial of 23 suspected Islamic radicals, saying that they were terrorists. Though the events of the massacre were complex, this simplistic account appears to be false; instead, it was a case of the Uzbek government repressing peaceful protesters, perhaps attempting to prevent the sort of popular revolt that had occurred two months earlier in Kyrgyzstan, toppling President Askar Akayev . Overall, Islamic militancy in Central Asia
403-593: The beginning of Islamic history . Sunni branch of Islam is the most widely practiced religion in Central Asia . Shiism of Imami and Ismaili denominations predominating in the Pamir plateau and the western Tian Shan mountains (almost exclusively Ismailis), while boasting to a large minority population in the Zarafshan river valley, from Samarkand to Bukhara (almost exclusively Imamis). Islam came to Central Asia in
434-676: The early part of the 8th century as part of the Muslim conquest of the region . Many well-known Islamic scientists and philosophers came from Central Asia, and several major Muslim empires, including the Timurid Empire and the Mughal Empire , originated in Central Asia. In the 20th century, severe restrictions on religious practice were enacted by the Soviet Union in Soviet Central Asia and
465-456: The ethical and spiritual values that Islam could offer. The revival accelerated further following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. For many, Islam constituted a national heritage that had been repressed during the Soviet era. Additionally, relaxed travel restrictions under Gorbachev enabled cultural exchange with other Muslim countries; Saudi Arabia, for example, sent copies of the Qur'an into
496-419: The form Islam takes in Central Asia is not the same as the form it takes elsewhere. "For observers," he writes, "it is critical to have perspective, to discern clearly the political stakes at issue...and to separate the disinformation dished out by the regimes from the actual conduct of Muslims." Delbeg Khan Delbeg ( Mongolian script : ᠳᠡᠯᠪᠡ Mongolian : Дэлбэг ; Chinese : 答里巴 ), (1395–1415)
527-414: The government in order to prevent future tensions. However, the other Central Asian republics did not follow this example, continuing instead to repress and persecute Islamic groups rather than allow them to participate in the political process. Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, foreign powers took a much greater interest in preventing the spread of radical Islamic terrorist organizations such as
558-481: The hijab in public schools and reducing the legal rights of Islamic groups. Since 2001, ethnic and religious tensions in the Central Asian republics combined with endemic poverty and poor economic performance have made them increasingly volatile. However, governments as often use Islamic groups as a justification for repression and crackdowns as those groups are the cause of violence, if not more often. For example, in May 2005
589-615: The lands bordering the Ming dynasty in 1414. In 1415, the Western Mongols led by Bahamu, Delbeg and Bolad were defeated by the Ming army which penetrated as far as Tuul River . However, it was a pyrrhic victory and the number of killed was about the same on both sides. The Ming Emperor was persuaded to return by his followers while the Mongols retired northwards. Although Adai Khan did not proclaim
620-506: The like" and says there is "no reasonable doubt that it is taken from Sogdian xwt'yn ( xwatēn ), in Sogdian xwt'y ('lord, ruler') and xwt'yn 'lord's or ruler's wife'), "which is precisely the meaning of xa:tun in the early period." In Uzbek , the language spoken in modern-day Bukhara, in Uzbekistan , the word is spelled xotin and has come to simply refer to any woman. In Turkish , it
651-521: The mid-1860s to 1917, the advent of Soviet rule following the Russian Revolutions of 1917 and the subsequent civil war brought with it Marxist opposition to religion. During the first few years of Bolshevik rule in the early 1920s, Soviet officials took a pragmatic approach by prioritizing other goals (attempting to modernize culture, building schools, improving the position of women) in order to solidify their hold on Central Asia. During this time,
SECTION 20
#1732845583370682-542: The new Khan. However records in Shajrat Ul Atrak and Habib al-siyar , Delbeg was a direct descendant of Ariq Böke , and this blood lineage able to rally some support from Mongol populace in west. But his authority only prevailed in less than a third of Mongol territory, the western parts, while the eastern and central parts were under the control of Arughtai , and the two sides fought continuously for more than two decades. The Oirats forced Arughtai to seek refuge in
713-607: The outbreak of the Tajik Civil War in 1992, between the Tajik government and a coalition of opponents led by a radical Islamist group called the Islamic Renaissance Party. The civil war, which lasted until 1997, demonstrated to the other former Soviet republics the dangers posed by Islamic opposition groups. The takeover in 1996 of Afghanistan by the Taliban further emphasized that threat. The Islamic Renaissance Party (IRP)
744-481: The potential "threat" of Islam. Others, such as General Kaufman and his superior Dmitry Milyutin , preferred a policy of mild religious tolerance. Kaufman was nevertheless concerned about pan-Islam movements that would cause the Muslims of Russian Turkistan to view anyone other than the czar as their ruler. While the practice of Islam was broadly tolerated by the Russian Empire during its rule over Central Asia from
775-493: The region by the Russian Empire in the 1860s and 1870s, western Central Asia came under Russian control and was incorporated into the empire as a Governor-Generalship led by Konstantin von Kaufman . Russian authorities debated what position they should take on Islam in the newly conquered territories. Some advocated a policy of religious repression, citing the ongoing Dungan Revolt in the neighboring Qing Empire as proof of
806-475: The spread of the Mongols across Central Asia, Khatun meant 'lady' or 'noblewoman' and is found in broad usage in medieval Persian and Arabic texts. Peter Benjamin Golden observed that the title qatun appeared among the Göktürks as the title for the khagan 's wife and was borrowed from Sogdian xwāten "wife of the ruler" Earlier, British Orientalist Gerard Clauson (1891–1974) defined xa:tun as "'lady' and
837-479: The throne of Great Khan until 1425, he was able to first unify the eastern part and then the central part of the Mongol territory while denouncing the legitimacy of Delbeg Khan, and carried on campaigns against Delbeg, eventually succeeding in defeating and killing Delbeg Khan in 1415, along with many of his Oirats supporters. Delbeg Khan was succeeded by another direct descendant of Ariq Böke , Oyiradai Khan , chosen by
868-561: Was a khagan of the Northern Yuan dynasty , reigning from 1412 to 1415. Delbeg was installed by the Oirats in 1411 as a puppet ruler, but this was not recognized by most of Mongol clans in the central and eastern Mongol territories. Delbeg became Khagan in 1411. According to Saghang Sechen , Delbeg was a son of Öljei Temür Khan (Buyanshir) who had instructed the Oriat leader Bahamu to make Delbeg
899-457: Was banned by the Central Asian communist governments. Partly as a result of this oppression, political opposition erupted into the violence of the civil war in Tajikistan, in which over 50,000 people were killed out of a population of 6 million and another 250,000 fled the country to Afghanistan, Uzbekistan or elsewhere. Following the civil war, the Tajik government incorporated Islamic groups into
930-457: Was often violent and poorly controlled, often carried out by self-appointed officials who arrested imams and destroyed buildings, denouncing Islam as an enemy of communism. Despite these assaults, Islam in Central Asia survived Soviet rule in the following decades. However, it was transformed in the process: instead of part of the public sphere, Islam became family-oriented, "localized and rendered synonymous with custom and tradition." This led to
961-615: Was one of several similar Islamic opposition groups, including the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), which also fought against the Tajik government in the civil war. The IRP had its origins in underground Islamic groups in the Soviet Union. It was formed in 1990 in Astrakhan by a group consisting mostly of Tatar intellectuals, with separate branches for each Soviet republic. It was in fact registered as an official political party in Russia, but