The Personal Rule (also known as the Eleven Years' Tyranny ) was the period in England from 1629 to 1640 when King Charles I ruled as an autocratic absolute monarch without recourse to Parliament . Charles claimed that he was entitled to do this under the royal prerogative and that he had a divine right .
174-452: Charles had already dissolved three Parliaments by the third year of his reign in 1628. After the murder of George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham , who was deemed to have a negative influence on Charles' foreign policy, Parliament began to criticize the king more harshly than before. Charles then realised that, as long as he could avoid war, he could rule without the need of Parliament. Whig historians such as S. R. Gardiner called this period
348-584: A commission of inquiry to Ireland, which included parliamentary firebrands, threatened to expose Buckingham's growing, often clandestine, interests there. Knowing that the king had assured the Spanish ambassador that the Parliament would not be allowed to imperil a Spanish matrimonial alliance, he therefore surreptitiously instigated a conflict between the Parliament and the king over the Spanish Match, which resulted in
522-425: A commission of inquiry to Ireland, which included parliamentary firebrands, threatened to expose Buckingham's growing, often clandestine, interests there. Knowing that the king had assured the Spanish ambassador that the Parliament would not be allowed to imperil a Spanish matrimonial alliance, he therefore surreptitiously instigated a conflict between the Parliament and the king over the Spanish Match, which resulted in
696-531: A dagger on display at Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire , that was claimed to be the one used to assassinate Buckingham. Newnham Paddox was the family seat of the Earls of Denbigh and Buckingham's sister, Susan , had married William Feilding, 1st Earl of Denbigh . How the dagger (if authentic) came to be at Newnham Paddox was explained by it being recovered after the assassination and sent to Buckingham's widow, who
870-430: A dagger on display at Newnham Paddox in Warwickshire , that was claimed to be the one used to assassinate Buckingham. Newnham Paddox was the family seat of the Earls of Denbigh and Buckingham's sister, Susan , had married William Feilding, 1st Earl of Denbigh . How the dagger (if authentic) came to be at Newnham Paddox was explained by it being recovered after the assassination and sent to Buckingham's widow, who
1044-501: A dancer in masques from 1615, in which he could exhibit his grace of movement and beauty of body, a recognised avenue to royal favour since the time of Elizabeth I . Under the King's patronage, Villiers advanced rapidly through the ranks of the nobility, and his court appointments grew in importance. In April 1615 he was knighted as a Gentleman of the Bedchamber . In 1616, when he became
1218-578: A disgruntled army officer, highlighted the extent of his unpopularity among the public. Villiers was born in Brooksby , Leicestershire, on 20 August 1592, the second son of the minor gentleman Sir George Villiers (1550–1606) from his second wife. His mother, Mary (1570–1632), daughter of Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield, Leicestershire, was widowed early. She educated her son for a courtier's life and sent him to travel in France with John Eliot . Villiers took to
1392-487: A disposition". In August 1614, at age twenty-one, Villiers caught the eye of King James I at a hunt in Apethorpe . Opponents of the King's favourite Robert Carr , Earl of Somerset, saw an opportunity to displace Somerset and began promoting Villiers. Money was raised to purchase Villiers a new wardrobe, and intense lobbying secured his appointment as Royal Cup-bearer , a position that allowed him to make conversation with
1566-673: A few weeks. In the months which followed, the Scots invaded, defeated the English army and occupied parts of Northern England. With no other routes left to him, the king summoned what became known as the Long Parliament . After reaching a settlement with the Scots , the new parliamentary leaders turned their attention to domestic matters and demanded from Charles ever more sweeping concessions over government policy. In January 1642, Charles left London to raise an army and regain control by force initiating
1740-685: A final confession while awaiting execution in the Tower of London . 2023–24 saw Buckingham featured in various filmed dramas. He was played by Nicholas Galitzine in the TV miniseries Mary & George in Britain, and by Jacob Fortune-Lloyd in the paired French films The Three Musketeers: D'Artagnan and The Three Musketeers: Milady . George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham , KG ( / ˈ v ɪ l ər z / VIL -ərz ; 20 August 1592 – 23 August 1628),
1914-427: A general tax. But even in peacetime, the traditional sources of the King's revenue were stretched to the limit to fund the business of government. So Charles and his advisers developed various schemes to raise additional revenue without recourse to Parliament. A large fiscal deficit had arisen in the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. Notwithstanding Buckingham's short-lived campaigns against both Spain and France, there
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#17328447328032088-610: A head in early 1629. Sir John Eliot, the leader of the opposition to the King, announced a protestation known as the Three Resolutions. These resolutions denounced perceived Arminianism in the Church of England , as well as calling upon merchants to refuse to pay tonnage and poundage . In response to this, on 10 March 1629, Sir John Finch (the Speaker of the House of Commons ) attempted to adjourn
2262-625: A major wave of sales included what was known as the Western Rising , but extended beyond, for instance to riots in Feckenham Forest and Malvern Chase . The practice of granting extensive monopolies agitated the public, who were forced to pay higher prices by the monopoly holders. Against the background of this unrest, Charles faced bankruptcy in the summer of 1640 as parliament continued to refuse new taxes. The City of London, preoccupied with its own grievances further refused to make any loans to
2436-464: A means of manoeuvring for political as well as court advancement, Villiers commissioned masques in which he was able to promote himself in a leading role. By appearing there as a dancer himself his grace of movement and beauty of body was put on show. By 1618 his elevation in rank allowed him to dance side by side with the royal heir, with whom his friendship developed through his tutoring of the prince in dance. "Command over his body had provided him with
2610-464: A means of manoeuvring for political as well as court advancement, Villiers commissioned masques in which he was able to promote himself in a leading role. By appearing there as a dancer himself his grace of movement and beauty of body was put on show. By 1618 his elevation in rank allowed him to dance side by side with the royal heir, with whom his friendship developed through his tutoring of the prince in dance. "Command over his body had provided him with
2784-433: A member of the royal family (James's two sons were Duke of Cornwall and Duke of York ). Villiers was the last in a succession of handsome young favourites on whom the king lavished affection and patronage. The extent to which the relationship between the two was sexual has been much discussed. James's nickname for Buckingham was "Steenie", after St. Stephen , who was said to have had "the face of an angel". Speaking to
2958-433: A member of the royal family (James's two sons were Duke of Cornwall and Duke of York ). Villiers was the last in a succession of handsome young favourites on whom the king lavished affection and patronage. The extent to which the relationship between the two was sexual has been much discussed. James's nickname for Buckingham was "Steenie", after St. Stephen , who was said to have had "the face of an angel". Speaking to
3132-416: A military baton in his right hand. During the 1627 expedition that he led personally, Buckingham was recorded as sponsoring "an unprecedented campaign of intensive print propaganda". In 1628, during the political turmoil that culminated in his assassination, Buckingham commissioned another masque-like painting from Gerrit van Honthorst, The Liberal Arts presented to King Charles and Henrietta Maria . In this
3306-416: A military baton in his right hand. During the 1627 expedition that he led personally, Buckingham was recorded as sponsoring "an unprecedented campaign of intensive print propaganda". In 1628, during the political turmoil that culminated in his assassination, Buckingham commissioned another masque-like painting from Gerrit van Honthorst, The Liberal Arts presented to King Charles and Henrietta Maria . In this
3480-567: A platform for popular protest, and the judges only found against Hampden by the narrow margin of 7–5. The king also derived money through the granting of monopolies, despite a statute forbidding such action , which, though inefficient, raised an estimated £100,000 a year in the late 1630s. Charles also raised funds from the Scottish nobility, at the price of considerable acrimony, by the Act of Revocation (1625), whereby all gifts of royal or church land made to
3654-519: A private garden where the queen was taking an evening walk", and "may even have tried to rape her", although "Anne's shrieks summoned her attendants." King Louis XIII "was so affronted that henceforward he refused to think seriously of an English alliance." Buckingham, whose popularity had suffered a further setback as a result of these events, took a decision to help the rebellious Huguenot Admiral Benjamin, Duke of Soubise . An ardent Protestant , Buckingham ordered Sir John Penington to help; but
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#17328447328033828-519: A private garden where the queen was taking an evening walk", and "may even have tried to rape her", although "Anne's shrieks summoned her attendants." King Louis XIII "was so affronted that henceforward he refused to think seriously of an English alliance." Buckingham, whose popularity had suffered a further setback as a result of these events, took a decision to help the rebellious Huguenot Admiral Benjamin, Duke of Soubise . An ardent Protestant , Buckingham ordered Sir John Penington to help; but
4002-579: A prominent role as an ally of the main characters. The second film includes his assassination by Felton, but (following the original novel in this) depicts the killing as being orchestrated by the fictional Milady de Winter , an agent of the principal villain, Cardinal Richelieu . Taylor Caldwell 's The Arm and the Darkness (1943) also deals with this period in France, while Hilda Lewis ' Wife to Great Buckingham (1959) goes so far as to make Buckingham's love for
4176-479: A prominent role as an ally of the main characters. The second film includes his assassination by Felton, but (following the original novel in this) depicts the killing as being orchestrated by the fictional Milady de Winter , an agent of the principal villain, Cardinal Richelieu . Taylor Caldwell 's The Arm and the Darkness (1943) also deals with this period in France, while Hilda Lewis ' Wife to Great Buckingham (1959) goes so far as to make Buckingham's love for
4350-418: A rule which decreed all ministers should wear a surplice when performing a service. All of these reforms and changes were often criticised by Puritan and other opponents as a return to popery and the vicious influence of Roman Catholicism returning to a semi-reformed English Church. Whilst opposition from the Church of Scotland as well as radical Puritans was strong and consistent throughout Personal Rule, there
4524-571: A show of siding with the French crown against the Huguenots. In 1627, Buckingham led another expeditionary force to relieve La Rochelle, once again attempting to aid the Huguenots rather than oppose them. To the remnants of the disastrous Cadiz expedition of 1625 were added newly pressed men, which allowed Buckingham to cobble together a force of around 6,000 men. As Parliament was still refusing to appropriate funds for further adventures as long as Buckingham
4698-470: A show of siding with the French crown against the Huguenots. In 1627, Buckingham led another expeditionary force to relieve La Rochelle, once again attempting to aid the Huguenots rather than oppose them. To the remnants of the disastrous Cadiz expedition of 1625 were added newly pressed men, which allowed Buckingham to cobble together a force of around 6,000 men. As Parliament was still refusing to appropriate funds for further adventures as long as Buckingham
4872-461: A sketch by Rubens is now in the Kimbell Art Museum . A summation of his career to date, it depicts Buckingham as Lord High Admiral of the fleet that is just visible in the background. Several other personal references are also incorporated. As Master of the King's Horses, he sits on a Spanish jennet (a breed he introduced to Britain), lifting a baton as his horse rears on command. Beneath him,
5046-401: A sketch by Rubens is now in the Kimbell Art Museum . A summation of his career to date, it depicts Buckingham as Lord High Admiral of the fleet that is just visible in the background. Several other personal references are also incorporated. As Master of the King's Horses, he sits on a Spanish jennet (a breed he introduced to Britain), lifting a baton as his horse rears on command. Beneath him,
5220-602: A successful impeachment of his favourite. Buckingham then negotiated with the French Chief Minister, Cardinal Richelieu , for English ships to aid Richelieu in his fight against the French Protestant Huguenots, in return for French aid against the Spanish occupying the Palatinate. Seven English warships participated in operations against La Rochelle and in the siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré , but Parliament
5394-415: A successful impeachment of his favourite. Buckingham then negotiated with the French Chief Minister, Cardinal Richelieu , for English ships to aid Richelieu in his fight against the French Protestant Huguenots, in return for French aid against the Spanish occupying the Palatinate. Seven English warships participated in operations against La Rochelle and in the siege of Saint-Martin-de-Ré , but Parliament
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5568-473: A succession of handsome young favourites on whom the king lavished affection and patronage. The pair were often accused of sodomy and most historians today believe the relationship was sexual in nature. Villiers' influence extended beyond the king's favour; he played a significant role in political and military affairs, including the negotiation of royal marriages and leading military expeditions. His tenure as Lord High Admiral and de facto foreign minister
5742-433: A table." The assassin was John Felton , an army officer who had been wounded in the earlier military adventure and believed he had been passed over for promotion by Buckingham. Such was the duke's unpopularity by this time that Felton was widely acclaimed as a hero by the public. A large number of poems celebrating Felton and justifying his action were published. Copies of written statements Felton carried in his hat during
5916-433: A table." The assassin was John Felton , an army officer who had been wounded in the earlier military adventure and believed he had been passed over for promotion by Buckingham. Such was the duke's unpopularity by this time that Felton was widely acclaimed as a hero by the public. A large number of poems celebrating Felton and justifying his action were published. Copies of written statements Felton carried in his hat during
6090-568: A war could break out in England (as it would in 1642). The Personal Rule began to unravel in 1637, when Charles, along with his advisor Archbishop Laud , attempted to reform the then-episcopal Church of Scotland to bring it into line, especially in its liturgy, with the Church of England . This met with widespread political opposition in Scotland and, by June 1639, Scottish and English armies faced off on
6264-416: A witty appeal both to Classical mythology and to the contemporary gossip: Until King James died in 1625, Buckingham was the king's constant companion and closest advisor, enjoying control of all royal patronage. Buckingham used his influence to prodigiously enrich his relatives and advance their social positions, which soured public opinion towards him. In his rise to power, Buckingham became connected with
6438-416: A witty appeal both to Classical mythology and to the contemporary gossip: Until King James died in 1625, Buckingham was the king's constant companion and closest advisor, enjoying control of all royal patronage. Buckingham used his influence to prodigiously enrich his relatives and advance their social positions, which soured public opinion towards him. In his rise to power, Buckingham became connected with
6612-409: Is clearly recognisable standing at the centre, receiving from Scipio the hand of his captured betrothed. A mythical composition commissioned from Van Dyck later commemorates the actual marriage. In contrast to the former painting, this was highly unconventional at the time. The couple are pictured all but naked as Venus and Adonis , emphasising heterosexual love and so countering all the rumours of
6786-409: Is clearly recognisable standing at the centre, receiving from Scipio the hand of his captured betrothed. A mythical composition commissioned from Van Dyck later commemorates the actual marriage. In contrast to the former painting, this was highly unconventional at the time. The couple are pictured all but naked as Venus and Adonis , emphasising heterosexual love and so countering all the rumours of
6960-500: The Court of High Commission and the Star Chamber . One very prominent example of this was the punishment of three dissenters – William Prynne , Henry Burton (theologian) and John Bastwick – in 1637; they were pilloried, whipped and mutilated by cropping and then imprisoned indefinitely for their publication and authorship of anti-episcopal pamphlets. Liturgical shifts were important to
7134-462: The English Civil War . George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham , KG ( / ˈ v ɪ l ər z / VIL -ərz ; 20 August 1592 – 23 August 1628), was an English courtier, statesman, and patron of the arts . He was a favourite and self-described "lover" of King James VI and I . Buckingham remained at the height of royal favour for
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7308-544: The Greyhound Inn in Portsmouth , where he had gone to organise yet another campaign to aid La Rochelle. According to the eyewitness account sent by Dudley Carleton, 1st Viscount Dorchester to the queen, "he turned about, uttering only this word, villaine! and never spoke more: but presently, plucking out the knife from himself, before he fell to the ground, he made towards the traitor two or three paces, and then fell against
7482-437: The Greyhound Inn in Portsmouth , where he had gone to organise yet another campaign to aid La Rochelle. According to the eyewitness account sent by Dudley Carleton, 1st Viscount Dorchester to the queen, "he turned about, uttering only this word, villaine! and never spoke more: but presently, plucking out the knife from himself, before he fell to the ground, he made towards the traitor two or three paces, and then fell against
7656-599: The Infanta Maria . The negotiations had long been stuck, but it is believed that Buckingham's crassness was key to the total collapse of the agreement, and they returned in a black mood. The Spanish ambassador asked Parliament to have Buckingham executed for his behaviour in Madrid , but Buckingham gained popularity by calling for war with Spain on his return. Buckingham headed further marriage negotiations, but when, in December 1624,
7830-445: The Infanta Maria . The negotiations had long been stuck, but it is believed that Buckingham's crassness was key to the total collapse of the agreement, and they returned in a black mood. The Spanish ambassador asked Parliament to have Buckingham executed for his behaviour in Madrid , but Buckingham gained popularity by calling for war with Spain on his return. Buckingham headed further marriage negotiations, but when, in December 1624,
8004-529: The Petition of Right into statute law. This Act of Parliament, despite being given Royal assent by Charles, offended the Royal Prerogative deeply; the monarch was restricted from imprisonment habeas corpus , as well as imposing taxation without Parliamentary consent. Both Charles' obstinate attitude, as well as Parliament's recalcitrance led to the dissolution of Parliament in 1629. All of this tension came to
8178-655: The Privy Council in 1617, James tried to clarify the situation: You may be sure that I love the Earl of Buckingham more than anyone else, and more than you who are here assembled. I wish to speak in my own behalf and not to have it thought to be a defect, for Jesus Christ did the same, and therefore I cannot be blamed. Christ had John , and I have George. Historian David M. Bergeron claims "Buckingham became James's last and greatest lover" citing flowery letters that followed 17th-century styles of masculinity. Other scholars say there
8352-553: The Privy Council in 1617, James tried to clarify the situation: You may be sure that I love the Earl of Buckingham more than anyone else, and more than you who are here assembled. I wish to speak in my own behalf and not to have it thought to be a defect, for Jesus Christ did the same, and therefore I cannot be blamed. Christ had John , and I have George. Historian David M. Bergeron claims "Buckingham became James's last and greatest lover" citing flowery letters that followed 17th-century styles of masculinity. Other scholars say there
8526-500: The Stuart monarchs to rule England, James I , was perennially short of money and he was obliged to summon parliaments often. Successive parliaments thereupon sought to turn the king's financial woes to their advantage, requiring various policy concessions before voting taxes. In 1625, James was succeeded by his son Charles I , who immediately plunged England into an expensive and ultimately unsuccessful war with Spain , in an attempt to force
8700-533: The medieval period, government in England was very much centred on the king . He ruled personally, usually assisted by his council, the curia regis . The council members were chosen by the king, and its membership varied greatly, but members often included powerful nobility and churchmen, senior civil servants , and sometimes certain members of the king's friends and family. Early parliaments began to emerge under Edward I , who wished to implement taxation changes and wide-ranging law reforms, and sought to gain
8874-596: The "Distraint of Knighthood", in abeyance for over a century, which required any man who earned £40 or more from land each year to present himself at the king's coronation to be knighted. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined individuals who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626. The chief tax imposed by Charles was a feudal levy known as ship money , which proved even more unpopular, and lucrative, than tonnage and poundage before it. Previously, collection of ship money had been authorised only during wars, and only on coastal regions. Charles, however, argued that there
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#17328447328039048-464: The "Eleven Years' Tyranny", because they interpret Charles's actions as highly authoritarian and a contributing factor to the instability that eventually led to the English Civil War . More recent historians such as Kevin Sharpe called the period "Personal Rule", because they consider it to be a more neutral term, and some such as Sharpe have argued that there were some positive aspects of the period. In
9222-529: The American territories. However, the Spanish were forewarned by their intelligence and easily avoided the planned ambush. With supplies running out and men sick and dying from starvation and disease, the English limped home in disgrace. Public opinion blamed Buckingham for yet another disaster, leading to serious political consequences. The Parliament of 1626 began the process of impeachment against Buckingham, causing King Charles to dissolve Parliament rather than risk
9396-478: The American territories. However, the Spanish were forewarned by their intelligence and easily avoided the planned ambush. With supplies running out and men sick and dying from starvation and disease, the English limped home in disgrace. Public opinion blamed Buckingham for yet another disaster, leading to serious political consequences. The Parliament of 1626 began the process of impeachment against Buckingham, causing King Charles to dissolve Parliament rather than risk
9570-811: The Catholic King Philip IV of Spain to intercede with Emperor Ferdinand II on behalf of Charles's brother-in-law Frederick V, Elector Palatine , to regain the Electorate of the Palatinate and his hereditary lands, which Ferdinand had revoked from him. Parliament's protests about the war's mismanagement by the Duke of Buckingham , and others of Charles' policies, primarily regarding taxation and other methods of acquiring funds, and Charles' refusal to compromise, eventually led to Charles dissolving Parliament in March 1629. He also made peace with Spain and France, largely because
9744-545: The Commons to refuse further levies of taxation to fund his extravagant adventures, but at the same time Parliament was intrigued by the prospect of dealing a blow to the international Catholic conspiracy, and the expedition was authorized. Yet even before the troops set sail the food prepared for the expedition was consumed awaiting the Board of Ordnance to deliver the required cannonry and musket balls. On this occasion, Buckingham himself
9918-448: The Commons to refuse further levies of taxation to fund his extravagant adventures, but at the same time Parliament was intrigued by the prospect of dealing a blow to the international Catholic conspiracy, and the expedition was authorized. Yet even before the troops set sail the food prepared for the expedition was consumed awaiting the Board of Ordnance to deliver the required cannonry and musket balls. On this occasion, Buckingham himself
10092-458: The Duke of York became King Charles I, Buckingham was the only man from the court of James to maintain his position. In 1625, Buckingham proposed to send an expedition to Spain in an attempt to reenact what he viewed as the glorious actions of Sir Francis Drake by once again seizing the main Spanish port at Cádiz and burning the Spanish fleet in its harbour. Buckingham's past failures had provoked
10266-411: The Duke of York became King Charles I, Buckingham was the only man from the court of James to maintain his position. In 1625, Buckingham proposed to send an expedition to Spain in an attempt to reenact what he viewed as the glorious actions of Sir Francis Drake by once again seizing the main Spanish port at Cádiz and burning the Spanish fleet in its harbour. Buckingham's past failures had provoked
10440-559: The French Court, he is recorded as wearing a grey velvet suit from which the loosely threaded pearls dropped to the ground as he advanced to make his bow to the queen, to the general wonder. A series of more theatrical depictions heighten Buckingham's self-dramatisation and in certain cases make policy statements as well. Two of these are connected with his betrothal to and marriage with Lady Katherine Manners in 1620. In Van Dyck's historical painting The Continence of Scipio , Buckingham
10614-504: The French Court, he is recorded as wearing a grey velvet suit from which the loosely threaded pearls dropped to the ground as he advanced to make his bow to the queen, to the general wonder. A series of more theatrical depictions heighten Buckingham's self-dramatisation and in certain cases make policy statements as well. Two of these are connected with his betrothal to and marriage with Lady Katherine Manners in 1620. In Van Dyck's historical painting The Continence of Scipio , Buckingham
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#173284473280310788-410: The French queen the main cause of his undoing. The duke also figures in historical romances like Evelyn Anthony 's Charles, The King (1963) and Bertrice Small 's Darling Jasmine (2007), although the main focus there is on other protagonists. The Spanish Match and Buckingham's part in it is made an episode in Spanish author Arturo Pérez-Reverte 's novel El Capitán Alatriste (1996). There he and
10962-410: The French queen the main cause of his undoing. The duke also figures in historical romances like Evelyn Anthony 's Charles, The King (1963) and Bertrice Small 's Darling Jasmine (2007), although the main focus there is on other protagonists. The Spanish Match and Buckingham's part in it is made an episode in Spanish author Arturo Pérez-Reverte 's novel El Capitán Alatriste (1996). There he and
11136-463: The Garter and standing in a decor of costly silks. Another full-length portrait by the same artist celebrates his succession as Lord High Admiral in 1619. Here he wears three-quarter armour; on the right, behind a balustrade, is a shoreline with the fleet beyond. Buckingham's growing wealth was emphasised by the detail of his clothes. This is evident in the lovingly depicted lace about his collar and cuffs in
11310-414: The Garter and standing in a decor of costly silks. Another full-length portrait by the same artist celebrates his succession as Lord High Admiral in 1619. Here he wears three-quarter armour; on the right, behind a balustrade, is a shoreline with the fleet beyond. Buckingham's growing wealth was emphasised by the detail of his clothes. This is evident in the lovingly depicted lace about his collar and cuffs in
11484-469: The House of Commons on the King's command. However, he was prevented from rising from his seat to give this edict by three MPs – John Eliot , Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles and Benjamin Valentine – until the Three Resolutions had been passed. No formal vote took place on these resolutions, but members shouted their approval instead. The Commons then voted for its own adjournment. Furious, the King announced
11658-455: The King's Master of the Horse , he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Whaddon, Viscount Villiers , and made a Knight of the Garter . The next year he was made Earl and in 1618 promoted Marquess of Buckingham , then finally in 1623 Duke of Buckingham . Villiers' new rank allowed him to dance side by side with the royal heir Charles I , with whom his friendship developed through his tutoring of
11832-407: The King's Master of the Horse , he was elevated to the peerage as Baron Whaddon, Viscount Villiers , and made a Knight of the Garter . The next year he was made Earl and in 1618 promoted Marquess of Buckingham , then finally in 1623 Duke of Buckingham . Villiers' new rank allowed him to dance side by side with the royal heir Charles I , with whom his friendship developed through his tutoring of
12006-443: The King's affections, writing back to James: "I naturally so love your person, and adore all your other parts, which are more than ever one man had", "I desire only to live in the world for your sake" and "I will live and die a lover of you". Buckingham himself provides ambiguous evidence, writing to James many years later that he had pondered "whether you loved me now...better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where
12180-443: The King's affections, writing back to James: "I naturally so love your person, and adore all your other parts, which are more than ever one man had", "I desire only to live in the world for your sake" and "I will live and die a lover of you". Buckingham himself provides ambiguous evidence, writing to James many years later that he had pondered "whether you loved me now...better than at the time which I shall never forget at Farnham, where
12354-440: The King. Villiers began to appear as a dancer in masques from 1615, in which he could exhibit his grace of movement and beauty of body, a recognised avenue to royal favour since the time of Elizabeth I . Under the King's patronage, Villiers advanced rapidly through the ranks of the nobility, and his court appointments grew in importance. In April 1615 he was knighted as a Gentleman of the Bedchamber . In 1616, when he became
12528-560: The Navy only succeeded in attacking Cardinal Richelieu 's enemies, defeating his objects in August 1625 and losing La Rochelle . Similarly he was blamed for the failure of the military expedition under the command of Ernst von Mansfeld , a famous German mercenary general, sent to the continent to recover the Electorate of the Palatinate in 1625, which had belonged to Frederick V, Elector Palatine , son-in-law of King James I of England . However, when
12702-464: The Navy only succeeded in attacking Cardinal Richelieu 's enemies, defeating his objects in August 1625 and losing La Rochelle . Similarly he was blamed for the failure of the military expedition under the command of Ernst von Mansfeld , a famous German mercenary general, sent to the continent to recover the Electorate of the Palatinate in 1625, which had belonged to Frederick V, Elector Palatine , son-in-law of King James I of England . However, when
12876-569: The Parliament's premature dissolution in December 1621 and a hobbling of the Irish commission in 1622. Irish reforms introduced in 1623–24 by Lionel Cranfield , Earl of Middlesex and Lord Treasurer , were largely nullified by Middlesex's impeachment and disgrace in the violently anti-Spanish 1624 parliament—spurred on by Buckingham and Prince Charles. In 1623 Buckingham, now Lord Admiral and effective Foreign Minister, accompanied Charles I , then Prince of Wales, to Spain for marriage negotiations regarding
13050-521: The Parliament's premature dissolution in December 1621 and a hobbling of the Irish commission in 1622. Irish reforms introduced in 1623–24 by Lionel Cranfield , Earl of Middlesex and Lord Treasurer , were largely nullified by Middlesex's impeachment and disgrace in the violently anti-Spanish 1624 parliament—spurred on by Buckingham and Prince Charles. In 1623 Buckingham, now Lord Admiral and effective Foreign Minister, accompanied Charles I , then Prince of Wales, to Spain for marriage negotiations regarding
13224-557: The University of Cambridge , he had initiated the purchase of Thomas van Erpe's collection of oriental books and manuscripts on its behalf, although his widow only transferred it to Cambridge University Library after his death. With it came the first book in Chinese to be added to the Library's collections. After Buckingham's assassination, a large amount of satirical verse was circulated on
13398-405: The University of Cambridge , he had initiated the purchase of Thomas van Erpe's collection of oriental books and manuscripts on its behalf, although his widow only transferred it to Cambridge University Library after his death. With it came the first book in Chinese to be added to the Library's collections. After Buckingham's assassination, a large amount of satirical verse was circulated on
13572-456: The appointment of his client, Sir Oliver St John , as Lord Deputy , 1616–22. Thence, he acquired control of the Irish customs farm (1618), dominated Irish patronage at court, particularly with the sale of Irish titles and honours, and (from 1618) began to build substantial Irish estates for himself, his family and clients—with the aid of a plantation lobby, composed of official clients in Dublin. To
13746-407: The appointment of his client, Sir Oliver St John , as Lord Deputy , 1616–22. Thence, he acquired control of the Irish customs farm (1618), dominated Irish patronage at court, particularly with the sale of Irish titles and honours, and (from 1618) began to build substantial Irish estates for himself, his family and clients—with the aid of a plantation lobby, composed of official clients in Dublin. To
13920-595: The assassination were also widely circulated. Many of these described Buckingham as effeminate, cowardly and corrupt, and contrasted him with Felton, who was held up as an example of manliness, courage and virtue. The son of Alexander Gill the Elder was sentenced to a fine of £2000 and the removal of his ears, after being overheard drinking to the health of Felton, and stating that Buckingham had joined King James in hell. However, these punishments were remitted after his father and Archbishop Laud appealed to King Charles I. Felton
14094-547: The assassination were also widely circulated. Many of these described Buckingham as effeminate, cowardly and corrupt, and contrasted him with Felton, who was held up as an example of manliness, courage and virtue. The son of Alexander Gill the Elder was sentenced to a fine of £2000 and the removal of his ears, after being overheard drinking to the health of Felton, and stating that Buckingham had joined King James in hell. However, these punishments were remitted after his father and Archbishop Laud appealed to King Charles I. Felton
14268-421: The attention of the king. His achievements include being knighted and climbing the ranks of nobility, eventually becoming the Duke of Buckingham . Villiers was the last in a succession of handsome young favourites on whom the king lavished affection and patronage. The pair were often accused of sodomy and most historians today believe the relationship was sexual in nature. Villiers' influence extended beyond
14442-426: The bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog". Speculation about the close relationship between king and favourite was not confined to Great Britain. It was carried back to France by the poet Théophile de Viau , who was resident in England in 1621 and had then addressed to Buckingham the flattering ode Au marquis du Boukinquan . On his return, he went on to justify his own masculine preferences by
14616-426: The bed's head could not be found between the master and his dog". Speculation about the close relationship between king and favourite was not confined to Great Britain. It was carried back to France by the poet Théophile de Viau , who was resident in England in 1621 and had then addressed to Buckingham the flattering ode Au marquis du Boukinquan . On his return, he went on to justify his own masculine preferences by
14790-505: The betrothal to Henrietta Maria of France was announced, the choice of a Catholic was widely condemned. He visited France in May 1625 to assist in the negotiations, during which he was allegedly "embroiled in a plot to seduce the Queen of France", Anne of Austria , according to historian Desmond Seward . At Amiens , "where the court took official leave of the English embassy, Buckingham climbed into
14964-411: The betrothal to Henrietta Maria of France was announced, the choice of a Catholic was widely condemned. He visited France in May 1625 to assist in the negotiations, during which he was allegedly "embroiled in a plot to seduce the Queen of France", Anne of Austria , according to historian Desmond Seward . At Amiens , "where the court took official leave of the English embassy, Buckingham climbed into
15138-459: The border . Though this was resolved by a truce , relations soon broke down again and Charles resolved to regain his authority in Scotland by force. To pay English troops to fight the Scots, he was advised to call a new parliament. This ended the Personal Rule, but the new body which assembled was unwilling to raise the taxes needed to finance war with Scotland and Charles dissolved it after only
15312-478: The calling of the Long Parliament , which ordered the destruction of all altar rails in 1641. Historians generally agree that Laudian reforms were divisive, but disagree over the salience of religious issues in the bringing about of the end of Personal Rule. John Morrill argued that, 'it is impossible to overestimate the damage done by the Laudians'. Other historians, like David Smith and Ian Gentles argue similarly
15486-428: The chain and Great George pendant of the Garter and on his head a ducal coronet, summing up the principal steps in his brief career. He had died at the age of 35. Buckingham married Lady Katherine Manners , the daughter of the 6th Earl of Rutland , later suo jure Baroness de Ros , on 16 May 1620, against her father's objections. The children of this marriage were: During the duke's short tenure as Chancellor of
15660-428: The chain and Great George pendant of the Garter and on his head a ducal coronet, summing up the principal steps in his brief career. He had died at the age of 35. Buckingham married Lady Katherine Manners , the daughter of the 6th Earl of Rutland , later suo jure Baroness de Ros , on 16 May 1620, against her father's objections. The children of this marriage were: During the duke's short tenure as Chancellor of
15834-453: The coast and marching the militia army on the city, the troops were badly equipped, ill-disciplined, and poorly trained. Coming upon a warehouse filled with wine, they simply got drunk, and the attack had to be called off. The English army briefly occupied a small port further down the coast before re-boarding its ships. After the embarrassing fiasco at Cádiz, Cecil decided to try to intercept a Spanish silver fleet on its way back to Spain from
16008-453: The coast and marching the militia army on the city, the troops were badly equipped, ill-disciplined, and poorly trained. Coming upon a warehouse filled with wine, they simply got drunk, and the attack had to be called off. The English army briefly occupied a small port further down the coast before re-boarding its ships. After the embarrassing fiasco at Cádiz, Cecil decided to try to intercept a Spanish silver fleet on its way back to Spain from
16182-493: The consent of the nobility. Nevertheless, calling a parliament was an expensive and time-consuming process, requiring many personal invitations (for the House of Lords ) and elections in the shires and chartered cities and boroughs . So parliaments would only be summoned on particularly important occasions. Once a parliament had finished its business, the king would dissolve it, and perhaps not summon another for an extended period; in
16356-608: The contentions within Personal Rule. The attempts to instil religious conformity, especially in Scotland, generated opposition and drove the impetus towards the calling of the Short Parliament , and then the Long Parliament . The Bishops' Wars were a direct consequence of the attempt to impose the English Book of Common Prayer on the Scottish Kirk , and Charles' defeat here signalled the necessity to end Personal Rule before such
16530-442: The dissolution of Parliament on 10 March 1629. The greatest problem Charles initially encountered at this stage was a continued lack of funds. The main sources of income for the King were customs duties, feudal dues and income from the King's personal estates. Nationwide taxation was widely understood to be for emergencies and special purposes, such as war, and it was by this time generally accepted that only Parliament could authorise
16704-532: The duke is cast as Mercury , the patron of the arts, the procession of whom is brought in his train to the presence of the king and queen in the guise of Apollo and Diana. In this validation of his artistic credentials, it is appropriate to remember that Buckingham had taken part in the masque Mercury Vindicated at the start of his career in 1615. During the course of the duke's incompetent leadership, Parliament twice attempted to impeach him. The king rescued him both times by dissolving Parliament, but public feeling
16878-532: The duke is cast as Mercury , the patron of the arts, the procession of whom is brought in his train to the presence of the king and queen in the guise of Apollo and Diana. In this validation of his artistic credentials, it is appropriate to remember that Buckingham had taken part in the masque Mercury Vindicated at the start of his career in 1615. During the course of the duke's incompetent leadership, Parliament twice attempted to impeach him. The king rescued him both times by dissolving Parliament, but public feeling
17052-499: The duke's relations with the king. There is a further literary connection since the story is found in Ovid , but the picture again defies convention by hinting at a different, happier ending. Buckingham probably met Peter Paul Rubens while conducting the royal marriage negotiations in Paris in 1625 and commissioned two ambitious advertisements of his standing from the painter. The first of these
17226-405: The duke's relations with the king. There is a further literary connection since the story is found in Ovid , but the picture again defies convention by hinting at a different, happier ending. Buckingham probably met Peter Paul Rubens while conducting the royal marriage negotiations in Paris in 1625 and commissioned two ambitious advertisements of his standing from the painter. The first of these
17400-405: The eye of King James I at a hunt in Apethorpe . Opponents of the King's favourite Robert Carr , Earl of Somerset, saw an opportunity to displace Somerset and began promoting Villiers. Money was raised to purchase Villiers a new wardrobe, and intense lobbying secured his appointment as Royal Cup-bearer , a position that allowed him to make conversation with the King. Villiers began to appear as
17574-399: The financial burden of waging these wars could not be sustained without funds that Parliament alone could provide. For the next eleven years, Charles governed with only an advisory council of royal appointees. There has been considerable historiographical debate about the beginnings of Personal Rule, with some historians favouring a "high road" approach, like Christopher Hill which assesses
17748-410: The first three years of the reign of James's son, King Charles I , until he was assassinated. Villiers was born in Brooksby , Leicestershire from a family of minor gentry. His ascent began notably in 1614 when, aged 21, he caught the attention of the king. His achievements include being knighted and climbing the ranks of nobility, eventually becoming the Duke of Buckingham . Villiers was the last in
17922-434: The fortress of Saint Martin on the isle of Ré, which was now controlled by royalist forces, but soon found himself trapped between the besieged forces and relief forces sent by Cardinal Richelieu. Realizing he risked annihilation, Buckingham abandoned the siege and fought his way back to his ships, but at a heavy cost: altogether, Buckingham lost more than 5,000 men in the brief campaign. In April 1628, another English fleet
18096-434: The fortress of Saint Martin on the isle of Ré, which was now controlled by royalist forces, but soon found himself trapped between the besieged forces and relief forces sent by Cardinal Richelieu. Realizing he risked annihilation, Buckingham abandoned the siege and fought his way back to his ships, but at a heavy cost: altogether, Buckingham lost more than 5,000 men in the brief campaign. In April 1628, another English fleet
18270-405: The full-length portrait by Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen . and the head and shoulders by Anthony van Dyck . The 1625 painting by Michiel van Miereveld is not only of unparalleled magnificence, with a jacket encrusted with pearls which also hang in ropes across it, but may also contain a reference to his diplomatic coup that year in negotiating the marriage of the future Charles I. At his entry to
18444-405: The full-length portrait by Cornelis Janssens van Ceulen . and the head and shoulders by Anthony van Dyck . The 1625 painting by Michiel van Miereveld is not only of unparalleled magnificence, with a jacket encrusted with pearls which also hang in ropes across it, but may also contain a reference to his diplomatic coup that year in negotiating the marriage of the future Charles I. At his entry to
18618-573: The influence of Parliament, the Caroline government was able to exert a much greater force on the Church. During Personal Rule, there was a noticeable shift in the Church of England towards a more sacramental and ceremonialist direction. The appointment of William Laud to the role of Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633 signalled this shift most of all. One of Charles' main concerns was the liturgical and religious unity of his Three Kingdoms. His government tried to squash dissent legalistically, by making use of
18792-421: The king's favour; he played a significant role in political and military affairs, including the negotiation of royal marriages and leading military expeditions. His tenure as Lord High Admiral and de facto foreign minister was marked by a series of failed military campaigns, such as the ill-fated expedition to Cádiz, which damaged his reputation and public image. Buckingham's assassination in 1628 by John Felton ,
18966-506: The king, and likewise he was unable to subscribe any foreign loans. In this extremity, Charles seized the money held in trust at the mint of the Exchequer in the tower of London. The royal mint held a monopoly on the exchange of foreign coin and from this the mint operated as a bank containing much capital of the merchants and goldsmiths of the city. In July, Charles seized all £130,000 of this money, and in August he followed it up by seizing all
19140-529: The lands, to provide programmes to disafforest these areas. The focus of the programme was disafforestation and sale of forest lands for development as pasture and arable, or in the case of the Forest of Dean , development for the iron industry. This included providing compensation to people using the lands in common, especially manorial lords and their tenants. Others who had settled illegally were not entitled to compensation and frequently rioted. The discontent following
19314-464: The long-term causes of Personal Rule such as Stuart financial problems, religious issues (see James VI and I and religious issues and English Reformation ) and problems of state development. Other historians favour a "low road" approach, which blames problems immediately caused by Charles, such as the promotion of anti-Calvinist clergy to positions of authority (like Richard Montagu to the role of one of Charles' personal chaplains), reckless spending on
19488-490: The meantime, the curia regis – that is, the king with his chosen advisers – would make laws ("ordinances"), spend money, and carry on the business of government. From the 14th to the 16th centuries, the acknowledged powers of Parliament grew. In particular, it was established that Parliament was the only body that could authorise nationwide taxation and excise. There were practical underpinnings to these powers, for those who elected representatives to Parliament at this time were
19662-617: The monarch, although the monarch was under no obligation to grant the Royal Assent to any such proposal. However, monarchs did increasingly use parliaments more widely in lawmaking as a way of gaining popular support for their policies. One example was during the English Reformation , when the Reformation Parliament acting at Henry VIII 's instigation passed a succession of laws regulating the church in England . The first of
19836-512: The most elegant cavalier of France or England. The favourite of two kings, immensely rich, all-powerful in a kingdom which he disordered at his fancy and calmed again at his caprice, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, had lived one of those fabulous existences which survive, in the course of centuries, to astonish posterity. In the 1973 two-film, Anglo-American adaptation of the book – The Three Musketeers and The Four Musketeers – Simon Ward plays Buckingham, in
20010-512: The most elegant cavalier of France or England. The favourite of two kings, immensely rich, all-powerful in a kingdom which he disordered at his fancy and calmed again at his caprice, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, had lived one of those fabulous existences which survive, in the course of centuries, to astonish posterity. In the 1973 two-film, Anglo-American adaptation of the book – The Three Musketeers and The Four Musketeers – Simon Ward plays Buckingham, in
20184-481: The nobility since 1540 were revoked, with continued ownership being subject to an annual rent. In addition, the boundaries of the royal forests in England were extended to their ancient limits as part of a scheme to maximise income by exploiting the land and fining land users within the re-asserted boundaries for encroachment. Sales of Royal lands, especially the large expanses of under-developed Royal forests also contributed to finances. Courtiers were asked to survey
20358-482: The philosopher and jurist Francis Bacon . Bacon wrote letters of advice to the young favourite and drafted the patent of nobility when Buckingham ascended to the peerage. With Buckingham's support, Bacon was appointed Lord Chancellor in 1618. In gratitude, Bacon honoured Buckingham's many requests for favours from the court for friends and allies. Following an investigation by Parliament into royal grants of monopoly, financial speculation and corrupt officials, Bacon
20532-482: The philosopher and jurist Francis Bacon . Bacon wrote letters of advice to the young favourite and drafted the patent of nobility when Buckingham ascended to the peerage. With Buckingham's support, Bacon was appointed Lord Chancellor in 1618. In gratitude, Bacon honoured Buckingham's many requests for favours from the court for friends and allies. Following an investigation by Parliament into royal grants of monopoly, financial speculation and corrupt officials, Bacon
20706-450: The play's closure. Villiers also commissioned portraits of himself as "a medium for the cultivation of his personal image". William Larkin 's portrait of 1616 records the start of his climb, showing him in the dress of a Knight of the Garter and emphasising the felicity of his stance and sumptuousness of dress. A 1619 portrait by Daniel Mytens the Elder is equally elegant. There he is dressed in white brocade and white silk hose, wearing
20880-450: The play's closure. Villiers also commissioned portraits of himself as "a medium for the cultivation of his personal image". William Larkin 's portrait of 1616 records the start of his climb, showing him in the dress of a Knight of the Garter and emphasising the felicity of his stance and sumptuousness of dress. A 1619 portrait by Daniel Mytens the Elder is equally elegant. There he is dressed in white brocade and white silk hose, wearing
21054-473: The primacy of religious issues in the coming of the downfall of Personal Rule, as well as the start of the Civil War in general. However, historians like John Adamson stress the importance of constitutional, short-term issues like the trial and execution of Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford as the most important context for the outbreak of Civil War. There can be little denial of the importance of religion in
21228-405: The prince in dance. Villiers was appointed Lord High Admiral of England in 1619, and in 1623 the former dukedom of Buckingham was recreated for him when he was negotiating abroad on the king's behalf. Since the dukedom of Norfolk had lapsed in 1572 with the attainder and execution of Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk , Buckingham now became the only English duke who, at the time, was not
21402-405: The prince in dance. Villiers was appointed Lord High Admiral of England in 1619, and in 1623 the former dukedom of Buckingham was recreated for him when he was negotiating abroad on the king's behalf. Since the dukedom of Norfolk had lapsed in 1572 with the attainder and execution of Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk , Buckingham now became the only English duke who, at the time, was not
21576-455: The privilege of commanding the moves of a future king". This culminated in connivance by his supporters in licensing Thomas Middleton 's notorious play A Game at Chess (1624) as an extension of their anti-Spanish foreign policy. The duke and Prince Charles are acknowledged as figuring there as The White Duke and The White Knight, while very obvious depictions of the Spanish monarch and his former ambassador in England eventually brought about
21750-455: The privilege of commanding the moves of a future king". This culminated in connivance by his supporters in licensing Thomas Middleton 's notorious play A Game at Chess (1624) as an extension of their anti-Spanish foreign policy. The duke and Prince Charles are acknowledged as figuring there as The White Duke and The White Knight, while very obvious depictions of the Spanish monarch and his former ambassador in England eventually brought about
21924-403: The same end, he secured the creation of an Irish Court of Wards in 1622. Buckingham's influence thus crucially sustained an aggressive Irish plantation policy into the 1620s. When Parliament began its investigation into monopolies and other abuses in England, and later Ireland in 1621, Buckingham made a show of support to avoid action being taken against him. However, the king's decision to send
22098-403: The same end, he secured the creation of an Irish Court of Wards in 1622. Buckingham's influence thus crucially sustained an aggressive Irish plantation policy into the 1620s. When Parliament began its investigation into monopolies and other abuses in England, and later Ireland in 1621, Buckingham made a show of support to avoid action being taken against him. However, the king's decision to send
22272-501: The same people the monarch had to rely on to collect and remit taxes on a large scale: the landed gentry. If a sovereign were to attempt to impose new taxes without consulting the gentry then the gentry could have simply refused to collect the taxes, and the monarch would have had little feasible recourse. Once summoned, a parliament could take the opportunity to submit policy proposals to the monarch (" bills "), which would be expected to take precedence over ordinances if signed into law by
22446-498: The sea god Neptune and a naiad adorned with pearls indicate the duke's dominion over the sea. Overhead, a winged allegory of Fame signals victory (which nevertheless evaded the commander in real life) with trumpet in hand. Privately Rubens noted Buckingham's "arrogance and caprice" and predicted that he was "heading for the precipice". Popular prints, often drawing on his painted portraits, particularly Miervelt's of 1625, had served to advertise Buckingham's position more broadly over
22620-498: The sea god Neptune and a naiad adorned with pearls indicate the duke's dominion over the sea. Overhead, a winged allegory of Fame signals victory (which nevertheless evaded the commander in real life) with trumpet in hand. Privately Rubens noted Buckingham's "arrogance and caprice" and predicted that he was "heading for the precipice". Popular prints, often drawing on his painted portraits, particularly Miervelt's of 1625, had served to advertise Buckingham's position more broadly over
22794-468: The stocks of pepper held by the East India Company, and selling it at distress prices. On the other side of the ledger, the government tried to reduce expenditure, especially by avoiding war (thus pursuing an isolationist foreign policy) and also avoiding large-scale innovations on the domestic front. Of equal importance, Charles learned to spend less extravagantly compared to his father. Without
22968-648: The subject. Most of this reflected on how pride goes before a fall and the damage he had done to the kingdom, while several pieces commended John Felton's action. The duke's residence of York House occupied what eventually became the Adelphi district in London. When his son sold the area to developers, it was on condition that his father and titles were commemorated in naming the new streets. These were, accordingly, George Court, Villiers Street, Duke Street, Of Alley and Buckingham Street. There are 18th and 19th century accounts of
23142-550: The subject. Most of this reflected on how pride goes before a fall and the damage he had done to the kingdom, while several pieces commended John Felton's action. The duke's residence of York House occupied what eventually became the Adelphi district in London. When his son sold the area to developers, it was on condition that his father and titles were commemorated in naming the new streets. These were, accordingly, George Court, Villiers Street, Duke Street, Of Alley and Buckingham Street. There are 18th and 19th century accounts of
23316-598: The successful recovery of Ré island by the French forces, the Treaty of Paris (1626) was signed between the city of La Rochelle and King Louis XIII on 5 February 1626, preserving religious freedom but imposing some guaranties against possible future rebellions. Moreover, the French made peace with the Spanish in April 1626, destroying any remaining hope of an Anglo-French alliance against the Habsburgs and obviating any further need to make
23490-450: The successful recovery of Ré island by the French forces, the Treaty of Paris (1626) was signed between the city of La Rochelle and King Louis XIII on 5 February 1626, preserving religious freedom but imposing some guaranties against possible future rebellions. Moreover, the French made peace with the Spanish in April 1626, destroying any remaining hope of an Anglo-French alliance against the Habsburgs and obviating any further need to make
23664-408: The then Prince of Wales are the subjects of an assassination attempt by Spanish plotters. In Philippa Gregory 's Earthly Joys (1998), which has as its subject the famous gardener John Tradescant the Elder , the Duke appears halfway through the novel as the object of Tradescant's love. Another historical fiction, Ronald Blythe 's The Assassin (2004), is written from his killer's point of view as
23838-408: The then Prince of Wales are the subjects of an assassination attempt by Spanish plotters. In Philippa Gregory 's Earthly Joys (1998), which has as its subject the famous gardener John Tradescant the Elder , the Duke appears halfway through the novel as the object of Tradescant's love. Another historical fiction, Ronald Blythe 's The Assassin (2004), is written from his killer's point of view as
24012-636: The theology of Laud. A greater insistence on the usage of the Book of Common Prayer in all services (which was enforced by episcopal visitation); the placement of the altar at the east end of the Church; and kneeling for the reception of the sacrament were all hallmarks of Laudian liturgy. This was all encompassed within a policy called 'the beauty of holiness' (this phrase coming from Psalm 96), which described how Christian worship should be couched in ceremony and splendour to further devotion. Foreshadowing debates that would later emerge over clerical dress, Laud also imposed
24186-504: The three Graces offer the duke a crown of flowers, while Envy seeks to pull him down and a lion challenges him. The picture is an allegory of Buckingham's political aspirations and the forces that he saw as impeding him. Though the painting was destroyed in a fire in 1949, it was survived by a preparatory oil sketch now held in the National Gallery in London and by a copy of that sketch made by William Etty . Yet another Rubens portrait
24360-445: The three Graces offer the duke a crown of flowers, while Envy seeks to pull him down and a lion challenges him. The picture is an allegory of Buckingham's political aspirations and the forces that he saw as impeding him. Though the painting was destroyed in a fire in 1949, it was survived by a preparatory oil sketch now held in the National Gallery in London and by a copy of that sketch made by William Etty . Yet another Rubens portrait
24534-402: The training set by his mother: he could dance and fence well, spoke a little French, and overall became an excellent student. Godfrey Goodman ( Bishop of Gloucester from 1624 to 1655) declared Villiers "the handsomest-bodied man in all of England; his limbs so well compacted, and his conversation so pleasing, and of so sweet a disposition". In August 1614, at age twenty-one, Villiers caught
24708-472: The wars in France and Spain and the corrosive influence of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham on relations between monarch and Parliament. Ultimately, due to a combination of factors, the relationship between Charles and Parliament became unworkable, with both sides entrenched in conflict. Great debate had erupted over Darnell's Case (also known as the Five Knights Case), leading to the passing of
24882-531: The years. These now form part of the collection at the National Portrait Gallery . At the same time martial statements were being made through this medium in support of Buckingham's foreign policy, as for instance in Willem de Passe 's equestrian portrait of the duke, executed at the same time as Rubens was engaged on his monumental work on the same theme. There he is similarly depicted as Lord Admiral with
25056-416: The years. These now form part of the collection at the National Portrait Gallery . At the same time martial statements were being made through this medium in support of Buckingham's foreign policy, as for instance in Willem de Passe 's equestrian portrait of the duke, executed at the same time as Rubens was engaged on his monumental work on the same theme. There he is similarly depicted as Lord Admiral with
25230-457: Was also living there. A fictionalised Buckingham is one of the characters in Alexandre Dumas 's celebrated 1844 novel The Three Musketeers , which paints him as in love with Anne of Austria, as well as dealing with the siege of La Rochelle and his assassination by Felton. He is described: At thirty-five, which was then his age, he passed, with just title, for the handsomest gentleman and
25404-400: Was also living there. A fictionalised Buckingham is one of the characters in Alexandre Dumas 's celebrated 1844 novel The Three Musketeers , which paints him as in love with Anne of Austria, as well as dealing with the siege of La Rochelle and his assassination by Felton. He is described: At thirty-five, which was then his age, he passed, with just title, for the handsomest gentleman and
25578-429: Was an English courtier, statesman, and patron of the arts . He was a favourite and self-described "lover" of King James VI and I . Buckingham remained at the height of royal favour for the first three years of the reign of James's son, King Charles I , until he was assassinated. Villiers was born in Brooksby , Leicestershire from a family of minor gentry. His ascent began notably in 1614 when, aged 21, he caught
25752-419: Was convicted of corruption and forced into retirement. Neither Buckingham nor the King attempted to intervene on Bacon's behalf. Many of Buckingham's contemporaries believed he had sacrificed Bacon to save himself from Parliamentary scrutiny, as he had been liberally spending public funds and accepting gifts and bribes. From 1616, Buckingham also established a dominant influence in Irish affairs, beginning with
25926-419: Was convicted of corruption and forced into retirement. Neither Buckingham nor the King attempted to intervene on Bacon's behalf. Many of Buckingham's contemporaries believed he had sacrificed Bacon to save himself from Parliamentary scrutiny, as he had been liberally spending public funds and accepting gifts and bribes. From 1616, Buckingham also established a dominant influence in Irish affairs, beginning with
26100-407: Was depicted surrounded by mythical figures. The black marble sculptures at each corner include Mars and Neptune, in reference to his military and naval exploits; on the catafalque lie bronze-gilt effigies of the duke and his wife (who long survived him), cast by Hubert Le Sueur . Buckingham is clad in armour, enriched with crossed anchors and with an ermine cloak over it. He wears on his breast
26274-407: Was depicted surrounded by mythical figures. The black marble sculptures at each corner include Mars and Neptune, in reference to his military and naval exploits; on the catafalque lie bronze-gilt effigies of the duke and his wife (who long survived him), cast by Hubert Le Sueur . Buckingham is clad in armour, enriched with crossed anchors and with an ermine cloak over it. He wears on his breast
26448-454: Was destined for the ceiling of his York House residence and depicts a masque-like theme in which Minerva and Mercury conduct the Duke of Buckingham to the Temple of Virtue (also known as The Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham and The Duke of Buckingham Triumphing over Envy and Anger ). In front of the marble temple to which he is carried upwards are the probable figures of Virtue and Abundance;
26622-405: Was destined for the ceiling of his York House residence and depicts a masque-like theme in which Minerva and Mercury conduct the Duke of Buckingham to the Temple of Virtue (also known as The Apotheosis of the Duke of Buckingham and The Duke of Buckingham Triumphing over Envy and Anger ). In front of the marble temple to which he is carried upwards are the probable figures of Virtue and Abundance;
26796-500: Was disgusted and horrified at the thought of English Protestants fighting French Protestants. The plan only fuelled their fears of crypto-Catholicism at court. In the end, seven English ships were delivered to the French after much debate and were employed in the conflict, although they were essentially manned by French crews, as most of the English crews had refused to serve against their coreligionists and had disembarked in Dieppe. Following
26970-451: Was disgusted and horrified at the thought of English Protestants fighting French Protestants. The plan only fuelled their fears of crypto-Catholicism at court. In the end, seven English ships were delivered to the French after much debate and were employed in the conflict, although they were essentially manned by French crews, as most of the English crews had refused to serve against their coreligionists and had disembarked in Dieppe. Following
27144-501: Was hanged on 29 November and his body was taken to Portsmouth for public display . However, this proved to be a miscalculation by the authorities as it became an object of veneration by the public. Buckingham was buried in a side-chapel of the Lady Chapel of Westminster Abbey . His lavish tomb bears a Latin inscription that may be translated as "The Enigma of the World". Here, too, he
27318-399: Was hanged on 29 November and his body was taken to Portsmouth for public display . However, this proved to be a miscalculation by the authorities as it became an object of veneration by the public. Buckingham was buried in a side-chapel of the Lady Chapel of Westminster Abbey . His lavish tomb bears a Latin inscription that may be translated as "The Enigma of the World". Here, too, he
27492-411: Was in charge, and Buckingham himself was nearly bankrupt, he funded the force with help from Sir William Russell , the two men raising approximately £70,000 between them to pay for the men, food, and supplies out of their own pockets. Raising the money took time, and the troops looted the King's stores after going unpaid for 10 months. Finally arriving in France in the summer of 1627, Buckingham besieged
27666-411: Was in charge, and Buckingham himself was nearly bankrupt, he funded the force with help from Sir William Russell , the two men raising approximately £70,000 between them to pay for the men, food, and supplies out of their own pockets. Raising the money took time, and the troops looted the King's stores after going unpaid for 10 months. Finally arriving in France in the summer of 1627, Buckingham besieged
27840-546: Was little financial capacity for Charles to wage wars overseas. Throughout his reign Charles was obliged to rely primarily on volunteer forces for defence and on diplomatic efforts to support his sister, Elizabeth, and his foreign policy objective for the restoration of the Palatinate. England was still the least taxed country in Europe, with no official excise and no regular direct taxation. To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called
28014-422: Was little opposition from the English population at large. Indeed, the Church was generally accepted as becoming more ceremonial in its style of worship, such as through the acceptance of the installation of Laudian altar rails. It is estimated that as many as three-quarters of England's parish churches had altar rails installed by 1639. However, much of this ceremonial progress was undone by Parliamentary decree upon
28188-541: Was marked by a series of failed military campaigns, such as the ill-fated expedition to Cádiz, which damaged his reputation and public image. Buckingham's assassination in 1628 by John Felton , a disgruntled army officer, highlighted the extent of his unpopularity among the public. Villiers was born in Brooksby , Leicestershire, on 20 August 1592, the second son of the minor gentleman Sir George Villiers (1550–1606) from his second wife. His mother, Mary (1570–1632), daughter of Anthony Beaumont of Glenfield, Leicestershire,
28362-558: Was no legal bar to collecting the tax for defence during peacetime and throughout the whole of the kingdom. Ship money, paid directly to the Treasury of the Navy, provided between £150,000 to £200,000 annually between 1634 and 1638, after which yields declined. Opposition to ship money steadily grew, but the 12 common law judges of England declared that the tax was within the king's prerogative, though some of them had reservations. The prosecution of John Hampden for non-payment in 1637–38 provided
28536-480: Was no sexual relationship between the two, though at least one such assessment has been criticised as based on "highly speculative and possibly ahistorical assumptions about same-sex desire in the Renaissance." In a letter to Buckingham in 1623, the King ended with the salutation, "God bless you, my sweet child and wife, and grant that ye may ever be a comfort to your dear father and husband". Buckingham reciprocated
28710-426: Was no sexual relationship between the two, though at least one such assessment has been criticised as based on "highly speculative and possibly ahistorical assumptions about same-sex desire in the Renaissance." In a letter to Buckingham in 1623, the King ended with the salutation, "God bless you, my sweet child and wife, and grant that ye may ever be a comfort to your dear father and husband". Buckingham reciprocated
28884-475: Was not in command. As experienced admirals were unavailable, Buckingham assigned command of the expedition to Sir Edward Cecil , a battle-hardened soldier who had won renown fighting on behalf of the Dutch against the Spanish. This choice of commander proved foolhardy, as while Cecil was a good soldier on land he had no knowledge of the sea. Although Buckingham's plan was tactically sound, calling for landing further up
29058-427: Was not in command. As experienced admirals were unavailable, Buckingham assigned command of the expedition to Sir Edward Cecil , a battle-hardened soldier who had won renown fighting on behalf of the Dutch against the Spanish. This choice of commander proved foolhardy, as while Cecil was a good soldier on land he had no knowledge of the sea. Although Buckingham's plan was tactically sound, calling for landing further up
29232-503: Was rediscovered in 2017, when the painter's preparatory portrait of Buckingham was identified at Pollok House in Scotland. Rubens' other major commission, Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Buckingham (1625) is accounted "the finest state portrait of its date in England". The original was destroyed in a fire at the Le Gallais depository in St Helier , Jersey, on 30 September 1949, but
29406-399: Was rediscovered in 2017, when the painter's preparatory portrait of Buckingham was identified at Pollok House in Scotland. Rubens' other major commission, Equestrian Portrait of the Duke of Buckingham (1625) is accounted "the finest state portrait of its date in England". The original was destroyed in a fire at the Le Gallais depository in St Helier , Jersey, on 30 September 1949, but
29580-474: Was sent to relieve the Huguenots, this time under the command of William Feilding, Earl of Denbigh , but Denbigh proved hesitant to fight the large, well-armed French fleet, and returned to Portsmouth without engaging the enemy. Thereafter, Buckingham tried to organise a third expedition, once again under his direct command, and was engaged in this enterprise when he was felled in Portsmouth by an assassin. As
29754-421: Was sent to relieve the Huguenots, this time under the command of William Feilding, Earl of Denbigh , but Denbigh proved hesitant to fight the large, well-armed French fleet, and returned to Portsmouth without engaging the enemy. Thereafter, Buckingham tried to organise a third expedition, once again under his direct command, and was engaged in this enterprise when he was felled in Portsmouth by an assassin. As
29928-422: Was so inflamed as a result that the duke was widely blamed as a public enemy. Eventually his physician, Dr. Lambe, popularly supposed to assert a diabolic influence over him, was mobbed in the streets and died as a result. Among the pamphlets issued afterwards was one that prophesied Let Charles and George do what they can, The Duke shall die like Doctor Lambe. The duke was stabbed to death on 23 August 1628 at
30102-422: Was so inflamed as a result that the duke was widely blamed as a public enemy. Eventually his physician, Dr. Lambe, popularly supposed to assert a diabolic influence over him, was mobbed in the streets and died as a result. Among the pamphlets issued afterwards was one that prophesied Let Charles and George do what they can, The Duke shall die like Doctor Lambe. The duke was stabbed to death on 23 August 1628 at
30276-467: Was widowed early. She educated her son for a courtier's life and sent him to travel in France with John Eliot . Villiers took to the training set by his mother: he could dance and fence well, spoke a little French, and overall became an excellent student. Godfrey Goodman ( Bishop of Gloucester from 1624 to 1655) declared Villiers "the handsomest-bodied man in all of England; his limbs so well compacted, and his conversation so pleasing, and of so sweet
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