105-465: Warwickshire ( / ˈ w ɒr ɪ k ʃ ər , - ʃ ɪər / ; abbreviated Warks ) is a ceremonial county in the West Midlands of England. It is bordered by Staffordshire and Leicestershire to the north, Northamptonshire to the east, Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire to the south, and Worcestershire and the West Midlands county to the west. The largest settlement is Nuneaton and
210-554: A chemical reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble. This allows setting in wet conditions or under water and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement was found by ancient Romans who used volcanic ash ( pozzolana ) with added lime (calcium oxide). Non-hydraulic cement (less common) does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather, it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in
315-546: A mortar made of sand and roughly burnt gypsum (CaSO 4 · 2H 2 O), which is plaster of Paris, which often contained calcium carbonate (CaCO 3 ), Lime (calcium oxide) was used on Crete and by the Ancient Greeks . There is evidence that the Minoans of Crete used crushed potsherds as an artificial pozzolan for hydraulic cement. Nobody knows who first discovered that a combination of hydrated non-hydraulic lime and
420-475: A division of the kingdom of Mercia in the early 11th century. The first reference to Warwickshire was in 1001, as Wæringscīr, named after Warwick . The prefix wara- is the genitive plural of the Old English noun waru , which means "those that care for, watch, guard, protect, or defend". It was used as an endonym by both Goths and Jutes. The suffix -wick is an Old English cognate ( -wic ) for
525-432: A fine powder. This product, made into a mortar with sand, set in 5–15 minutes. The success of "Roman cement" led other manufacturers to develop rival products by burning artificial hydraulic lime cements of clay and chalk . Roman cement quickly became popular but was largely replaced by Portland cement in the 1850s. Apparently unaware of Smeaton's work, the same principle was identified by Frenchman Louis Vicat in
630-432: A form of hydraulic cement, is by far the most common type of cement in general use around the world. This cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with other materials (such as clay ) to 1,450 °C (2,640 °F) in a kiln , in a process known as calcination that liberates a molecule of carbon dioxide from the calcium carbonate to form calcium oxide , or quicklime, which then chemically combines with
735-669: A half-century. Technologies of waste cementation have been developed and deployed at industrial scale in many countries. Cementitious wasteforms require a careful selection and design process adapted to each specific type of waste to satisfy the strict waste acceptance criteria for long-term storage and disposal. Modern development of hydraulic cement began with the start of the Industrial Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs: Modern cements are often Portland cement or Portland cement blends, but other cement blends are used in some industrial settings. Portland cement,
840-541: A lieutenant with the wider county from which they had been created. London had instead a commission of lieutenancy , headed by the Lord Mayor . The long-standing practice of appointing lieutenants jointly to the wider county and any counties corporate it contained was formalised by the Militia Act 1882. Apart from the inclusion of the counties corporate, the counties for the purposes of lieutenancy generally corresponded to
945-721: A major cycling destination has been bolstered in recent years having hosted a stage of the Women's Tour since 2016 and the Men's Tour of Britain in 2018 and 2019. In 2022, St Nicholas Park in Warwick hosted the Elite Men's and Women's Road Race as part of the Commonwealth Games that took place in Birmingham. Warwickshire has no Football League clubs. As of the 2022–23 season, the highest-placed team
1050-787: A market for use in concrete. The use of concrete in construction grew rapidly from 1850 onward, and was soon the dominant use for cements. Thus Portland cement began its predominant role. Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the production of meso-Portland cement (middle stage of development) and claimed he was the real father of Portland cement. Setting time and "early strength" are important characteristics of cements. Hydraulic limes, "natural" cements, and "artificial" cements all rely on their belite (2 CaO · SiO 2 , abbreviated as C 2 S) content for strength development. Belite develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at temperatures below 1,250 °C (2,280 °F), they contained no alite (3 CaO · SiO 2 , abbreviated as C 3 S), which
1155-623: A mixture of verbal reasoning, numerical reasoning and non-verbal reasoning multiple-choice questions. Warwickshire contains four colleges of further education: North Warwickshire & Hinckley College , King Edward VI Sixth Form College (K.E.G.S) in Nuneaton, Stratford-upon-Avon College and the Warwickshire College Group an institution made up of six main separate colleges that have merged (Leamington Centre, Rugby Centre, Moreton Morrell Centre, Pershore College, Henley-in-Arden Centre and
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#17328373875681260-413: A month for Rosendale cement made it unpopular for constructing highways and bridges, and many states and construction firms turned to Portland cement. Because of the switch to Portland cement, by the end of the 1920s only one of the 15 Rosendale cement companies had survived. But in the early 1930s, builders discovered that, while Portland cement set faster, it was not as durable, especially for highways—to
1365-412: A new non-metropolitan county is created the 1997 Act is amended to redefine the existing areas of the lieutenancies in terms of the new areas. No such amendment was made in 1997 when Rutland was made a unitary authority or in 1998 when Herefordshire and Worcestershire were re-established; those three therefore have been given their own lieutenants again since the passing of the 1997 Act. The actual areas of
1470-682: A pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture (see also: Pozzolanic reaction ), but such concrete was used by the Greeks, specifically the Ancient Macedonians , and three centuries later on a large scale by Roman engineers . There is... a kind of powder which from natural causes produces astonishing results. It is found in the neighborhood of Baiae and in the country belonging to the towns round about Mount Vesuvius . This substance when mixed with lime and rubble not only lends strength to buildings of other kinds but even when piers of it are constructed in
1575-494: A single area and share a single Chamber of Commerce , Local Enterprise Partnership and BBC Local Radio Station ( BBC Coventry & Warwickshire ). Coventry was administered separately from the rest of Warwickshire between 1451 and 1842. It formed the County of the City of Coventry , a county corporate from 1451. In 1842 the county corporate of Coventry was abolished and remerged with
1680-543: A small campus near Wellesbourne which houses the Warwick Horticultural Research Centre and an Innovation Centre. Several major motorways run through Warwickshire; these are: Other major trunk routes in Warwickshire include: Two main railway lines pass through Warwickshire: Other railway lines in Warwickshire include: Between 1965 and 2018, the only major town in Warwickshire without a station
1785-557: A strong and growing economy with the automotive industry being a major contributor. In the north, BMW's Hams Hall plant employs over 1,000 people, while Jaguar Land Rover and Aston Martin Lagonda have headquarters, including a giant advanced production creation centre, at Gaydon in the south. Warwickshire is also establishing a growing reputation as a global hub of the video game industry . One of Britain's oldest still-running game studios, Codemasters , has operated out of Southam for decades;
1890-726: A very advanced civilisation in El Tajin near Mexico City, in Mexico. A detailed study of the composition of the aggregate and binder show that the aggregate was pumice and the binder was a pozzolanic cement made with volcanic ash and lime. Any preservation of this knowledge in literature from the Middle Ages is unknown, but medieval masons and some military engineers actively used hydraulic cement in structures such as canals , fortresses, harbors , and shipbuilding facilities . A mixture of lime mortar and aggregate with brick or stone facing material
1995-463: A £130 million UK Battery Industrialisation Centre (UKBIC) based in Coventry. Tourism is also a key area of employment with country parks, rural areas and historic towns across the county. It generates a total business turnover of over £1 billion to the local economy and supports almost 20,000 jobs. Main Warwickshire towns: Smaller towns and large villages include: Warwickshire came into being as
2100-725: Is Leamington , who play in the National League North , the sixth tier of English football. A level below, in the Southern Football League Premier Division Central, are Nuneaton Borough and Stratford Town . Other clubs include Rugby Town , Bedworth United , Southam United , Racing Club Warwick , Coleshill Town , Atherstone Town and Nuneaton Griff ; all of these are affiliated to the Birmingham FA . Ceremonial counties of England Ceremonial counties , formally known as counties for
2205-422: Is hydraulic cement , which hardens by hydration of the clinker minerals when water is added. Hydraulic cements (such as Portland cement) are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides, the four main mineral phases of the clinker, abbreviated in the cement chemist notation , being: The silicates are responsible for the cement's mechanical properties — the tricalcium aluminate and brownmillerite are essential for
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#17328373875682310-512: Is pozzolanic , so that ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement. Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan , but also includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries where volcanic ashes are available (e.g., Italy, Chile, Mexico,
2415-520: Is a major emitter of global carbon dioxide emissions . The lime reacts with silicon dioxide to produce dicalcium silicate and tricalcium silicate. The lime also reacts with aluminium oxide to form tricalcium aluminate. In the last step, calcium oxide, aluminium oxide, and ferric oxide react together to form brownmillerite. A less common form of cement is non-hydraulic cement , such as slaked lime ( calcium oxide mixed with water), which hardens by carbonation in contact with carbon dioxide , which
2520-569: Is about 4.4 billion tonnes per year (2021, estimation), of which about half is made in China, followed by India and Vietnam. The cement production process is responsible for nearly 8% (2018) of global CO 2 emissions, which includes heating raw materials in a cement kiln by fuel combustion and release of CO 2 stored in the calcium carbonate (calcination process). Its hydrated products, such as concrete, gradually reabsorb atmospheric CO 2 (carbonation process), compensating for approximately 30% of
2625-514: Is based in Edgbaston , in Birmingham, observe the historic county boundaries. The flag of the historic county was registered in October 2016. It is a design of a bear and ragged staff on a red field, which is long associated with the county. Coventry is effectively in the centre of the Warwickshire area, and still has strong ties with the county. Coventry and Warwickshire are sometimes treated as
2730-417: Is completely evaporated (this process is technically called setting ), the carbonation starts: This reaction is slow, because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the air is low (~ 0.4 millibar). The carbonation reaction requires that the dry cement be exposed to air, so the slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement and cannot be used under water. This process is called the lime cycle . Perhaps
2835-555: Is constantly fed into a rotary kiln, it allowed a continuous manufacturing process to replace lower capacity batch production processes. Calcium aluminate cements were patented in 1908 in France by Jules Bied for better resistance to sulfates. Also in 1908, Thomas Edison experimented with pre-cast concrete in houses in Union, N.J. In the US, after World War One, the long curing time of at least
2940-447: Is made of 57 councillors, who decide upon the budget and appoints the council leader. The council leader selects 8 councillors and together they form the cabinet. The Leader assigns portfolios on which cabinet members make decisions. Key decisions are made by the whole cabinet while others are made only by the portfolio holders for relevant areas. In addition many small towns and villages have their own town council or parish council as
3045-525: Is mildly undulating countryside (rising to 178m / 581 ft near Hartshill ) and the northernmost village, No Man's Heath , is only 34 miles (55 km) south of the Peak District National Park 's southernmost point. The south of the county is largely rural and sparsely populated, and includes a very small area of the Cotswolds , at the border with northeast Gloucestershire. The plain between
3150-667: Is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer. Masonry cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos , and must not be used in concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing Portland clinker and a number of other ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated lime, air entrainers, retarders, waterproofers, and coloring agents. They are formulated to yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of masonry cement in North America are plastic cements and stucco cements. These are designed to produce
3255-403: Is present in the air (~ 412 vol. ppm ≃ 0.04 vol. %). First calcium oxide (lime) is produced from calcium carbonate ( limestone or chalk ) by calcination at temperatures above 825 °C (1,517 °F) for about 10 hours at atmospheric pressure : The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) by mixing it with water to make slaked lime ( calcium hydroxide ): Once the excess water
Warwickshire - Misplaced Pages Continue
3360-483: Is responsible for early strength in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made by William Aspdin in the early 1840s: This was what we call today "modern" Portland cement. Because of the air of mystery with which William Aspdin surrounded his product, others ( e.g., Vicat and Johnson) have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent analysis of both his concrete and raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's product made at Northfleet , Kent
3465-539: Is the headquarters of the North Warwickshire district, Nuneaton is headquarters of the Nuneaton and Bedworth District and Leamington Spa is the headquarters of the Warwick district. Warwickshire County Council , based in Warwick is elected every four years. The last election was the held on 6 May 2021 and resulted in a Conservative majority. The county council operates a cabinet-style council . The county council
3570-565: Is the likely school of William Shakespeare , Rugby School was founded in 1567 and Warwick School was founded c. 914 AD , which makes it the oldest surviving boys' school in the country. Rugby School is one of nine schools that were defined as the "great" English public schools by the Public Schools Act 1868 , and is a member of the Rugby Group . Rugby School , Princethorpe College and Warwick School are HMC schools, with
3675-474: Is the most widely used material in existence and is behind only water as the planet's most-consumed resource. Cements used in construction are usually inorganic , often lime - or calcium silicate -based, and are either hydraulic or less commonly non-hydraulic , depending on the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water (see hydraulic and non-hydraulic lime plaster ). Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement ) set and become adhesive through
3780-438: Is to make concrete. Portland cement may be grey or white . Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement producers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at the concrete mixing plant. Portland blast-furnace slag cement , or blast furnace cement (ASTM C595 and EN 197-1 nomenclature respectively), contains up to 95% ground granulated blast furnace slag , with
3885-579: The Courts Act 1971 which abolished the quarter sessions and assizes . Sheriffs continued to be appointed for each county despite the loss of the judicial functions. Certain towns and cities were counties corporate appointing their own sheriffs. The counties corporate were all included in a wider county for lieutenancy purposes, except the City of London which had its own lieutenants. The geographical counties were relatively stable between 1889 and 1965. There were occasional boundary changes, notably following
3990-474: The Isle of Portland , Dorset, England. However, Aspdins' cement was nothing like modern Portland cement but was a first step in its development, called a proto-Portland cement . Joseph Aspdins' son William Aspdin had left his father's company and in his cement manufacturing apparently accidentally produced calcium silicates in the 1840s, a middle step in the development of Portland cement. William Aspdin's innovation
4095-767: The Latin word for village, vicus . Near Warwick are the villages of Long Itchington and Bishop's Itchington along the River Itchen . During the Middle Ages Warwickshire was dominated by Coventry , at the time one of the most important cities in England because of its prominence in the textiles trade. Warwickshire played a key part in the English Civil War , with the Battle of Edgehill and other skirmishes taking place in
4200-569: The Lieutenancies Act 1997 . When Herefordshire, Rutland and Worcestershire were re-established as local government counties in 1997 and 1998 no amendment was made to the 1997 Act regarding them, allowing them to also serve as their own lieutenancy areas. The lieutenancy counties have not changed in area since 1998, although the definitions of which local government counties are included in each lieutenancy have been amended to reflect new unitary authorities being created since 1997. In legislation
4305-675: The Local Government Act 1894 which said that parishes and districts were no longer allowed to straddle county boundaries. After that most boundary changes were primarily to accommodate urban areas which were growing across county boundaries, such as when Caversham was transferred from Oxfordshire to Berkshire as a result of being absorbed into the County Borough of Reading in 1911. The lieutenancies and judicial / shrieval counties were defined as groups of administrative counties and county boroughs, and so were automatically adjusted if
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4410-506: The Secretary of State for Housing, Communities and Local Government . In the state sector, children start school in the school year in which they turn five. They stay at primary school for seven years (although this varies even within the county, as some people have previously gone for four years and then spent another four years at a 'middle school') until they are eleven. Warwickshire is one of 36 local authorities in England to still maintain
4515-662: The West Midlands County Council was abolished and Birmingham, Coventry, and Solihull became effective unitary authorities . However, the West Midlands county name has not been altogether abolished, and still exists for ceremonial purposes . Since 2016, it has been used as part of the West Midlands Combined Authority , with powers over transport, economic development and regeneration. Some organisations, such as Warwickshire County Cricket Club , which
4620-450: The county town is Warwick . The county is largely rural; it has an area of 763 sq mi (1,980 km) and a population of 571,010. After Nuneaton (88,813), the largest settlements are Rugby (78,125), Leamington Spa (50,923), Warwick (37,267), Bedworth (31,090) and Stratford-upon-Avon (30,495). For local government purposes, Warwickshire is a non-metropolitan county with five districts. The county historically included
4725-549: The grammar school system in two districts: Stratford-on-Avon and Rugby. In the final year of primary school, children are given the opportunity of sitting the 11-plus exam to compete for a place at one of the 5 grammar schools: Stratford-upon-Avon Grammar School for Girls ; King Edward VI School , a boys' school from year 7–11 with a mixed Sixth-Form; Lawrence Sheriff Grammar School for Boys ; Rugby High School for Girls and Alcester Grammar School (mixed). The Warwickshire 11+ selection test consists of two papers, each containing
4830-445: The militia , overseen by a sheriff . From Tudor times onwards a lord-lieutenant was appointed to oversee the militia, taking some of the sheriff's functions. Certain towns and cities were counties corporate , which gave them the right to appoint their own sheriffs and hold their own courts. Whilst in theory the counties corporate could have had separate lieutenants appointed for them, in practice all of them except London shared
4935-517: The Art to Prepare a Good Mortar published in St. Petersburg . A few years later in 1825, he published another book, which described various methods of making cement and concrete, and the benefits of cement in the construction of buildings and embankments. Portland cement , the most common type of cement in general use around the world as a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar , stucco , and non-speciality grout ,
5040-653: The City of London, which has two sheriffs ). The Lieutenancies Act 1997 defines counties for the purposes of lieutenancies in terms of metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties (created by the Local Government Act 1972 , as amended) as well as Greater London and the Isles of Scilly (which lie outside the 1972 Act's system). Although the term is not used in the act, these counties are sometimes known as "ceremonial counties". The counties are defined in Schedule 1, paragraphs 2–5 as amended (in 2009, 2019 and 2023). Generally, each time
5145-635: The Headmaster from each school attending the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference . There are no universities per se in Warwickshire, though the University of Warwick forms part of the border with Warwickshire on the southern edge of the city of Coventry. Some areas of the University of Warwick are within the boundaries of Warwickshire including Lakeside Village and Warwick Business School The university has
5250-728: The Lark Stoke or Sutton Coldfield TV transmitters. BBC Local Radio for the county is served by BBC CWR which broadcast from its studios in Coventry . However, the North Warwickshire area is served by BBC Radio WM . County-wide commercial radio stations are Capital Mid-Counties , Hits Radio Coventry & Warwickshire , Fresh (Coventry & Warwickshire) , Heart West Midlands and Greatest Hits Radio Midlands . Warwickshire's rural roads, canal towpaths and historic towns are increasingly popular with cycling enthusiasts. Its reputation as
5355-526: The New York Commissioner of Highways to construct an experimental section of highway near New Paltz, New York , using one sack of Rosendale to six sacks of Portland cement. It was a success, and for decades the Rosendale-Portland cement blend was used in concrete highway and concrete bridge construction. Cementitious materials have been used as a nuclear waste immobilizing matrix for more than
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#17328373875685460-457: The Philippines), these cements are often the most common form in use. The maximum replacement ratios are generally defined as for Portland-fly ash cement. Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high strengths, and cements containing 5–20% silica fume are occasionally produced, with 10% being the maximum allowed addition under EN 197–1. However, silica fume
5565-742: The Roman road called Watling Street became the boundary between the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia and the Danelaw . The county was relatively settled during the rest of the Middle Ages and Early Modern period; Coventry developed as a major centre of the textiles trade. The playwright William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, living much of his life there, and the Gunpowder Plot of 1605
5670-681: The Trident Centre in Warwick). There are also six independent senior schools within the county, namely: Rugby School , Warwick School , Princethorpe College , Kingsley School , Arnold Lodge School (both in Leamington Spa ), and the King's High School For Girls (in Warwick ). A number of the Warwickshire grammar and independent schools have historical significance. King Edward VI School, Stratford-upon-Avon still uses 13th century school buildings and
5775-437: The West Midlands county in 1974 and are now metropolitan authorities in themselves. According to the 2011 United Kingdom census , the largest towns (+20,000 pop.) in Warwickshire were: Nuneaton (pop. 81,900), Rugby (70,600), Leamington Spa (49,500), Bedworth (32,500), Warwick (30,100), Stratford (25,500) and Kenilworth (22,400) Much of western Warwickshire, including the area now forming part of Coventry, Solihull and Birmingham,
5880-603: The absence of pozzolanic ash, the Romans used powdered brick or pottery as a substitute and they may have used crushed tiles for this purpose before discovering natural sources near Rome. The huge dome of the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla are examples of ancient structures made from these concretes, many of which still stand. The vast system of Roman aqueducts also made extensive use of hydraulic cement. Roman concrete
5985-623: The air. It is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting. The word "cement" can be traced back to the Ancient Roman term opus caementicium , used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder , were later referred to as cementum , cimentum , cäment , and cement . In modern times, organic polymers are sometimes used as cements in concrete. World production of cement
6090-463: The areas to which high sheriffs are appointed. High sheriffs are the monarch's judicial representative in an area. The ceremonial counties are defined in the Lieutenancies Act 1997 , and the shrieval counties in the Sheriffs Act 1887 . Both are defined as groups of local government counties. The historic counties of England were originally used as areas for administering justice and organising
6195-516: The available hydraulic limes, visiting their production sites, and noted that the "hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the clay content of the limestone used to make it. Smeaton was a civil engineer by profession, and took the idea no further. In the South Atlantic seaboard of the United States, tabby relying on the oyster-shell middens of earlier Native American populations
6300-451: The boundaries of those administrative areas changed. There were two exceptions to this rule (one only briefly). The county borough of Great Yarmouth straddled Norfolk and Suffolk for judicial and lieutenancy purposes until 1891 when it was placed entirely in Norfolk for those purposes. The county borough of Stockport straddled Cheshire and Lancashire for judicial and lieutenancy purposes - it
6405-433: The ceremonial counties have not changed since 1998. These are the 48 counties for the purposes of the lieutenancies in England, as currently defined: After the creation of county councils in 1889, there were counties for judicial and shrieval purposes, counties for lieutenancy purposes, and administrative counties and county boroughs for the purposes of local government. The 1888 Act used the term 'entire county' to refer to
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#17328373875686510-506: The city of Coventry and the area to its west, including Sutton Coldfield , Solihull and a significant part of Birmingham , including the city centre . Warwickshire is a flat, lowland county, but its far south contains part of the Cotswolds AONB . The River Avon , a major tributary of the Severn , flows through the south of the county. The region was part of Roman Britain and later
6615-478: The county councils. In counties where the quarter sessions had been held separately for different parts of the county, such as the Parts of Lincolnshire , each part was given its own county council. The area administered by a county council was called an administrative county . As such, some of the judicial or lieutenancy counties comprised several administrative counties and county boroughs. The Ordnance Survey adopted
6720-658: The county. During the Industrial Revolution Warwickshire became one of Britain's foremost industrial counties, with the large industrial cities of Birmingham and Coventry within its boundaries. Like most English shire counties, Warwickshire has a two-tier local government of a county council , and five districts each having a district or borough council. These districts are: North Warwickshire , Nuneaton and Bedworth , Rugby , Stratford , and Warwick (see map). The county and district councils are responsible for providing different services. Atherstone
6825-470: The county. It will pass south of Southam , then between Kenilworth and Coventry, before running into the West Midlands towards Birmingham. Coventry Airport is located in the Warwickshire village of Baginton . Canals and navigable waterways in Warwickshire include: The county is covered by BBC West Midlands and ITV Central from its studios in Birmingham . Television signals are received from either
6930-556: The creation of the Lord Lieutenant of Greater London and of the Lord Lieutenant of Huntingdon and Peterborough . Cement A cement is a binder , a chemical substance used for construction that sets , hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel ( aggregate ) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel , produces concrete . Concrete
7035-420: The development of new cements. Most famous was Parker's " Roman cement ". This was developed by James Parker in the 1780s, and finally patented in 1796. It was, in fact, nothing like material used by the Romans, but was a "natural cement" made by burning septaria – nodules that are found in certain clay deposits, and that contain both clay minerals and calcium carbonate . The burnt nodules were ground to
7140-436: The district and borough councils who commissioned their own report, which argued in favour of Warwickshire being split into two unitary authorities, one for the north of the county, covering the current districts of North Warwickshire, Nuneaton and Bedworth and Rugby, and one for the south of the county, covering Warwick and Stratford districts. In September 2020, it was agreed that both proposals would be sent for consideration to
7245-607: The earliest known occurrence of cement is from twelve million years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned by natural causes. These ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. Cement, chemically speaking, is a product that includes lime as the primary binding ingredient, but is far from the first material used for cementation. The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen (asphalt or pitch ) to bind together burnt brick or alabaster slabs. In Ancient Egypt , stone blocks were cemented together with
7350-461: The first decade of the nineteenth century. Vicat went on to devise a method of combining chalk and clay into an intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an "artificial cement" in 1817 considered the "principal forerunner" of Portland cement and "...Edgar Dobbs of Southwark patented a cement of this kind in 1811." In Russia, Egor Cheliev created a new binder by mixing lime and clay. His results were published in 1822 in his book A Treatise on
7455-402: The formation of the liquid phase during the sintering ( firing ) process of clinker at high temperature in the kiln . The chemistry of these reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research. First, the limestone (calcium carbonate) is burned to remove its carbon, producing lime (calcium oxide) in what is known as a calcination reaction. This single chemical reaction
7560-461: The greater " Silicon Spa " area, including Southam, Royal Leamington Spa and Warwick , is now home to dozens of game studios which employ a combined total of over 2,000 highly skilled people, equating to more than 10% of the UK's games development workforce. Increasingly the region is establishing itself as one of the leading areas in battery technology with major developments announced in 2021 that include
7665-432: The group of administrative counties and county boroughs created within each judicial county. The Ordnance Survey used the term 'geographical county' to refer to this wider definition of the county. Yorkshire had three lieutenancies, one for each riding, but was a single judicial county with one sheriff, and was counted as one geographical county by Ordnance Survey. The counties lost their judicial functions in 1972 under
7770-426: The initial CO 2 emissions. Cement materials can be classified into two distinct categories: hydraulic cements and non-hydraulic cements according to their respective setting and hardening mechanisms. Hydraulic cement setting and hardening involves hydration reactions and therefore requires water, while non-hydraulic cements only react with a gas and can directly set under air. By far the most common type of cement
7875-435: The judicial counties. The exception was Yorkshire, which was one judicial county, having a single Sheriff of Yorkshire , but from 1660 onwards each of Yorkshire's three ridings had its own lieutenant. In 1889 elected county councils were established under the Local Government Act 1888 , taking over the administrative functions of the quarter sessions . Certain towns and cities were made county boroughs , independent from
7980-474: The lieutenancy areas are described as 'counties for the purposes of the lieutenancies'; the informal term 'ceremonial county' has come into usage for such areas, appearing in parliamentary debates as early as 1996. The shrieval counties are defined by the Sheriffs Act 1887 as amended, in a similar way to the lieutenancies defined by the Lieutenancies Act 1997. Each has a high sheriff appointed (except
8085-403: The lieutenants were appointed to the new versions of the counties. The counties of Avon , Cleveland and Humberside , each of which had only been created in 1974, were all abolished in 1996. They were divided into unitary authorities ; legally these are also non-metropolitan counties. As part of these reforms, it was decided to define counties for the purposes of lieutenancy differently from
8190-533: The local government counties in some cases, effectively reverting to the pre-1974 arrangements for lieutenancies. Whereas the lieutenancies had been defined slightly differently from the shrieval counties prior to 1974, it was decided in 1996 that the high sheriffs and lieutenants should be appointed to the same areas. Regulations amending the Sheriffs Act 1887 and specifying the areas for the appointment of lieutenants were accordingly brought in with effect from 1 April 1996. The regulations were then consolidated into
8295-404: The low pH (8.5–9.5) of its pore water) limited its use as reinforced concrete for building construction. The next development in the manufacture of Portland cement was the introduction of the rotary kiln . It produced a clinker mixture that was both stronger, because more alite (C 3 S) is formed at the higher temperature it achieved (1450 °C), and more homogeneous. Because raw material
8400-428: The main functions of the counties were the administrative functions of local government. Despite the loss of their functions, sheriffs continued to be appointed to the former judicial counties up until 1974. In 1974, administrative counties and county boroughs were abolished, and a new system of metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties was introduced instead. Sheriffs were renamed 'high sheriffs' and both they and
8505-470: The most local tier of local government. Warwickshire is policed by the Warwickshire Police . The force is governed by the elected Warwickshire Police and Crime Commissioner . In August 2020 Warwickshire County Council put forward proposals for the five district and borough councils in the county to be abolished and replaced with a single county-wide unitary authority . This prompted a backlash from
8610-414: The north and centre of the county. The market towns of northern and eastern Warwickshire were industrialised in the 19th century, and include Atherstone , Bedworth , Coleshill , Nuneaton , and Rugby . Major industries included coal mining , textiles , engineering and cement production, but heavy industry is in decline, being replaced by distribution centres, light to medium industry and services. Of
8715-548: The northeast, Staffordshire to the northwest, Worcestershire and the West Midlands to the west, Northamptonshire to the east and southeast, Gloucestershire to the southwest and Oxfordshire to the south. The northern tip of the county is only 3 miles (5 km) from the Derbyshire border. An average-sized English county covering an area of 1,975 km (760 sq mi), it runs some 56 miles (90 km) north to south. The majority of Warwickshire's population live in
8820-443: The northern and eastern towns, Nuneaton and Rugby (as the birthplace of rugby football ) are best known outside of Warwickshire. The prosperous towns of central and western Warwickshire, including Leamington Spa , Warwick , Stratford-upon-Avon , Kenilworth , Alcester , Southam and Wellesbourne , harbour tourism, gaming and services as major employment sectors. The north of the county, bordering Staffordshire and Leicestershire,
8925-465: The other materials in the mix to form calcium silicates and other cementitious compounds. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum ( CaSO 4 ·2H 2 O ) into a powder to make ordinary Portland cement , the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC). Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete , mortar , and most non-specialty grout . The most common use for Portland cement
9030-546: The outlying Cotswolds and the Edgehill escarpment is known as the Vale of Red Horse . The only town in the south of Warwickshire is Shipston-on-Stour . The highest point in the county, at 261 m (856 ft), is Ebrington Hill , again on the border with Gloucestershire, grid reference SP187426 at the county's southwest extremity. There are no cities in Warwickshire since both Coventry and Birmingham were incorporated into
9135-467: The point that some states stopped building highways and roads with cement. Bertrain H. Wait, an engineer whose company had helped construct the New York City's Catskill Aqueduct , was impressed with the durability of Rosendale cement, and came up with a blend of both Rosendale and Portland cements that had the good attributes of both. It was highly durable and had a much faster setting time. Wait convinced
9240-421: The purposes of the lieutenancies , are areas of England to which lord-lieutenants are appointed. They are one of the two main legal definitions of the counties of England in modern usage, the other being the counties for the purposes of local government legislation. A lord-lieutenant is the monarch 's representative in an area. Shrieval counties have the same boundaries and serve a similar purpose, being
9345-447: The rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high ultimate strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements. Portland-fly ash cement contains up to 40% fly ash under ASTM standards (ASTM C595), or 35% under EN standards (EN 197–1). The fly ash
9450-463: The rest of Warwickshire. The town of Tamworth was historically divided between Warwickshire and Staffordshire , but since 1888 has been fully in Staffordshire. Warwickshire contains a large expanse of green belt area, surrounding the West Midlands and Coventry conurbations, and was first drawn up from the 1950s. All the county's districts contain some portion of the belt. Warwickshire has
9555-540: The rivers Avon and Leam flow. Areas historically part of Warwickshire include Coventry , Solihull , Sutton Coldfield , and some of Birmingham including the city centre , Aston , Castle Bromwich , Digbeth , Edgbaston , Erdington , Hodge Hill , Ladywood , Nechells , Saltley , Shard End , Sheldon , Small Heath and Sparkbrook . These areas also became part of the metropolitan county of West Midlands (and Sutton Coldfield became part of Birmingham) following local government re-organisation in 1974 . In 1986
9660-407: The sea, they set hard underwater. The Greeks used volcanic tuff from the island of Thera as their pozzolan and the Romans used crushed volcanic ash (activated aluminium silicates ) with lime. This mixture could set under water, increasing its resistance to corrosion like rust. The material was called pozzolana from the town of Pozzuoli , west of Naples where volcanic ash was extracted. In
9765-528: The term 'geographical county' to describe the widest definition of the county. In most cases this was the lieutenancy county; the exceptions were Yorkshire, where the judicial county was larger on account of it being split into its three ridings for lieutenancy purposes, and the County of London where the administrative county was larger on account of the City of London and the rest of the county being separate for both judicial and lieutenancy purposes. The counties lost their judicial functions in 1972, after which
9870-534: Was Kenilworth . The Leamington to Coventry line passes through the town, but the station was closed as part of the Beeching cuts . Kenilworth railway station was rebuilt and opened in April 2018, with an hourly service to Coventry and to Leamington provided by West Midlands Trains . The new High Speed 2 (HS2) line is a long-distance route that is being constructed through Warwickshire; however, there will be no stations in
9975-444: Was a true alite-based cement. However, Aspdin's methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for establishing the chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson established the importance of sintering the mix in the kiln . In the US the first large-scale use of cement was Rosendale cement , a natural cement mined from a massive deposit of dolomite discovered in the early 19th century near Rosendale, New York . Rosendale cement
10080-479: Was counterintuitive for manufacturers of "artificial cements", because they required more lime in the mix (a problem for his father), a much higher kiln temperature (and therefore more fuel), and the resulting clinker was very hard and rapidly wore down the millstones , which were the only available grinding technology of the time. Manufacturing costs were therefore considerably higher, but the product set reasonably slowly and developed strength quickly, thus opening up
10185-500: Was covered by the ancient Forest of Arden (most of which was cut down to provide fuel for industrialisation). Thus the names of a number of places in the central-western part of Warwickshire end with the phrase "-in-Arden", such as Henley-in-Arden , Hampton-in-Arden and Tanworth-in-Arden . The remaining area, not part of the forest, was called the Felden – from fielden - and is now an undulating and agricultural landscape, through which
10290-418: Was developed in England in the mid 19th century, and usually originates from limestone . James Frost produced what he called "British cement" in a similar manner around the same time, but did not obtain a patent until 1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a similar material, which he called Portland cement , because the render made from it was in color similar to the prestigious Portland stone quarried on
10395-494: Was extremely popular for the foundation of buildings ( e.g. , Statue of Liberty , Capitol Building , Brooklyn Bridge ) and lining water pipes. Sorel cement , or magnesia-based cement, was patented in 1867 by the Frenchman Stanislas Sorel . It was stronger than Portland cement but its poor water resistance (leaching) and corrosive properties ( pitting corrosion due to the presence of leachable chloride anions and
10500-622: Was formalized by French and British engineers in the 18th century. John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of cements while planning the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) in the English Channel now known as Smeaton's Tower . He needed a hydraulic mortar that would set and develop some strength in the twelve-hour period between successive high tides . He performed experiments with combinations of different limestones and additives including trass and pozzolanas and did exhaustive market research on
10605-565: Was placed entirely in Lancashire for judicial purposes in 1956 but continued to straddle the two counties for lieutenancy purposes until 1974. More significant changes to the geographical counties were made in 1965 with the creation of Greater London and of Huntingdon and Peterborough , which resulted in the abolition of the offices of Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex , Lord Lieutenant of the County of London , and Lord Lieutenant of Huntingdonshire and
10710-521: Was planned near Snitterfield . During the Industrial Revolution, the Warwickshire coalfield was exploited and Coventry and the west of the county became manufacturing centres; Leamington Spa developed as a tourist resort at the same time. The Victorian novelist Mary Ann Evans, better known as George Eliot , was born just outside Nuneaton in 1819. Warwickshire is bordered by Leicestershire to
10815-405: Was rarely used on the outside of buildings. The normal technique was to use brick facing material as the formwork for an infill of mortar mixed with an aggregate of broken pieces of stone, brick, potsherds , recycled chunks of concrete, or other building rubble. Lightweight concrete was designed and used for the construction of structural elements by the pre-Columbian builders who lived in
10920-407: Was used in house construction from the 1730s to the 1860s. In Britain particularly, good quality building stone became ever more expensive during a period of rapid growth, and it became a common practice to construct prestige buildings from the new industrial bricks, and to finish them with a stucco to imitate stone. Hydraulic limes were favored for this, but the need for a fast set time encouraged
11025-666: Was used in the Eastern Roman Empire as well as in the West into the Gothic period . The German Rhineland continued to use hydraulic mortar throughout the Middle Ages, having local pozzolana deposits called trass . Tabby is a building material made from oyster shell lime, sand, and whole oyster shells to form a concrete. The Spanish introduced it to the Americas in the sixteenth century. The technical knowledge for making hydraulic cement
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