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76-695: In 2002, the Secretary of the Interior granted recognition to the Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation (EPTN) after approving a union between the Eastern Pequot and Paucatuck Eastern Pequot which had submitted separate petitions for recognition. In 2005, the Department of Interior revoked recognition after Bureau of Indian Affairs review. The federal government had not terminated recognition of any tribes since

152-657: A "fair review" of their petitions would demonstrate that there was one tribe. Some supporters of the Paucatuck contended that the Eastern Pequot wanted a casino gaming deal, although both groups denied interest in a casino. In March 2000, the BIA recommended recognition of the tribes in its preliminary finding. During its final review, the BIA encouraged the two groups to reunite, noting that the historical evidence showed that they were members of one tribe with common ancestors and history on

228-569: A 400-acre (1.6 km ) reservation on the west side of the river. It includes a wilderness habitat for rattlesnakes , ruffed grouse , and other animals. At one time, the Schaghticoke tribe owned land from the Massachusetts border to the Ten Mile River . European-American agents, appointed by the state, sold off more than 2,000 acres of tribal land between 1801 and 1911 without approval by

304-551: A Native American tribe of the Eastern Woodlands who historically consisted of Mahican , Potatuck , Weantinock , Tunxis , Podunk , and their descendants, peoples indigenous to what is now New York, Connecticut , and Massachusetts . The remnant tribes amalgamated in the area near the Connecticut-New York border after many losses, including the sale of some Schaghticoke and members of neighboring tribes into slavery in

380-727: A Reconsidered Final Determination Denying Federal Acknowledgment of the STN. That same year, the IBIA also remanded the Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation's (EPTN) positive final determination of federal acknowledgment to the OFA. The result was the same, the Schaghticoke experience – OFA issued a determination denying the federal acknowledgment of EPTN. STN appealed the BIA ruling, but in August 2009, federal Judge Peter Dorsey upheld it. The STN sued for relief in Federal court, but

456-537: A difficult task as the BIA is known by many Indians as playing a police role in which the U.S. government historically dictated to tribes and their members what they could and could not do in accordance with treaties signed by both. Commissioners and assistant secretaries of Indian Affairs include: Schaghticoke Tribal Nation Schaghticoke Indian Tribe approximately 65+/- The Schaghticoke ( / ˈ s k æ t ɪ k oʊ k / SKAT -i-kohk or / ˈ s k æ t ɪ k ʊ k / SKAT -i-kuuk ) are

532-469: A federally recognized tribe possessed. The bills excluded any splinter groups, political factions, and any groups formed after December 31, 2002. In 2013 the Bureau was greatly affected by sequestration funding cuts of $ 800 million, which particularly affected the already-underfunded Indian Health Service . The Bureau of Indian Affairs has been sued four times in class action overtime lawsuits brought by

608-416: A few private landowners, and the federal government. Following the Bureau of Indian Affairs' re-determined negative decision and resultant reversal of the STN's federal acknowledgment, the U.S. District Court dismissed the land claim case in 2010. "In ruling on the cross-motions for summary judgment, the court concluded that the BIA's final determination was 'reasonable based on the evidence before it,' and that

684-471: A group of around 500  American Indians with the AIM took over the BIA building, the culmination of their Trail of Broken Treaties walk. They intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards. They occupied the Department of Interior headquarters from November 3 to 9, 1972. The BIA

760-469: A lesser amount of land, threatening to close access to the Trail through the reservation. In October 2010 a federal court granted the defendants' request to dismiss the case, based on the argument of collateral estoppel . The judge held that, as the BIA had determined in 2005 that STN did not meet the criteria for federal recognition as a tribe, it could not establish a prima facie case for land rights. As it

836-569: A major class action case related to trust lands, was settled in December 2009. The suit was filed against the U.S. Department of Interior, of which the BIA is a part. A major responsibility has been the management of the Indian trust accounts. This was a class-action lawsuit regarding the federal government's management and accounting of more than 300,000 individual American Indian and Alaska Native trust accounts. A settlement fund totaling $ 3.4 billion

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912-534: A reservation for this tribe." The Eastern Pequots are descended from those Pequots who escaped from the Narragansetts and returned to their traditional territory. In 1683, they were given a reservation on Lantern Hill in North Stonington, Connecticut by the colonial government. Today it is approximately 224 acres. Those Pequots who returned from Mohegan supervision in the west were led by Harmon Garrett, and

988-519: Is a United States federal agency within the Department of the Interior . It is responsible for implementing federal laws and policies related to Native Americans and Alaska Natives , and administering and managing over 55,700,000 acres (225,000 km ) of reservations held in trust by the U.S. federal government for indigenous tribes . It renders services to roughly 2 million indigenous Americans across 574 federally recognized tribes. The BIA

1064-524: Is a cross section of Bradleys, Coggswells, Harrises and Kilsons in each of these three groups (STN, SIT and the unaffiliated) There also is a small group of people of doubtful heritage who claim to be Schaghticoke and claim to govern themselves with the SIT constitution. The Schaghticoke Indian Tribe located in Kent, Connecticut has 110 members. In 1724, colonial settlers from Fairfield, Connecticut , received approval from

1140-618: Is governed by a director and overseen by the Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs, who answers to the Secretary of the Interior . The BIA works with tribal governments to help administer law enforcement and justice; promote development in agriculture, infrastructure, and the economy; enhance tribal governance; manage natural resources; and generally advance the quality of life in tribal communities. Educational services are provided by Bureau of Indian Education —the only other agency under

1216-662: Is located near the New York border within the boundaries of Kent in Litchfield County , to the west of the Housatonic River . The land is held in trust by the state for the tribe. In 1986, the tribe split. One group maintained the name Schaghticoke Indian Tribe (SIT), and the other identifies as the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation (STN). The Schaghticoke people have a long history of political relationships with both

1292-436: Is to be distributed to class members. This is to compensate for claims that prior U.S. officials had mismanaged the administration of Indian trust assets. In addition, the settlement establishes a $ 2 billion fund enabling federally recognized tribes to voluntarily buy back and consolidate fractionated land interests. The bureau is currently trying to evolve from a supervisory to an advisory role. However, this has been

1368-617: The American Indian Movement  (AIM) worried the U.S. government; the FBI responded both overtly and covertly (by creating COINTELPRO and other programs) to suppress possible uprisings among native peoples. As a branch of the U.S. government with personnel on Indian reservations , BIA police were involved in political actions such as: The occupation of BIA headquarters in Washington, D.C., in 1972 : On November 3, 1972,

1444-655: The Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation and the Golden Hill Paugussett Indian Nation ) who were denied under the Bush administration, which had concerns about casinos being opened by tribes. The Schaghticoke filed a land claims action, seeking restoration of a total of 2,100 acres (850 ha). Most of the land in question is undeveloped. It is owned by the Kent School , Connecticut Light & Power ,

1520-647: The Federation of Indian Service Employees , a union which represents the federal civilian employees of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Bureau of Indian Education, the assistant secretary of Indian affairs and the Office of the Special Trustee for Indian Affairs. The grievances allege widespread violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act and claim tens of millions of dollars in damages. Cobell vs. Salazar ,

1596-614: The Housatonic River , which is polluted with PCBs manufactured by Monsanto and put into the river by General Electric from their electrical transformer factory in Pittsfield, Massachusetts . This limits the use of the river and presents health risks to those who live along river, and they can not eat the fish from the river. In 1981 the Schaghticoke Indian Tribe (SIT) filed a petition for federal recognition. The tribal genealogist had documented that four family lineages form

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1672-653: The United States Congress due to anti-gaming sentiments in the Northeast , which would make passage unlikely at this time. On May 28, 2003 Donald Trump filed a lawsuit against the reunited tribes, claiming he had been excluded from their development plans. During the split, he had contracted with the smaller Pawcatuck Eastern Pequot faction. The reunited tribe selected a different developer for their deal. Bureau of Indian Affairs The Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ), also known as Indian Affairs ( IA ),

1748-521: The United States Government Fur Trade Factory System . The post was held by Thomas L. McKenney from 1816 until the abolition of the factory system in 1822. The government licensed traders to have some control in Indian territories and gain a share of the lucrative trade. The abolition of the factory system left a vacuum within the U.S. government regarding Native American relations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs

1824-740: The "Coggswell Group," a group of individuals described as "descendants of the historical tribe known today as the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation;" (2) the Town of Cornwall, Connecticut; (3) the State of Connecticut together with the Towns of Kent, Bethel, New Fairfield, Newtown, Ridgefield, Greenwich, Sherman, Westport, Wilton, and Weston as well as the Cities of Danbury and Stamford; the Kent School Corporation;

1900-575: The 1790 Non-Intercourse Act. At the end of November 2012, the 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals set February 25, 2013, as the deadline for the parties to submit their briefs in the land claims case. In 2016 the Shaghticoke Tribal Nation filed suit in a Connecticut Superior Court against the state of Connecticut regarding tribal land that had been sold by the state beginning in 1801. In 2022, the Connecticut Appellate Court upheld

1976-569: The 1831 court case Cherokee Nation v. Georgia . The Supreme Court originally refused to hear the case, because the Cherokee nation was not an independent state and could not litigate in the federal court. It was not until the court case Worcester v. Georgia , when Chief Justice John Marshall allowed Native American tribes to be recognized as "domestic dependent nations." These court cases set precedent for future treaties, as more Native tribes were recognized as domestic and dependent nations. This period

2052-665: The 1930s, the tribe began to be divided over questions of identity, aggravated by competition for resources and limited space on the Eastern Pequot Reservation. There were racially based conflicts between darker- and lighter-skinned descendants among both the Eastern Pequots and the Mashantucket Pequots in this period. An Eastern Pequot chief in the 1930s challenged the membership rights of dark-skinned descendants of one Tamar Brushel, an early 19th-century resident of

2128-633: The 1970s. In 2012, the EPTN filed a federal lawsuit seeking to overturn the BIA/Department of Interior revocation. The Pequot people today are descended from the tribe that was the dominant power in southeastern New England in the 1600s. That power declined sharply following the Pequot War in 1637, and many surviving Pequots were assigned to the supervision of the Mohegan tribe in the west and Narragansett people in

2204-558: The Assistant Secretary for Indian affairs—while health care is the responsibility of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services through its Indian Health Service . The BIA is one of the oldest federal agencies in the U.S., with roots tracing back to the Committee on Indian Affairs established by Congress in 1775. First headed by Benjamin Franklin , the committee oversaw trade and treaty relations with various indigenous peoples, until

2280-495: The BIA is headed by a bureau director who reports to the assistant secretary for Indian affairs. The current assistant secretary is Bryan Newland . The BIA oversees 574 federally recognized tribes through four offices: Agencies related to Native Americans originated in 1775, when the Second Continental Congress created a trio of Indian-related agencies. Benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry were appointed among

2356-505: The BIA that they can not reform, regroup or reorganize and that the Schaghticoke Indian Tribe is the Historic continuation of the tribe; Alan Russell is the Tribal Chief of the S.I.T. and has been its leader since 1983. Neither represents all of the Schaghticoke people, including many who refuse to enroll with either political faction. In December 2002, the BIA made a preliminary finding that

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2432-429: The BIA. In particular, problems in enforcing treaties, handling records and trust land incomes were disputed. In 2002 Congress worked with the Bureau to prepare bill S.1392, which established procedures for tribal recognition. A separate bill S. 1393 ensured full and fair participation in decision-making processes at the Bureau via grants. Both bills addressed what services, limitations, obligations, and responsibilities

2508-619: The Caribbean in the 1600s. Their reservation, granted in 1736 by the General Assembly of the Colony of Connecticut , is one of the oldest in the United States. In 1740, shortly after the reservation was granted, approximately 500 Schaghticoke lived on it. After sales by state agents, the Schaghticoke hold less than a fifth of the original reserve with a 400-acre (1.6 km ) reservation . It

2584-630: The Connecticut Light and Power Company; and the Housatonic Valley Council of Elected Officials, (4) the Preston Mountain Club, Inc., a landowner; and (5) the Schaghticoke Indian Tribe, a group which has separately petitioned for Federal acknowledgment. On May 12, 2005, the IBIA vacated the STN final determination and remanded it to the BIA for reconsideration. On October 11, 2005, the Office of Federal Acknowledgment (OFA) issued

2660-508: The General Assembly of the Colony of Connecticut to establish a new township. According to one account, they negotiated with Chief Squantz . Alternatively, it is told that they did not negotiate with Chief Squantz because he moved to the north end of Squantz Pond land area and refused to "sell" the township of New Fairfield. They returned in the Spring of 1725, but found that Chief Squantz had died during

2736-587: The Mashantucket Pequot Tribal Nation, the Mohegan Tribe and the Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation. The Connecticut governor and other parties immediately opposed the Bureau of Indian Affairs decision, claiming adverse effects in communities due to the effects of gambling casinos. They feared the tribe would use recognition to press its land claims and to develop a casino. The Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation had received federal recognition in 2002, which

2812-471: The Paucatuck Eastern Pequot tribe, but most members of both groups have continued to live on the 224-acre reservation. The Eastern Pequots contended that they satisfied federal criteria: In 1998, the Bureau of Indian Affairs was reviewing both petitions together. Ronald Wolf Jackson, the treasurer of the Eastern Pequot, characterized the groups' differences as a "leadership dispute" and said that

2888-555: The STN failed to satisfy the criteria of 'community' and 'political influence or authority' due to the fact that a substantial portion of the Schaghticoke refused to be enrolled as members of the STN." The tribe appealed the court's decision to the 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals in late February 2010, where the lower court's decision was affirmed. STN took its case to the Supreme Court of the United States, which in October 2010 denied to review

2964-500: The STN failed to satisfy two of seven criteria for recognition: proof of cohesive community and maintenance of a continuous political leadership. After the tribe provided more documentation in consultation with the agency, in January 2004 the Department of the Interior acknowledged the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation as an Indian tribe according to the federal law and practice. STN was the fourth Connecticut tribes to gain federal recognition after

3040-617: The Schaghticoke Indian Tribe applied for federal recognition. On January 29, 2009, STN members and supporters rallied at the Connecticut state capital. They presented a petition to Governor Jodi Rell , calling for an end to land encroachment on the reservation, and destruction of sites there. They wanted to raise awareness of the tribe's continued push to achieve federal recognition. Chief Richard L. Velky, tribal chair of STN since 1987, has said, "I can tell you this. They will never finish us off, and they will never take our land." In 2011,

3116-464: The Schaghticoke Tribal Nation and its leader Richard Velky were the legitimate representatives of the people: "Based on the evidence submitted by both parties, the court finds that the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation, through its Tribal Council, is the governing authority for the Schaghticoke Tribe.This ruling was reversed by Judge Klatt and the S.I.T. and Alan Russell were recognized as the authority on

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3192-570: The Senate Committee on the Indian Affairs made the final settlement in 1850. This settlement, "supported the position of the Cherokee that the cost of maintaining the tribesman during their removal and the years upkeep after their arrival West should be paid by the federal government, and the expense of the removal agents should be paid as well." In 1832 Congress established the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs . In 1849 Indian Affairs

3268-534: The U.S. government's prevailing policy of forced assimilation of native peoples and the annexation of their land; beginning with the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, the BIA has increasingly emphasized tribal self-determination and peer-to-peer relationships between tribal governments and federal government. Between 1824 and 1977, the BIA was led by a total of 42 commissioners, of whom six were of indigenous descent. Since

3344-456: The Winter. His four sons and heirs refused to sign the deeds. It was not until four years later that the white men called "The Proprietors" finally got the drawn marks of several other native people who may not have had authority to sell the land. They "purchased" a 31,000-acre tract of land that is now called New Fairfield and Sherman , for the equivalent of about 300 dollars and on April 24, 1729,

3420-437: The appellate decision. Schaghticoke has various spellings: Pachgatgoch, Patchgatgoch, Pisgachtigok, Pishgachtigok, Scachtacook, Scaghkooke, Scanticook, Scatacook, Scaticook, Schaacticook, Scotticook, Seachcook, derived from an Algonquian Dialect-R word Pishgachtigok, meaning "the confluence of two waterways or "Gathered Waters." This may refer to the confluence of the Ten Mile River and the Housatonic River , where Mauwehu,

3496-483: The basis of most of today's tribal members. These are the Cogswells, Kilsons, Harrises and Bradleys. During the nascent stages of the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation's petition process, several individual leaders, both elected and from within the community, disputed the STN leadership. The result was a political dispute that has not been resolved. Richard Velky is the chief of the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation who has been told by

3572-485: The colony gave them a reservation near Ledyard, Connecticut where they became known as the Western Pequots, or Mashantucket Pequots . Both groups intermarried with members of other ethnic groups through the centuries but maintained cultural continuity through their practices of traditional crafts and customs. By the 20th century, most descendants were multi-racial, while some identified themselves as Pequot. However, by

3648-570: The creation of the position of Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs in 1977, all thirteen occupants up to the present day have been Indigenous, including Bay Mills Indian Community's Bryan Newland, appointed and confirmed to the position in 2021. As of 2020, the majority of BIA employees are American Indian or Alaska Native, the most at any time in the agency's history. Headquartered in the Main Interior Building in Washington, D.C. ,

3724-511: The deed was recorded on May 9, 1729, and is now deposited in the archives of the State Capitol in Hartford . Granted a reserve in 1736 by the General Assembly of the Colony of Connecticut , the Schaghticoke tribe have one of the oldest reservations in the United States. But, today their original 2,500 acres (10 km ), once located on both sides of the Housatonic River , has been diminished to

3800-517: The defendants were the federal government, the Connecticut Light & Power Company, and the Kent School. In 1993, the federal government had proposed a land swap to Connecticut, offering 25 acres of federal land in exchange for 49.7 acres of the reservation, as part of a major restoration of the Appalachian Trail and securing control of it. The STN objected to the state's making the exchange for

3876-407: The early commissioners to negotiate treaties with Native Americans to obtain their neutrality during the American Revolutionary War . In 1789, the U.S. Congress placed Native American relations within the newly formed War Department. By 1806 the Congress had created a Superintendent of Indian Trade , or " Office of Indian Trade " within the War Department, who was charged with maintaining

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3952-435: The eastern part of the region. The Bureau of Indian Affairs stated in 2002: "Those Pequots whom the colonial government removed from the supervision of the Eastern Niantic sachem Ninigret in 1654 were subsequently governed by two Indian rulers: Harmon Garrett and Momoho. The Colony of Connecticut purchased the Lantern Hill land for Momoho's Pequots in 1683. Since then there has been an unbroken history of state recognition and

4028-445: The establishment of the Bureau of Indian Affairs by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun in 1824. The BIA gained statutory authority in 1832, and in 1849 was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior. Until the formal adoption of its current name in 1947, the BIA was variably known as the Indian office, the Indian bureau, the Indian department, and the Indian Service. The BIA's mission and mandate historically reflected

4104-425: The federal government. Tribal leaders say that the land sales and takings violated the Indian Non-Intercourse Act. This is the collective name of six statutes passed from 1790 to 1834, which said that only the federal government had the right to deal directly with Indian nations and had to approve all land sales for them. The Schaghticoke Tribal Nation (STN) has filed suits for restoration of about 2100 acres. Much of

4180-513: The former colony of Connecticut and the state. Most of the members live off the reservation in and near Kent . In 2004, the STN was the fourth tribe in Connecticut to gain federal recognition. But in 2005, after strong opposition from the state and several local governments as well as one landowner, several Schaghticoke individuals and the SIT, U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) reversed its decision, revoking recognition. The Schaghticoke were among three state-recognized Connecticut tribes (along with

4256-427: The land in question is in Kent, on the eastern side of the Housatonic River from the current reservation. About half the campus of the private Kent School is on the disputed land. Another major portion is owned by the Preston Mountain Club, a private fishing club. The Schaghticoke filed land rights suits in 1985, 1998 and 2000, the last two under the name and leadership of the STN. By 2010, the cases were consolidated;

4332-412: The law, even if Velky is not the accepted and recognized tribal leader, nevertheless the plaintiffs—the plaintiffs being the Schaghticoke Indian—that—Indians, not the Schaghticoke Indian Tribe, not the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation, but the Indians that were originally recognized by this state, are the individuals that have brought this summary process action and have moved to evict [the defendant]. So, that’s

4408-408: The lower court's dismissal of the lawsuit, citing sovereign immunity and the language of a 1752 resolution of the Connecticut General Assembly that granted right of land use to the tribe for land along the Housatonic River, but did not explicitly grant property rights to the tribe and allowed for the land use only "during the pleasure of this Assembly". The Schaghticoke reservation is located along

4484-400: The reservation in Kent.Ct" Rost appealed the eviction order and on September 18, 2012, the appellate decision upheld Judge Klatt's eviction while correcting her determination that STN held tribal authority. Specifically, the appellate court held that, "The court nevertheless agreed to open its earlier decision for the limited purpose of vacating its finding that STN, through its tribal council,

4560-412: The reservation. Others denied membership to dark-skinned descendants of Emmanuel Sebastian, a mulatto immigrant from the Portuguese Cape Verde Islands. Both men had married Pequot women in the 19th century, and their descendants were considered tribal members. The Eastern Pequots started seeking federal recognition in 1979. In 1990, about 150 members initiated a separate petition for federal recognition as

4636-420: The shared reservation. In June 2002, the Secretary of the Interior granted recognition to the Eastern Pequot Tribal Nation . Richard Blumenthal , the Attorney General of Connecticut , filed an appeal with the Interior Board of Indian Appeals the following October, worried that the tribe would develop a third casino in the state, and Connecticut officials contended that the BIA had erred in granting recognition to

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4712-403: The son of Chief Squantz , removed most of the Schaghticoke people. The language/culture base is Algonquian . The Schaghticoke Tribal Nation has an elected tribal council representing STN citizens and a chief-for-life, Richard L. Velky, who was elected in 1987. The Schaghticoke Indian Tribe also has a tribal council and a chief, Alan Russell. STN and SIT have separate tribal constitutions. There

4788-402: The southern, midwestern and western United States. These superindenents were authorized to negotiate with tribes and oversaw Indian agents in their assigned region. The bureau was eventually reorganized in 1878, with superintendencies removed. These were eventually replaced with regional offices, which continue today. The BIA's goal to protect domestic and dependent nations, was reaffirmed by

4864-466: The state was also opposing. The Mohegan Indian Tribe and Mashantucket Pequot had already developed increasingly successful, large casino resorts. In 2005, Representative Nancy Johnson introduced the "Schaghticoke Acknowledgement Repeal Act of 2005". Five requests were made to the Interior Board of Indian Appeals (IBIA) to review the BIA Final Determination to Acknowledge the STN, which had been approved on January 24, 2004. The five requesters were (1)

4940-411: The suit was dismissed in August 2008. This ruling was appealed in the 2nd Circuit Court in New York and was denied on October 19, 2009. The STN had hoped to build a third gaming facility in Connecticut if they were federally acknowledged. In 2015, the Bureau of Indian Affairs issued new rules saying that tribes which have previously been denied federal recognition cannot re-petition. In March 2022,

5016-426: The tribe would develop a large casino, and they were concerned about the adverse effects of such operations on local communities. The Eastern Pequot's reservation is near the Foxwoods Resort operated by the Mashantucket Pequot tribe. However, the BIA issued new rules in 2015 saying that tribes cannot re-petition if they have already been denied federal recognition. The tribe has not pursued seeking recognition through

5092-485: The two tribal groups briefly united in trying to get Michael Rost, a non-Schaghticoke, expelled from reservation land. Members of both STN and SIT have said that Rost, claiming to have the right to be there as a guest of a tribal member, took and sold lumber illegally, built roads without a permit, and destroyed sensitive archeological sites. They took him to court to get him evicted. A Connecticut Superior Court evicted Rost that year. State Judge Corinne L. Klatt ruled that

5168-435: The united tribe. The BIA revoked their recognition in 2005, after additional internal review. They had already revoked recognition of the Schaghticoke Tribal Nation in Connecticut, which it had recognized in 2004. In January 2012, the Eastern Pequots filed a lawsuit in the US District Court in Washington, D.C. seeking to reinstate the BIA's recognition. State and local leaders had opposed recognition because they believed that

5244-416: Was designed by its agents to decrease the power of American Indian leaders. The bureau was renamed from Office of Indian Affairs to Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1947. With the rise of American Indian activism in the 1960s and 1970s and increasing demands for enforcement of treaty rights and sovereignty, the 1970s were a particularly turbulent period of BIA history. The rise of activist groups such as

5320-420: Was encompassed by westward expansion and the removal of Native Nations. In 1833 Georgians fought for the removal of the Cherokee Nation from the state of Georgia. Despite the rulings of Worcester v. Georgia, President Jackson and John C. Calhoun created a plan for removal. The removal of the Cherokee Nation occurred in 1838 and was accompanied by the Treaty of 1846. When reparations from the treaty were unfulfilled,

5396-527: Was formed on March 11, 1824, by Secretary of War John C. Calhoun , who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the United States Congress . He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names. McKenney preferred to call it the " Indian Office ", whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun. The Bureau was initially organized by region, with commissions for Superintendents of Indian Affairs granted to prominent citizens in each region of

5472-530: Was implicated in supporting controversial tribal presidents, notably Dick Wilson , who was charged with being authoritarian; using tribal funds for a private paramilitary force, the Guardians of the Oglala Nation (or "GOON squad"), which he employed against opponents; intimidation of voters in the 1974 election; misappropriation of funds, and other misdeeds. Many native peoples continue to oppose policies of

5548-503: Was not a tribe, the state could not have violated the Non-Intercourse Act with the land deals. Because another federal court had upheld the BIA's reversal of the STN's federal acknowledgment (see below), the defendants had argued that the STN could not proceed with its land case. The Schaghticoke Tribal Nation appealed in federal court, arguing that a tribe does not have to be federally acknowledged to bring land claim lawsuits under

5624-503: Was the governing authority for the Schaghticoke Indians. The court clarified as follows: ‘‘It’s the Schaghticoke Indians that have the right to say who lives on the reservation. And they clearly have spoken here. Because both plaintiffs are in agreement that they do not want [the defendant] on the location.’’ The court later stated: ‘‘I am reopening my decision and clarifying my decision, that even if [Richard] Velky, in my analysis of

5700-424: Was to train students in the proper behavior according to prevailing standards of "civilization." That way they could assimilate into American society and not be permanently trapped in reservations. The boarding schools prohibited students from using their indigenous languages, practices, and cultures. Another force for assimilation and Euro-American control was the Bureau of Indian Affairs tribal police force. This

5776-512: Was transferred to the newly established U.S. Department of the Interior. In 1869, Ely Samuel Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of Indian affairs. One of the most controversial policies of the Bureau of Indian Affairs was the late 19th to early 20th century decision to educate native children in separate boarding schools , such as the Carlisle Indian Industrial School . The goal

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