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122-511: Gaddafi, who had come to power in September 1969, was not only a Pan-Africanist , but according to Gérard Prunier an Arab cultural supremacist . His hostility to Chad 's government of President François Tombalbaye was at least partly inspired by Tombalbaye's African and Christian background. It also led Gaddafi to drive the Toubou of Libya, who were considered 'black', from Fezzan and across

244-567: A "beacon of African and Third-World militancy," and would come to inspire fights against colonialism around the world. The festival attracted thousands from African states and the African Diaspora, including the Black Panthers. It represented the application of the tenets of the Algerian revolution to the rest of Africa and symbolized the reshaping of the definition of pan-African identity under

366-752: A French expedition led by Paul Flatters in 1881. Over decades of fighting, Tuareg broadswords were no match for the firearms of French troops. After numerous massacres on both sides, the Tuareg were defeated and forced to sign treaties in Mali in 1905 and Niger in 1917. In southern Algeria, the French met some of the strongest resistance from the Ahaggar Tuareg. Their Amenokal chief Moussa ag Amastan fought numerous battles, but eventually Tuareg territories were subdued under French governance. French colonial administration of

488-406: A blend of pre-Islamic and Islamic practices. Patrilineal Muslim values are believed to have been superimposed upon the Tuareg's traditional matrilineal society. Other apparently newer customs include close-cousin endogamous marriages and polygyny in conformity with Islamic tenets. Polygyny, which has been witnessed among Tuareg chiefs and Islamic scholars, is in turn thought to have been contrary to

610-636: A common goal dating back to the Atlantic slave trade , the movement extends beyond continental Africans with a substantial support base among the African diaspora in the Americas and Europe . Pan-Africanism can be said to have its origins in the struggles of the African people against enslavement and colonization and this struggle may be traced back to the first resistance on slave ships—rebellions and suicides—through

732-451: A distinct group known as izeggaghan (or hartani in Arabic). Their origins are unclear but they often speak both Tuareg dialects and Arabic, though a few communities are Songhay speakers. Traditionally, these local peasants were subservient to the warrior nobles who owned the oasis and the land. The peasants tilled these fields, whose output they gave to the nobles after keeping a fifth part of

854-452: A fiercer psychological energy and political assertion ... that would unsettle social and political (power) structures...in the Americas". Advocates of pan-Africanism—i.e. "pan-Africans" or "pan-Africanists"—often champion socialist principles and tend to be opposed to external political and economic involvement on the continent. Critics accuse the ideology of homogenizing the experience of people of African ancestry. They also point to

976-718: A gender-conscious strand of Pan-Africanism that was focused on the realities faced by African-American women, separate from those of African-American men. Both Moore and Abubakari were prominent members of the Universal Association of Ethiopian Women in Louisiana, which engaged in anti-colonial activities, welfare rights, and Pan-Africanist activism. In 1972, Moore was a featured speaker at the All-Africa Women's Conference in Dar es Salaam where she encouraged solidarity among women across

1098-438: A government raid conducted in response to her son Fela Kuti's activism, led to her being thrown from a second storey window. She died from her injuries in 1978. Since the onset of the digital revolution, the internet and other similar media have facilitated the growth of many core pan-African principles by strengthening and increasing connections between people across the diaspora. Although internet penetration rates remain below

1220-556: A large Berber ethnic group, traditionally nomadic pastoralists , who principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria , Niger , Mali , and Burkina Faso , as far as northern Nigeria . The Tuareg speak languages of the same name , also known as Tamasheq , which belong to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family . They are

1342-486: A mix of admiration and distrust. According to Rasmussen, the Tuareg castes are not only hierarchical, as each caste differs in mutual perception, food and eating behaviors. For example, she relates an explanation by a smith on why there is endogamy among Tuareg castes in Niger. The smith explained, "nobles are like rice, smiths are like millet, slaves are like corn". The people who farm oases in some Tuareg-dominated areas form

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1464-448: A noble, forms a confederation whose chieftain, the amănokal , is elected from among the nobles by the tribal chiefs. The chieftain is the overlord during times of war, and receives tribute and taxes from tribes as a sign of their submission to his authority. The vassal-herdsmen are the second free stratum within Tuareg society, occupying a position just below that of the nobles. They are known as ímɣad ( Imghad , singular Amghid ) in

1586-453: A number of them were recruited into the Legion, receiving an indoctrination that told them to reject their hereditary chiefs and to fight those governments that excluded the Tuareg from power. After the disbandment of the Legion, these men were to return to their countries and to play an important role in the Tuareg rebellions that erupted in the two countries in 1989–90. Immediately prior to

1708-439: A political activist approach to pan-Africanism as he championed the "quest for regional integration of the whole of the African continent". This period represented a "golden age of high pan-African ambitions"; the continent had experienced revolution and decolonization from Western powers and the narrative of rebirth and solidarity had gained momentum within the pan-African movement. Nkrumah's pan-African principles intended for

1830-558: A religious pan-Africanist worldview appeared in the form of Ethiopianism . In London , the Sons of Africa was a political group addressed by Quobna Ottobah Cugoano in the 1791 edition of his book Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery . The group addressed meetings and organised letter-writing campaigns, published campaigning material and visited parliament . They wrote to figures such as Granville Sharp , William Pitt and other members of

1952-513: A semi-nomadic people who mostly practice Islam , and are descended from the indigenous Berber communities of Northern Africa, whose ancestry has been described as a mosaic of local Northern African ( Taforalt ), Middle Eastern , European ( Early European Farmers ), and Sub-Saharan African , prior to the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb . Some researchers have tied the origin of the Tuareg ethnicity with

2074-759: A single " race " or otherwise sharing cultural unity. Pan-Africanism posits a sense of a shared historical fate for Africans in the Americas , the West Indies , and on the continent, itself centered on the Atlantic trade in slaves, African slavery , and European imperialism . Pan-African thought influenced the establishment of the Organisation of African Unity (since succeeded by the African Union ) in 1963. The African Union Commission has its seat in Addis Ababa and

2196-600: A union between the Independent African states upon a recognition of their commonality (i.e. suppression under imperialism). Pan-Africanism under Nkrumah evolved past the assumptions of a racially exclusive movement associated with black Africa, and adopted a political discourse of regional unity In April 1958, Nkrumah hosted the first All-African Peoples' Conference (AAPC) in Accra , Ghana. This Conference invited delegates of political movements and major political leaders. With

2318-716: A vague program for a "New Africa," modeled on the New Negro Movement articulated by Alain Locke . Outside his writings, Azikiwe actively participated in pan-African politics, promulgating intellectually, in person around the Black Atlantic from West Africa and the Caribbean to the United States and western Europe . The Fifth Pan-African Congress was a significant gathering, which brought together anti-colonial activists from

2440-649: A wide framework for legislation across Africa. Funmilayo Ransome-Kuti (FRK) was born in 1900 and studied in England in 1922. She returned to her home town of Abeokuta , in the Ogun state region of Nigeria , where she began her extensive work in Nigerian and international activism. Her achievements were unprecedented: being the first woman with a top-ranking position in a leading political party (the National Council of Nigeria and

2562-589: Is a tri-color flag consisting of three equal horizontal bands of (from top-down) red , black and green . The UNIA formally adopted it on August 13, 1920, during its month-long convention at Madison Square Garden in New York . Variations of the pan-African colours have been applied to create flags in various countries and territories in Africa and the Americas to represent Black Nationalist ideologies. Among these are

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2684-511: Is exacerbated by over-exploitation of resources including firewood. This has pushed some Tuareg to experiment with farming; some have been forced to abandon herding and seek jobs in towns and cities. Following the independence of Mali, a Tuareg uprising broke out in the Adrar N'Fughas mountains in the 1960s, joined by Tuareg groups from the Adrar des Iforas in northeastern Mali. The Malian Army suppressed

2806-403: Is seen as an endeavour to return to what is deemed by its proponents as singular, traditional African concepts about culture, society, and values. Examples of this include Léopold Sédar Senghor 's Négritude movement, and Mobutu Sese Seko 's view of Authenticité . An important theme running through much pan-Africanist literature concerns the historical links between different countries on

2928-466: Is that Tuareg is derived from Tuwariq , the plural of the Arabic exonym Tariqi . The term for a Tuareg man is Amajagh (variants: Amashegh , Amahagh ), the term for a woman Tamajaq (variants: Tamasheq , Tamahaq , Timajaghen ). Spellings of the appellation vary by Tuareg dialect. They all reflect the same linguistic root, expressing the notion of "freemen". As such, the endonym strictly refers only to

3050-665: The Fifth Pan-African Congress . Amy Jacques Garvey used her platform to spread Pan-Africanism globally and used her position as editor for the Negro World to write a column called "Our Women and what they think", dedicated to black women. Claudia Jones was another pan-Africanist. In order to fight against racism towards black people in Britain, Jones set up the West Indian Gazette , which sought to cover topics such as

3172-957: The Pan-African Parliament has its seat in Midrand , Johannesburg . Pan-Africanism stresses the need for "collective self-reliance". Pan-Africanism exists as a governmental and grassroots objective. Pan-African advocates include leaders such as Toussaint Louverture , Jean-Jacques Dessalines , Henri Christophe , François Duvalier , Aimé Césaire , Haile Selassie , Jomo Kenyatta , Edward Wilmot Blyden , Nnamdi Azikiwe , Patrice Lumumba , Julius Nyerere , Robert Sobukwe , Ahmed Sékou Touré , Kwame Nkrumah , King Sobhuza II , Robert Mugabe , Thomas Sankara , Kwame Ture , Dr. John Pombe Magufuli , Muammar Gaddafi , Walter Rodney , Yoweri Kaguta Museveni , grassroots organizers such as Joseph Robert Love , Marcus Garvey , and Malcolm X , academics such as W. E. B. Du Bois , Anténor Firmin and others in

3294-400: The amghar . A series of tawsheten (plural of tawshet ) may bond together under an Amenokal , forming a Kel clan confederation. Tuareg self-identification is related only to their specific Kel , which means "those of". For example, Kel Dinnig (those of the east), Kel Ataram (those of the west). The position of amghar is hereditary through a matrilineal principle; it is usual for

3416-450: The diaspora . Pan-Africanists believe that solidarity will enable the continent to fulfil its potential to independently provide for all its people. Crucially, an all-African alliance would empower African people globally. The realization of the pan-African objective would lead to "power consolidation in Africa", which "would compel a reallocation of global resources, as well as unleashing

3538-469: The jedar sepulchres, were erected for religious and funerary practices. In 1926, one such tomb was discovered south of Casablanca . The monument was engraved with funerary inscriptions in the ancient Libyco-Berber writing script known as Tifinagh , which the Tuareg still use. During the medieval period, the Tuareg adopted Islam after its arrival with the Umayyad Caliphate in the 7th century. In

3660-715: The white abolition movement, as well as King George III and the Prince of Wales , the future George IV . Modern pan-Africanism began around the start of the 20th century. The African Association , later renamed the Pan-African Association, was established around 1897 by Henry Sylvester Williams , who organized the First Pan-African Conference in London in 1900. The Pan-African Congress series of meetings followed 1900's First Pan-African Conference that

3782-556: The "emancipation of the Continent; thus, a fight against colonial pressures on South Africa was declared and the full support of the FLN struggle in Algeria, against French colonial rule". Tom Mboya , a Kenyan trade unionist and anti-colonial activist, also attended this conference. This visit inspired him to increase the pace of political activity aimed at agitating for Kenya's independence. In

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3904-635: The "founding mother of Pan-Africanism". Jeanne Martin Cissé was instrumental in the independence of Guinea and in bringing African women's rights to the forefront of the colonial debate, for example influencing Guinea's protection of women's rights enshrined in its constitution. Central to Cissé's work was the idea that the UN could provide an international framework that would protect African girls and women from issues such as forced marriage . In response to rapidly increasing birth rates, while in government, she stressed

4026-519: The 12th century. It flourished under the protection and rule of a Tuareg confederation. However, modern scholars believe that there is insufficient evidence to pinpoint the exact time of origin and founders of Timbuktu, although it is archeologically clear that the city originated from local trade between the Middle Niger Delta, on the one hand, and between the pastoralists of the Sahara, long before

4148-542: The 16th century, under the tutelage of El Maghili, the Tuareg embraced the Maliki school of Sunni Islam, which they now primarily follow. The Tuareg helped spread Islam further into the Western Sudan . While Islam is the religion of the contemporary Tuareg, historical documents suggest that they initially resisted Islamization efforts in their traditional strongholds. According to the anthropologist Susan Rasmussen, after

4270-672: The 1995 and 1996 agreements. As of 2004, sporadic fighting continued in Niger between government forces and Tuareg rebels. In 2007, a new surge in violence occurred. The development of Berberism in North Africa in the 1990s fostered a Tuareg ethnic revival. Since 1998, three different flags have been designed to represent the Tuareg. In Niger, the Tuareg people remain socially and economically marginalized, remaining poor and unrepresented in Niger's central government. On 21 March 2021, IS-GS militants attacked several villages around Tillia , Niger, killing 141 people. The main victims of

4392-574: The African Union continues to view this policy as a major step toward its goal of continent wide solidarity and integration. Although in an era of globalization and increased connectivity, challenges continue to persist that undermine the African Union's goal of continent wide solidarity. Many of these challenges have persisted for decades with some including inconsistent treaty implementation, ineffective governance and continued involvement from foreign economic superpowers amongst others. Influence from

4514-625: The African continent and the Diaspora . Women such as Amy Ashwood Garvey and Amy Jacques Garvey helped to organise the Congress meeting and played a crucial role in the conferences. With the independence of Ghana in March 1957, Kwame Nkrumah was elected as the first Prime Minister and President of the State. Nkrumah emerged as a major advocate for the unity of Independent Africa. The Ghanaian President embodied

4636-603: The African liberation movements opposing apartheid and fighting Portuguese colonialism. In search of a united voice, in 1963 at an African Summit conference in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 32 African states met and established the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). The creation of the OAU Charter took place at this Summit and defines a coordinated "effort to raise the standard of living of member States and defend their sovereignty" by supporting freedom fighters and decolonisation. Thus,

4758-681: The All-African Peoples' Organisation (AAPO) had increased with the inclusion of the "Algerian Provisional Government (as they had not yet won independence), Cameroun, Guinea, Nigeria , Somalia and the United Arab Republic ". The Conference highlighted diverging ideologies within the movement, as Nkrumah's call for a political and economic union between the Independent African States gained little agreement. The disagreements following 1960 gave rise to two rival factions within

4880-685: The Black, animist and Christian, South . Gaddafi's definition of "Arab" was broad, including the Tuareg of Mali and Niger , as well as the Zaghawa of Chad and Sudan. The Islamic Legion was established in May 1972. The priority of the Legion was first Chad, and then Sudan. In Darfur , a western province of Sudan, Gaddafi supported the creation of the Arab Gathering (Tajammu al-Arabi), which according to Gérard Prunier

5002-609: The Cameroons), the first woman to drive a car in Nigeria, and the first African woman to travel to the Eastern Bloc, visiting China and Russia during the Cold War . Her son, Fela Kuti , became a world-renowned musician and founder of the genre called Afrobeat , a political musical movement that was intensely Pan-African. Scholars who study the life of FRK and her son conclusively agree that she

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5124-654: The Chadian border. Gaddafi supported the Sudanese government of Gaafar Nimeiry , referring to it as an "Arab Nationalist Revolutionary Movement", and even offered to merge the two countries at a meeting in late 1971. Gaddafi's plans for the peaceful formation of an " Arab Union " were dashed when Nimeiry turned down his offer and negotiated the Addis Ababa Agreement ending the First Sudanese Civil War , fought with

5246-570: The Congress to discuss the logistics of such a movement. The pre-existing Pan African Women's Organisation primarily consisted of the wives of heads of states, ministers, and other high-ranking women. In the United States , the term is closely associated with Afrocentrism , an ideology of African-American identity politics that emerged during the civil rights movement of the 1960s to 1970s. Although Pan-Africanism called for unity between all those of African ancestry, it missed out almost half of these people by overlooking women's contribution. In

5368-750: The Legion's forces in Chad, observed that they were "foreigners, Arabs or Africans, mercenaries in spite of themselves, wretches who had come to Libya hoping for a civilian job, but found themselves signed up more or less by force to go and fight in an unknown desert." According to the Military Balance published by the International Institute for Strategic Studies , the force was organized into one armored, one infantry, and one paratroop/commando brigade. It had been supplied with T-54 and T-55 tanks, armored personnel carriers, and EE-9 armored cars. The Legion

5490-500: The Lemta and the Zarawa, along with other fellow pastoral Berbers. Further invasions of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym Arab tribes into Tuareg regions in the 11th century moved the Tuareg south into seven clans, which the oral tradition of Tuaregs claims are descendants of the same mother. Each Tuareg clan ( tawshet ) is made up of family groups constituting a tribe, each led by its chief,

5612-611: The Persian Gulf states, and Jordan were represented at the inaugural meeting. Syrian Baath Party and radical Palestinian factions were also present. Each of these movements was expected to earmark 10 percent of its forces for service under the new command. As of April 1987, there was no information confirming the existence of such a militia. Pan-Africanism Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous peoples and diasporas of African ancestry . Based on

5734-521: The Sahel between the 7th and 17th centuries. Adherence to the faith was initially centered around this caste, but later spread to the wider Tuareg community. The marabouts have traditionally been the judges ( qadi ) and religious leaders ( imam ) of a Tuareg community. According to anthropologist Jeffrey Heath, Tuareg artisans belong to separate endogamous castes known as the Inhăḍăn ( Inadan ). These have included blacksmith, jeweler, wood worker and leather artisan castes. They produced and repaired

5856-419: The Sanniquellie Declaration outlining the principles for the achievement of the unity of Independent African States whilst maintaining a national identity and autonomous constitutional structure. The Declaration called for a revised understanding of Pan-Africanism and the uniting of the independent states. In 1960, the second All-African Peoples' Conference was held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. The membership of

5978-448: The South African political situation both through literature and speeches resonated with the British liberal intelligentsia. Kinloch frequently made efforts to engage in dialogue with activist groups in England. She spoke at Newcastle, York and Manchester for the Aborigines Protection Society which led to a resolution being passed that demanded the British government to end racial oppression in South Africa. Kinloch's detailed accounts of

6100-412: The States, of unity and anti-Imperialism. Frantz Fanon , journalist , freedom fighter and a member of the Algerian FLN party attended the conference as a delegate for Algeria . Considering the armed struggle of the FLN against French colonial rule, the Conference attendees agreed to support the struggle of those States under colonial oppression. This encouraged the commitment of direct involvement in

6222-435: The Tuareg nobility , not the artisanal client castes and the slaves. Two other Tuareg self-designations are Kel Tamasheq , meaning "speakers of Tamasheq ", and Kel Tagelmust , meaning "veiled people" in allusion to the tagelmust garment that is traditionally worn by Tuareg men. The English exonym "Blue People" is similarly derived from the indigo color of the tagelmust veils and other clothing, which sometimes stains

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6344-500: The Tuareg had adopted the religion, they were reputedly lax in their prayers and observances of other Muslim precepts. Some of their ancient beliefs still exist today subtly within their culture and tradition, such as elements of pre-Islamic cosmology and rituals, particularly among Tuareg women, or the widespread "cult of the dead", which is a form of ancestor veneration . For example, Tuareg religious ceremonies contain allusions to matrilineal spirits, as well as to fertility, menstruation,

6466-432: The Tuareg language. Although the vassals were free, they did not own camels but instead kept donkeys and herds of goats, sheep and oxen. They pastured and tended their own herds as well those owned by the nobles of the confederation. The vassal strata have traditionally paid an annual tiwse , or tribute to the nobles as a part of their status obligations, and hosted any noble who was traveling through their territory. In

6588-449: The Tuareg moved southward from the Tafilalt region into the Sahel under the Tuareg founding queen Tin Hinan , who is believed to have lived between the 4th and 5th centuries. The matriarch's 1,500-year-old monumental Tin Hinan tomb is located in the Sahara at Abalessa in the Hoggar Mountains of southern Algeria. Vestiges of an inscription in Tifinagh , the Tuareg's traditional Libyco-Berber writing script, have been found on one of

6710-414: The Tuareg was largely based on supporting the existing social hierarchy. The French concluded that Tuareg rebellions were largely the result of reform policies that undermined the traditional chiefs. The colonial authorities wished to create a protectorate operating, ideally, through single chieftains who ruled under French sovereignty, but were autonomous within their territories. Thus French rule, relying on

6832-443: The Tuareg, who kept their oral traditions . They are called Agguta by Tuareg, have been called upon to sing during ceremonies such as weddings or funerals. The origins of the artisanal castes are unclear. One theory posits a Jewish derivation, a proposal that Prasse calls "a much vexed question". Their association with fire, iron and precious metals and their reputation for being cunning tradesmen has led others to treat them with

6954-402: The United States, the United Kingdom and France continues to remain while new countries such as China are increasingly becoming involved politically and economically on the continent with many referring to this era as a "new scramble for Africa". As originally conceived by Henry Sylvester Williams (although some historians credit the idea to Edward Wilmot Blyden ), pan-Africanism referred to

7076-501: The Wom'n's International League for Peace and Freedom. She also became embroiled in the politics of Ghana, where she became a friend of the leading African voice on Pan Africanism and president of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah , who credited her 'with being an inspiration to the Ghana Women's Association.' One of her most notable contributions was the formation of the Abeokuta Ladies Club - this was a collective of Nigerian market women, whose powerful economic position in Abeokuta sought to influence

7198-458: The ancient sepulchre's walls. External accounts of interactions with the Tuareg are available from at least the 10th century onwards. Ibn Hawkal (10th century), El-Bekri (11th century), Edrisi (12th century), Ibn Battutah (14th century), and Leo Africanus (16th century) all documented the Tuareg in some form, usually as Mulatthamin or "the veiled ones". Of the early historians, fourteenth century scholar Ibn Khaldûn probably wrote some of

7320-404: The biggest sites where this production is taking place. In July 2015, Botswana satirical writer and speaker Siyanda Mohutsiwa posed a question on her Twitter account that led to the creation of the hashtag #IfAfricaWasABar. After one week, more than 60,000 tweets with the hashtag were created, which allowed users on the platform to grapple with a vision of widespread African interaction throughout

7442-399: The book Pan-Africanism History: Political Figures from Africa and the Diaspora since 1787, it mentioned forty Pan-Africanists, of which only three were women. Due to the lack of representation paid to women in Pan- Africanism, Clenora Hudson-Weems coined the term Africana Womanism in the 1980s, which is an ideology that specifically focuses on black women's achievements and gains, similar to

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7564-433: The campus and the community the richness, vibrance, diversity, and vitality of African, African American, and Caribbean cultures" and to "presenting students and the community with an Afrocentric analysis" of anti-Black racism . Syracuse University also offers a master's degree in Pan African Studies . One of the earliest flags used to represent pan-Africanism is the UNIA (Universal Negro Improvement Association) flag,

7686-404: The chief of the confederation. Historically, there have been seven major confederations. In the mid-19th century, descriptions of the Tuareg and their way of life were made by the English traveller James Richardson in his journeys across the Libyan Sahara in 1845–1846. In the late 19th century, the Tuareg resisted the French colonial invasion of their central Saharan homelands and annihilated

7808-446: The colonial policy which destroyed their ability to make money and remain independent. By the 1940s, more than 20,000 women had a membership. She changed the name to the Abeokuta Women's Union , marking the movement towards direct activism. For example, in November 1947, she was responsible for organising demonstrations that as many as 10,000 women participated. She continued to organise for women's rights all her life until in 1977, when

7930-409: The common experience of colonialism. The Festival further strengthened the standing of Algeria's President Boumediene in Africa and the Third World. After the death of Kwame Nkrumah in 1972, Muammar Gaddafi assumed the mantle of leader of the Pan-Africanist movement and became the most outspoken advocate of African Unity, like Nkrumah before him – for the advent of a "United States of Africa". It

8052-431: The compound premised upon the exploitation of black South Africans, such as the practice of making hundreds of black miners attend work naked to ensure diamonds were not being stolen. Kinloch wrote two articles in 1896, after moving to Britain in 1895, for the society named "The Recognition of the Brotherhood of Man", which was well received and earned her high praise from the editors. Her experiences and clear articulation of

8174-420: The conflicts in the Saharan region during the colonial and post-colonial eras. The origins and meanings of the name Tuareg have long been debated. It would appear that Twārəg is derived from the broken plural of Tārgi , a name whose former meaning was "inhabitant of Targa ", the Tuareg name of the Libyan region commonly known as Fezzan . Targa in Berber means "(drainage) channel". Another theory

8296-549: The constant plantation and colonial uprisings and the "Back to Africa" movements of the 19th century. Based on the belief that unity is vital to economic, social, and political progress, it aims to "unify and uplift" people of African ancestry. At its core, pan-Africanism is a belief that "African people, both on the continent and in the diaspora , share not merely a common history, but a common destiny." Pan-Africanist intellectual, cultural, and political movements tend to view all Africans and descendants of Africans as belonging to

8418-407: The continent and demanded the inclusion of African American women into the conversation, emphasising that they too were committed to liberating Africa. In the Caribbean, Peggy Antrobus lobbied policymakers to highlight that Caribbean women were the poorest in the Caribbean and that UNICEF was the first international organization to draw attention to the negative impact of structural adjustment on

8540-442: The continent and the benefits of cooperation as a way of resisting imperialism and colonialism. Some universities went as far as creating "Departments of Pan-African Studies" in the late 1960s. This includes the California State University , where that department was founded in 1969 as a direct reaction to the civil rights movement , and is today dedicated to "teaching students about the African World Experience", to "demonstrate to

8662-415: The continent that together have a GDP of upwards of US$ 2.5 trillion. The emergence of COVID-19 has delayed its implementation but in the long term, the African Union hopes that the agreement will spur industrialization, substantially boost trade, and contribute to increasing economic integration throughout the continent. The African Union has also sought to make changes on policies involving movement within

8784-585: The continent. Nigerian artist Burna boy 's guiding philosophy is Pan-Africanism, as he firmly believes in rebuilding bridges with the African Diaspora, viewing Africa as the Mother Continent and birthplace of humankind. The intersection between the digital media revolution and pan-Africanism has also had implications for the education sector. Pan-African organizations have used the internet and digital media to produce educational content for both children and adults in an effort to improve learning outcomes across

8906-458: The continent. Similar to the current agreement in the European Union , the African Union proposed a free movement policy that would allow residents of countries in the union to move throughout the continent freely and participate in economic endeavors in other countries. The majority of countries have not formally signed off on the agreement and others are critical of the prospects of success but

9028-538: The continent. The most popular is Ubongo which is Africa's largest manufacturer of educational content for children and uses shows such as Akil and Me to help Africa's youth improve literacy outcomes. The results have been widespread with Ubongo claiming that 24 million children have displayed enhanced learning outcomes and a study in Tanzania finding an association between improved mathematics skills and children consuming Ubongo's content. Pan-African thought influenced

9150-426: The difficulties of reconciling current divisions within countries on the continent and within communities in the diaspora . As a philosophy , pan-Africanism represents the aggregation of the historical, cultural, spiritual, artistic, scientific, and philosophical legacies of Africans from past times to the present. Pan-Africanism as an ethical system traces its origins from ancient times, and promotes values that are

9272-404: The earth and ancestresses. Norris (1976) suggests that this apparent syncretism may stem from the influence of Sufi Muslim preachers on the Tuareg. The Tuaregs have been one of the influential ethnic groups in the spread of Islam and its legacy in North Africa and adjacent Sahel. Timbuktu , an important Islamic center famed for its ulama , was established by Imasheghen Tuareg at the start of

9394-442: The eastern dialect ( Tamajaq , Tawallammat ). The exact number of Tuareg speakers per territory is uncertain. The CIA estimates that the Tuareg population in Mali constitutes approximately 0.9% of the national population (~150,000), whereas about 3.5% of local inhabitants speak Tuareg (Tamasheq) as a primary language. In contrast, Imperato (2008) estimates that the Tuareg represent around 3% of Mali's population. In antiquity,

9516-520: The establishment of the Organisation of African Unity (now the African Union ) in 1963. One of the biggest goals that the African Union has set for the continent in the 21st century is improving long-term economic growth. Major steps have been taken to address this issue particularly with the creation of the African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA). The establishment of this free trade zone connects nations throughout

9638-493: The exception of South Africa, all independent states of the African continent attended: Egypt , Ethiopia , Ghana , Liberia , Libya , Morocco , Tunisia , and Sudan . This conference signified a monumental event in the pan-African movement, as it revealed a political and social union between those considered Arabic states and the black African regions. Further, the Conference espoused a common African Nationalist identity, among

9760-563: The fall of the Garamantes who inhabited the Fezzan (Libya) from the 1st millennium BC to the 5th century AD. Tuareg people are credited with spreading Islam in North Africa and the adjacent Sahel region. Tuareg social structure has traditionally included clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. The Tuareg have controlled several trans-Saharan trade routes and have been an important party to

9882-531: The first hijra . Monroe asserts, based on archaeological evidence, that Timbuktu emerged from an urban-rural dynamic, that is, aiming to provide services to its immediate rural hinterland . In 1449, a Tuareg ruling house founded the Tenere Sultanate of Aïr (Sultanate of Agadez) in the city of Agadez in the Aïr Mountains . 18th century Tuareg Islamic scholars such as Jibril ibn 'Umar later preached

10004-411: The flags of Malawi , Kenya , South Sudan and Saint Kitts and Nevis . Several pan-African organizations and movements have also often employed the emblematic red, black and green tri-color scheme in variety of contexts. Another flag that inspired pan-African groups is the horizontal tricolor of green, yellow and red. This colour combination was originally adopted from the 1897 flag of Ethiopia , and

10126-722: The great Arab battle—"the battle of liberating Palestine, of toppling the reactionary regimes, of annihilating the borders, gates, and barriers between the countries of the Arab homeland, and of creating the single Arab Jamahiriya from the ocean to the gulf." In March 1985, it was announced that the National Command of the Revolutionary Forces Command in the Arab Nation had been formed with Gaddafi at its head. A number of smaller radical Arab groups from Lebanon, Tunisia, Sudan, Iraq,

10248-532: The importance of family planning and legislated sex education in Guinea's primary schools, despite strong opposition from the Muslim majority population. In an article written in 1979, on the family dynamic in Africa, Cissé makes unprecedented criticisms of the forced role of mothers in brainwashing their daughters to follow prescriptive gender roles. She was also instrumental in the 1968 legislation in Guinea which outlawed polygamy , believing it would effectively combat

10370-443: The land, seeking instead soldiering or intellectual work. A semi-noble stratum of the Tuareg people has been the endogamous religious clerics, the marabouts (Tuareg: Ineslemen , a loan word that means Muslim in Arabic). After the adoption of Islam, they became integral to the Tuareg social structure. According to Norris (1976), this stratum of Muslim clerics has been a sacerdotal caste, which propagated Islam in North Africa and

10492-494: The late Medieval era, states Prasse, the previously existing weapon monopoly of the nobility broke down after regional wars took a heavy toll on the noble warrior strata, and thereafter the vassals carried weapons as well and were recruited as warriors. After the start of the French colonial rule, which deprived the nobles of their powers over war and taxation, the Tuaregs belonging to the noble strata disdained tending cattle and tilling

10614-588: The loyalty of the Tuareg noble caste, did not improve the status of the slave class. When African countries achieved widespread independence in the 1960s, the traditional Tuareg territory was divided among a number of modern states: Niger, Mali, Algeria, Libya, and Burkina Faso. Political instability and competition for resources in the Sahel has since led to conflicts between the Tuareg and neighboring African groups. There have been tight restrictions placed on nomadic life because of high population growth . Desertification

10736-464: The majority ethnic group in the Kidal Region of northeastern Mali. The Tuareg traditionally speak the Tuareg languages , also known as Tamasheq, Tamajeq or Tamahaq , depending on the dialect. These languages belong to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family . According to Ethnologue , there are an estimated 1.2 million Tuareg speakers. Around half of this number consists of speakers of

10858-461: The massacres were the Tuaregs. The Tuareg traditionally adhered to the Berber mythology . Archaeological excavations of prehistoric tombs in the Maghreb have yielded skeletal remains that were painted with ochre . Although this ritual practice was known to the Iberomaurusians , the custom seems instead to have been primarily derived from the ensuing Capsian culture . Megalithic tombs, such as

10980-469: The military of both countries followed, with deaths into the thousands. Negotiations initiated by France and Algeria led to peace agreements in January 1992 in Mali and in 1995 in Niger, both arranging for decentralization of national power and the integration of Tuareg resistance fighters into the countries' national armies. Major fighting between the Tuareg resistance and government security forces ended after

11102-530: The most detailed commentary on the life and people of the Sahara, though he apparently never actually met them. At the turn of the 19th century, the Tuareg territory was organised into confederations, each ruled by a supreme Chief ( Amenokal ), along with a council of elders from each tribe. These confederations were sometimes called " Drum Groups " after the Amenokal's symbol of authority, a drum. Clan ( Tewsit ) elders, called Imegharan (wisemen), were chosen to assist

11224-614: The most prominent pan-Africanist in the British West Africa . Then-Colonial Secretary Oliver Stanley called Azikiwe (Zik) "the biggest danger of the lot." Zik drew his inspiration on the pan-African ideas of West Indians and African-Americans such as Edward Wilmot Blyden , W.E.B. Du Bois , and Marcus Garvey , as well as West Africans such as J.E. Casely Hayford and his allies in the National Congress of British West Africa . In his publication "Renascent Africa", he offered

11346-589: The nature of black oppression in Africa was unprecedented for these organisations who rarely had the opportunity to hear first-hand accounts of the African political situation. Now fully engrossed in the British anti-colonial dialogue, she wrote a 19-page pamphlet on the diamond trade in South Africa was in 1897, her views were beginning to become distinctly Pan-African in their calls for an end to continental dehumanisation. Kinloch's main contribution to pan-Africanism however

11468-586: The nobles constitute the highest caste. They are known in the Tuareg language as imušaɣ/imuhaɣ/imajăɣăn "the proud and free". The nobles originally had a monopoly on carrying arms and owning camels, and were the warriors of the Tuareg regions. They may have achieved their social status by subjugating other Tuareg castes, keeping arms to defend their properties and vassals. They have collected tribute from their vassals. This warrior nobility has traditionally married within their caste, not to individuals in strata below their own. A collection of tribes, each led by

11590-480: The ones mentioned below. Pan-Africanism has seen the contribution of numerous female African activists throughout its lifespan, despite the systemic lack of attention paid to them by scholars and male pan-Africanist alike. Amy Jacques Garvey , who founded the international newspaper Negro World , was heavily involved in other Pan-Africanism organisations, such as the anti-colonial and anti-imperialist International African Service Bureau . She also helped organise

11712-632: The overthrow of the Gaddafi regime, there were media reports that his hard-core of supporters included former members of the Islamic Legion who had been granted Libyan citizenship and remained in the country. In an effort to realize Gaddafi's vision of a united Arab military force, plans for the creation of an Arab Legion were announced periodically. The goal, according to the Libyan press, would be to assemble an army of 1 million men and women fighters to prepare for

11834-590: The pan-African movement: the Casablanca Bloc and the Brazzaville Bloc. In 1962, Algeria gained independence from French colonial rule and Ahmed Ben Bella assumed the Presidency. Ben Bella was a strong advocate for Pan-Africanism and African Unity. Following the FLN's armed struggle for liberation, Ben Bella spoke at the UN and espoused for Independent Africa's role in providing military and financial support to

11956-576: The poor, particularly women. Alice Victoria Alexander Kinloch was born in 1863 in Cape Town , South Africa, before her family moved to Kimberley . The racist and segregated environment shaped her activism on systemic oppression in South Africa. In June 1885 she married Edmund Ndosa Kinloch, a diamond miner who worked at the De Beers mining compound in Kimberley. She witnessed the degrading working conditions of

12078-537: The pre-Congress meeting. This meeting was primarily attended by Ugandan women, who set their own agenda, which was focused on women's issues such as genital mutilation and the protection of young domestic workers from rape and other abuse. Women participants of the Seventh Pan-African Congress moved towards building an agenda for the Pan African Women's Liberation Organisation and met daily during

12200-422: The pre-Islamic monogamous tradition of the nomadic Tuareg. Tuareg society has featured caste hierarchies within each clan and political confederation. These hierarchical systems have included nobles, clerics, craftsmen and unfree strata of people including widespread slavery. Traditionally, Tuareg society is hierarchical, with nobility and vassals. The linguist Karl-Gottfried Prasse (1995) indicates that

12322-713: The produce. Their Tuareg patrons were usually responsible for supplying agricultural tools, seed and clothing. The peasants' origins are also unclear. One theory postulates that they are descendants of ancient people who lived in the Sahara before they were dominated by invading groups. In contemporary times, these peasant strata have blended in with freed slaves and farm arable lands together. The Tuareg confederations acquired slaves, often of Nilotic origin, as well as tribute-paying states in raids on surrounding communities. They also took captives as war booty or purchased slaves in markets. The slaves or servile communities are locally called Ikelan (or Iklan , Eklan ), and slavery

12444-481: The product of the African civilisations and the struggles against slavery , racism , colonialism , and neocolonialism . Coinciding with numerous New World slave insurrections (hallmarked by the Haitian Revolution ), the end of the 19th century birthed an intercontinental pro-African political movement that sought to unify disparate campaigns in the goal to end oppression. Another important political form of

12566-492: The realities of South African apartheid and decolonisation . Notable male Pan-Africanists, such as Kwame Nkrumah , were influenced by Jones as she incorporated Marxist- Leninist philosophy into Pan-Africanism. In the United States, Audley Moore and Dara Abubakari played a vital role in developing Pan-African thought. These women significantly shaped the ideological and organizational contours of Pan-Africanism, developing

12688-605: The revolt, but resentment among the Tuareg fueled further uprisings. This second (or third) uprising was in May 1990. In the aftermath of a clash between government soldiers and Tuareg outside a prison in Tchin-Tabaraden , Niger, Tuareg in both Mali and Niger claimed independence for their traditional homeland: Ténéré in Niger, including their capital Agadez , and the Azawad and Kidal regions of Mali. Deadly clashes between Tuareg fighters, with leaders such as Mano Dayak , and

12810-472: The saddles, tools, household items and other items for the Tuareg community. In Niger and Mali, where the largest Tuareg populations are found, the artisan castes were attached as clients to a family of nobles or vassals, carried messages over distances for their patron family, and traditionally sacrificed animals during Islamic festivals . These social strata, like caste systems found in many parts of West Africa, included singers, musicians and story tellers of

12932-540: The second battle of N'Djamena, where its fighting record was most noted for its ineptitude. To this force Benin 's Marxist regime is said to have provided legionnaires during the 1983 offensive in Chad. At the beginning of the 1987 Libyan offensive into Chad, it maintained a force of 2,000 in Darfur. The nearly continuous cross-border raids that resulted greatly contributed to a separate ethnic conflict within Darfur that killed about 9,000 people between 1985 and 1988. The Legion

13054-555: The skin underneath giving it a blueish tint. Another term for the Tuareg is Imuhagh or Imushagh , a cognate to the northern Berber self-name Imazighen . The Tuareg today inhabit a vast area in the Sahara , stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, and the far north of Nigeria. Their combined population in these territories exceeds 2.5 million, with an estimated population in Niger of around 2 million (11% of inhabitants) and in Mali of another 0.5 million (3% of inhabitants). The Tuareg are

13176-452: The son of a sister of the incumbent chieftain to succeed to his position. The amenokal is elected in a ritual which differs between groups. The individual amghar who lead the clans making up the confederation usually have the deciding voice. The matrilineal inheritance and mythology among Tuareg clans, states Susan Rasmussen, is a cultural vestige from the pre-Islamic era of the Tuareg society. According to Rasmussen, Tuareg society exhibits

13298-509: The unity of all continental Africa. During apartheid South Africa there was a Pan Africanist Congress led by Robert Sobukwe that dealt with the oppression of Africans in South Africa under Apartheid rule. Other pan-Africanist organisations include: Garvey 's Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League , TransAfrica and the International People's Democratic Uhuru Movement . Additionally, pan-Africanism

13420-624: The value of revolutionary jihad. Inspired by these teachings, Ibn 'Umar's student Usman dan Fodio led the Sokoto jihads and established the Sokoto Caliphate . Tuareg society has traditionally featured clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. Clans have been a historic part of the Tuaregs. The 7th century invasion of North Africa from the Middle East triggered an extensive migration of Tuaregs such as

13542-596: The widespread abandonment of families by fathers, thus relieving the physical burden mothers faced in Guinea. On the international level, Cissé was the first African president of the United Nations Security Council in 1972 and succeeded in passing two resolutions, condemning Israel's aggression against Palestine , and Apartheid in South Africa. She also drafted and helped pass the UN Convention on Consent and Minimum Age for Marriage in 1964, which provided

13664-433: The world average, roughly 43 percent of the population of Africa uses the internet and social media with Facebook , Twitter and YouTube being among the most popular social networking sites. The ability to connect with people thousands of miles away has allowed these platforms to become places where people across the continent and diaspora have attempted to manufacture a collective African identity. Twitter has been one of

13786-731: The years following 1958, Accra Conference also marked the establishment of a new foreign policy of non-alignment between the US and USSR, and the will to establish an "African Identity" in global affairs by advocating unity between the African States on international relations. "This would be based on the Bandung Declaration , the Charter of the UN and on loyalty to UN decisions." In 1959, Nkrumah, President Sékou Touré of Guinea and President William Tubman of Liberia met at Sanniquellie and signed

13908-590: Was "a militantly racist and pan-Arabist organization which stressed the 'Arab' character of the province." The two organizations shared members and a source of support, and the distinction between the two is often ambiguous. This Islamic Legion was mostly composed of immigrants from poorer Sahelian countries. Generally speaking, the Legion's members were immigrants who had gone to Libya with no thought of fighting wars, and had been provided with inadequate military training and had sparse commitment. Alain Frachon , speaking of

14030-714: Was disbanded by Gaddafi following its defeats in Chad in 1987 and the Libyan retreat from that country. But its consequences in this region can still be felt. Some of the Janjaweed leaders were among those said to have been trained in Libya, as many Darfuri followers of the Umma Party were forced in exile in the 1970s and 1980s. The Legion was also to leave a strong impact on the Tuareg living in Mali and Niger . A series of severe droughts had brought many young Tuareg to migrate to Libya, where

14152-613: Was held in London. A meeting of the Congress in 1919 in Paris (1st Pan-African Congress), 1921 in London (2nd Pan-African Congress), 1923 in London (3rd Pan-African Congress), 1927 in New York City (4th Pan-African Congress), and 1945 in Manchester (5th Pan-African Congress) advanced the issue of decolonisation in Africa. In the 1930s, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe 's anti-colonial writings from the United States , Accra , and Lagos established him as

14274-670: Was in her co-founding of the African Association in 1897 with lawyers Henry Sylvester Williams and Thomas J. Thompson, where they and 11 or 12 others gathered at the Charing-Cross Mansions hotel in London. Kinloch served as treasurer but in 1898 returned to South Africa with her husband. Two years later, the African Association led the Pan-African Conference, which was widely regarded as the beginning of 20th-century Pan-Africanism. Dr Tshepo Mvulane Moloi calls Kinloch

14396-497: Was inspired by the fact that Ethiopia is the continent's oldest independent nation. Pan-Africanism has been accused of being a movement of the African educated bourgeois elite which doesn't concern itself with the interests of ordinary Africans. Kenyan left-wing journalist Philip Ochieng wrote in 1971, Tuareg people The Tuareg people ( / ˈ t w ɑːr ɛ ɡ / ; also spelled Twareg or Touareg ; endonym : Imuhaɣ / Imušaɣ / Imašeɣăn / Imajeɣăn ) are

14518-547: Was not until the Seventh Pan-African Congress in 1994, which was held in Uganda , that women's issues were specifically addressed. For the first time, the Congress was asked to reflect upon the role and needs of women. In order to organise which women's issues would be raised at the Congress, a pre-Congress Women's Meeting was held two days before, to provide a framework that ensured women's voices and concerns were listened to. More than 300 people, 74 percent of whom were women, attended

14640-516: Was reported to have been committed during the fighting in Chad in 1980 and was praised by Gaddafi for its success there. However, it was believed that many of the troops who fled the Chadian attacks of March 1987 were members of the Legion. Gaddafi dispatched legionnaires to Uganda , Palestine , Lebanon and Syria , but the Legion was to be mostly associated with the Chadian–Libyan conflict , where already in 1980 7,000 legionnaires participated to

14762-677: Was the formation of the African Liberation Committee (ALC), during the 1963 Summit. Championing the support of liberation movements, was Algeria's President Ben Bella, immediately "donated 100 million francs to its finances and was one of the first countries, of the Organisation to boycott Portuguese and South African goods". In 1969, Algiers hosted the Pan-African Cultural Festival, on July 21 and it continued for eight days. At this moment in history, Algeria stood as

14884-654: Was the main political influence on the Pan-African and political dimension to his music. In 1949, FRK founded and led the Nigerian Women's Union which in 1953 changed its name to the Federation of Nigerian Women's Societies, rallying for inter-regional unity among women's movements in Nigeria. Subsequently, she was courted by international movements for women's rights such as the Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF) and

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