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106-647: Nova Sich ( Ukrainian : Нова Січ , lit.   'New Sich') or Pidpilnenska Sich ( Підпільненська Січ , 'Underground / Сlandestine Sich') was the administrative and military center of the Zaporozhian Cossacks in 1734–1775, established after the return of the Zaporozhian Lowland Army to the Russian protectorate as a result of the signing of the Lubny Treaty. The last Zaporozhian Sich

212-471: A plague outbreak. According to an Ottoman Muslim account of the war translated into English by C. Fraser, Bosnian Muslim women fought in battles, having "acquired the courage of heroes" against the Austrian Germans at the siege of Osterwitch-atyk (Östroviç-i âtık) fortress. Women also fought in the defense of the fortresses of Būzin (Büzin) and Chetin (Çetin). Their bravery was also described in

318-680: A Cossack revolt (known as the "Gray revolt") broke out, during which the Kosh Ataman Kalnyshevskyi and the Cossack sergeant hid in the Nova Sich retrenchment. The rebels tried to choose Philip Fedoriv but were quickly dispersed. The Zaporozhian Army left the Nova Sich for the Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739 and the War of 1768–1774 . In early June 1775, by order of Catherine II , the Nova Sich

424-707: A French account. Yeni Pazar , Izvornik , Gradişka , and Banaluka were also struck by the Austrians. In 1739, the Russian army, commanded by Field Marshal Münnich, crossed the Dnieper, defeated the Turks at Stavuchany and occupied the fortresses of Khotyn (August 19) and Iaşi . However, Austria was defeated by the Turks at Grocka and signed a separate treaty in Belgrade with the Ottoman Empire on 21 August, probably alarmed at

530-610: A body of national literature, institute a Ukrainian-language educational system, and form an independent state (the Ukrainian People's Republic , shortly joined by the West Ukrainian People's Republic ). During this brief independent statehood the stature and use of Ukrainian greatly improved. In the Russian Empire Census of 1897 the following picture emerged, with Ukrainian being the second most spoken language of

636-490: A demilitarized Azov and Zaporozhye, but it had demonstrated that it could reach Moldavia and was now a serious threat to Crimea. In the next war , Russia took Crimea and briefly occupied Bucharest . Austria hoped to gain land in the Balkans while the Turks were tied down with Russia. The border was then about 100 km south of Belgrade in land gained in 1717 . In 1737, Austria went south, captured Niš but soon gave it up. In 1738,

742-543: A favorable international situation. This was achieved through the signing of treaties with the Persian Empire from 1732 to 1735 (which was engaged in a conflict with the Ottoman Empire from 1730 to 1735 ) and by supporting the accession of Augustus III to the Polish throne in 1735, instead of Stanislaw Leszczynski , who had been nominated by pro-Ottoman France . Austria had been Russia's ally since 1726. The casus belli

848-706: A lack of supplies. In July 1737, the Habsburg monarchy entered the war against the Ottoman Empire but was defeated several times, including in the Battle of Banja Luka on 4 August 1737, the Battle of Grocka on 18, 21–22 July 1739, and then lost Belgrade after an Ottoman siege from 18 July to September 1739. In August, Russia, Austria, and the Ottoman Empire began negotiations in Nemirov , which would turn out to be fruitless. There were no significant military operations in 1738. The Russian Army had to leave Ochakov and Kinburn due to

954-505: A month, ruined Perekop as much as they could, and returned to Molochnye Vody. Azov fleet: Peter Bredal with a rebuilt Azov fleet, supplies, and 4,000 Don Cossacks, met Lacy’s army on 19 May. On 23 May, more Don Cossacks arrived with their own boats. On 25 May, Bredal was caught by a much larger Turkish fleet and blockaded at ‘Cape Vissarion’ (location?). The blockade was broken when the Turks unwisely pursued three escaping sloops. On 6 June, they were again caught at ‘Cape Fedotov’, probably on

1060-637: A policy of defending Ukraine's interests within the Soviet Union. He proudly promoted the beauty of the Ukrainian language and developed plans to expand the role of Ukrainian in higher education. He was removed, however, after only a brief tenure, for being too lenient on Ukrainian nationalism. The new party boss from 1972 to 1989, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky , purged the local party, was fierce in suppressing dissent, and insisted Russian be spoken at all official functions, even at local levels. His policy of Russification

1166-555: A result of close Slavic contacts with the remnants of the Scythian and Sarmatian population north of the Black Sea , lasting into the early Middle Ages , the appearance of the voiced fricative γ/г (romanized "h"), in modern Ukrainian and some southern Russian dialects is explained by the assumption that it initially emerged in Scythian and related eastern Iranian dialects, from earlier common Proto-Indo-European *g and *gʰ . During

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1272-574: A self-aware Ukrainian nation would threaten the unity of the empire. In 1804 Ukrainian as a subject and language of instruction was banned from schools. In 1811, by order of the Russian government, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed. In 1847 the Brotherhood of St Cyril and Methodius was terminated. The same year Taras Shevchenko was arrested, exiled for ten years, and banned for political reasons from writing and painting. In 1862 Pavlo Chubynsky

1378-617: A separate peace, which made his position untenable. On 23 September, he was ordered to return to Russian territory. 1739: Treaties: The war was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade with Austria in September and the Treaty of Niš (1739) with Russia in October. All three parties wanted out because the war as it was costing more than anything they might gain. Russia was also worried about the looming Russo-Swedish War (1741–1743) . Russia kept nothing more than

1484-883: A variant name of the Little Russian language . In a private letter from 1854, Taras Shevchenko lauds "our splendid Ukrainian language". Valuyev's decree from 1863 derides the "Little Russian" language throughout, but also mentions "the so-called Ukrainian language" once. In Galicia, the earliest applications of the term Ukrainian to the language were in the hyphenated names Ukrainian-Ruthenian (1866, by Paulin Święcicki ) or Ruthenian-Ukrainian (1871, by Panteleimon Kulish and Ivan Puluj ), with non-hyphenated Ukrainian language appearing shortly thereafter (in 1878, by Mykhailo Drahomanov ). A following ban on Ukrainian books led to Alexander II 's secret Ems Ukaz , which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even banned

1590-530: Is a descendant of Old East Slavic , a language spoken in the medieval state of Kievan Rus' . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the language developed into Ruthenian , where it became an official language, before a process of Polonization began in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . By the 18th century, Ruthenian diverged into regional variants, and the modern Ukrainian language developed in

1696-625: Is based on the character of contemporary written sources, ultimately reflecting socio-historical developments, and he further subdivides the Middle period into three phases: Ukraine annually marks the Day of Ukrainian Writing and Language on 9 November, the Eastern Orthodox feast day of Nestor the Chronicler . The era of Kievan Rus' ( c. 880–1240) is the subject of some linguistic controversy, as

1802-510: Is now Mariupol , about 100 km further west. On 28 June, a Turkish fleet caught the Azov flotilla near Henichesk. After two gun duels, they were driven off (1 July). Soon after, a storm destroyed most of the flotilla along with its food and ammunition. Instead of attacking the 60,000 Tatars waiting at Perekop , Lacy built a pontoon bridge out of water casks and crossed the Henichesk Strait onto

1908-673: Is referred to as "Old Ukrainian", but elsewhere, and in contemporary sources, is known as the Ruthenian language, and from the end of the 18th century to the present what in Ukraine is known as "Modern Ukrainian", but elsewhere is known as just Ukrainian. Russo-Turkish War (1735%E2%80%931739) [REDACTED] Russian Empire [REDACTED] Habsburg monarchy [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire [REDACTED] 100,000–150,000 dead [REDACTED] 44,427 casualties in battle The Russo-Turkish War of 1735–1739 between Russia and

2014-607: The Arabat Spit , starting on 2 July. Khan Fetih headed south toward the far end of the spit, but Lacy again outflanked him by crossing to the mainland near the Salhyr River, causing the Crimeans to disperse. Lacy went southwest, and on 14 July, he burned Karasubazar . Three days later, he chose to withdraw. He had lost most of his supplies with the flotilla; the Tatars were regrouping, there

2120-558: The Bela Zirka river near Kamenny Zaton and withdrew to Perekop. By 19 May, Russia had 30,000 troops facing Perekop. On 20 May, the wall was breached , and on 22 May, the 2,254 Turks in the Or Qapi fort surrendered on parole. Russia now entered Crimea for the first time. On 5 June, they raided Gozleve for supplies. On 17 June, they captured Bakhchisarai. The khan’s palace was burned, either accidentally or deliberately. On 23 June, they burned

2226-568: The Haidamaky emerged. The Haydamatsky movement began in 1734 with the inaction of the first Nova Sich Ataman - Hetman I. Malashevych in the protection of the rights and freedoms of the Ukrainian people , when in 1734-1738 large detachments of insurgents led by G. Goly, M. Golim, M. Mane, S. Chalym and others. An epidemic broke out in the Sich in 1760, and entry and exit from the Sich were banned. In 1768

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2332-719: The Latin language. Much of the influence of Poland on the development of the Ukrainian language has been attributed to this period and is reflected in multiple words and constructions used in everyday Ukrainian speech that were taken from Polish or Latin. Examples of Polish words adopted from this period include zavzhdy (always; taken from old Polish word zawżdy ) and obitsiaty (to promise; taken from Polish obiecać ) and from Latin (via Polish) raptom (suddenly) and meta (aim or goal). Significant contact with Tatars and Turks resulted in many Turkic words, particularly those involving military matters and steppe industry, being adopted into

2438-557: The Novgorod Republic did not call themselves Rus ' until the 14th century; earlier Novgorodians reserved the term Rus ' for the Kiev , Pereyaslavl and Chernigov principalities. At the same time as evidenced by contemporary chronicles, the ruling princes and kings of Galicia–Volhynia and Kiev called themselves "people of Rus ' " (in foreign sources called " Ruthenians "), and Galicia–Volhynia has alternately been called

2544-698: The Ottoman Empire was caused by the Ottoman Empire's war with Persia and the continuing raids by the Crimean Tatars . The war also represented Russia's ongoing struggle for access to the Black Sea . In 1737, the Habsburg monarchy joined the war on Russia's side, known in historiography as the Austro-Turkish War of 1737–1739 . By the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War, Russia had successfully secured

2650-524: The Samara river. Half of the army had been lost, 2,000 in fighting, and the rest from disease. Because of the invasion, Crimean khan Qaplan I Giray was replaced by Fetih II Giray . 1736: Kinburn captured: After Perekop was captured, Leontev and 13,000 men were sent west to capture the fort on the Kinburn Peninsula , south of Ochakov . The garrison was allowed to abandon the fort and cross to Ochakov on

2756-777: The Terek river tried to stop them and lost 55 men. The army went down the west shore of the Caspian as far as the Samur River , where it was recalled by Turkey for unexplained reasons. In 1735, the Crimean khan led 80,000 men across the North Caucasus and south to Derbent . By the end of 1735, he received news of Leontev’s raid on Crimea and decided to turn back. During his return journey, he spent time foraging in Kabardia and eventually reached Crimea in

2862-550: The Ukrainian alphabet , a variant of the Cyrillic script . The standard language is studied by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Potebnia Institute of Linguistics . Comparisons are often made between Ukrainian and Russian , another East Slavic language, yet there is more mutual intelligibility with Belarusian , and a closer lexical distance to West Slavic Polish and South Slavic Bulgarian . Ukrainian

2968-563: The fortress of Azov. The Crimean campaign of 1736 ended with Russian withdrawal into Ukraine, resulting in an estimated 30,000 lives lost. Only 2,000 of these losses were related to war, while the rest were due to disease, hunger, and famine. In July 1737, Münnich's army stormed the Turkish fortress of Ochakov . Lacy's army, already 40,000 men strong, marched into Crimea the same month and captured Karasubazar (see Lacy's campaign to Crimea ). However, Lacy and his troops had to leave Crimea due to

3074-399: The law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" was approved by the parliament, formalizing rules governing the usage of the language and introducing penalties for violations. The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into two stages: during the 12th to 18th centuries what in Ukraine

3180-425: The 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around the 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorod dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus', whereas the modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky denies

3286-451: The 13th century, eastern parts of Rus (including Moscow) came under Tatar rule until their unification under the Tsardom of Muscovy , whereas the south-western areas (including Kyiv ) were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . For the following four centuries, the languages of the two regions evolved in relative isolation from each other. Direct written evidence of the existence of

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3392-666: The 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, German words began to appear in the language spoken in Ukraine. Their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts. Examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh ("roof"), rura ("pipe"), rynok ("market"), kushnir ("furrier"), and majster ("master" or "craftsman"). In

3498-539: The Cossack motherland, Ukrajina , as a self-appellation for the nation of Ukrainians, and Ukrajins'ka mova for the language. Many writers published works in the Romantic tradition of Europe demonstrating that Ukrainian was not merely a language of the village but suitable for literary pursuits. However, in the Russian Empire expressions of Ukrainian culture and especially language were repeatedly persecuted for fear that

3604-536: The Intercession of the Mother of God, the military chancellery , the treasury, and the houses of the clergy . To the west of Kosh was the fortification of the Nova Sich retrenchment built by the tsarist government to control Sich. There was a Russian commandant with a garrison of land militia regiments. It is noteworthy that it was during the existence of the Nova Sich that an independent Cossack-military group called

3710-466: The Kiev area with about 70,000 men. On 30 June, they reached Ochakov, which now had 20,000 defenders. Fighting began the next day, and on 3 July, heated shot set the town on fire. The fire spread to the powder magazine, which blew up, killing thousands of Turks. This caused the Turks to surrender the same day. Münnich left 8,000 men to hold the fort and returned with the rest of the army to Poltava . In October,

3816-479: The Miuss River. He later returned to Azov because a fire had destroyed the Azov arsenal and granary. Bredal could not sail from Azov due to disease and a shortage of ships. Lacy left Izium on 10 May. His force was weakened because much had been transferred to the western campaign. In July, he learned that the Turks had sent troops and a fleet, and that Levashev had turned back. He marched toward Perekop, saw that there

3922-465: The Nova Sich, we must recognize that the imperial government achieved its goal by dissuading the Sich from participating in the nationwide struggle against deprivation. On three sides, Sich was surrounded by a tributary of the Dnieper River Pidpilna, which sailed Zaporozhian chaiky and Turkish and Greek merchant ships (tumbasy), which sailed to the Sich harbor in the river bay Ustup. On

4028-785: The Old East Slavic vowel system into the system found in modern Ukrainian began approximately in the 12th/13th century (that is, still at the time of the Kievan Rus') with a lengthening and raising of the Old East Slavic mid vowels e and o when followed by a consonant and a weak yer vowel that would eventually disappear completely, for example Old East Slavic котъ /kɔtə/ > Ukrainian кіт /kit/ 'cat' (via transitional stages such as /koˑtə̆/, /kuˑt(ə̆)/, /kyˑt/ or similar) or Old East Slavic печь /pʲɛtʃʲə/ > Ukrainian піч /pitʃ/ 'oven' (via transitional stages such as /pʲeˑtʃʲə̆/, /pʲiˑtʃʲ/ or similar). This raising and other phonological developments of

4134-544: The Orthodox church spoke Ruthenian. The 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement between Cossack Hetmanate and Alexis of Russia divided Ukraine between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. During the following century, both monarchies became increasingly intolerant of Ukrainian own cultural and political aspirations. Ukrainians found themselves in a colonial situation. The Russian centre adopted

4240-515: The Ottomans tried to retake the fort under the direct orders of Sultan Mahmut I . All of their attempts failed, and on 30 October, they withdrew. (Next spring, the plague appeared in the fort and was reported in Moldavia , Wallachia , Poland, and Zaporozhia. It increased, and in September 1738, Ochakov and Kinburn were evacuated to escape the plague because the weakened troops would not be able to resist if

4346-510: The Polish nobility. Many Ukrainian nobles learned the Polish language and converted to Catholicism during that period in order to maintain their lofty aristocratic position. Lower classes were less affected because literacy was common only in the upper class and clergy. The latter were also under significant Polish pressure after the Union with the Catholic Church . Most of the educational system

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4452-530: The Principality or Kingdom of Ruthenia. Also according to Andrey Zaliznyak, the Novgorodian dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus during the 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorodian dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus, whereas

4558-538: The Russian Dnieper Army (62,000 men), under the command of Field Marshal Burkhard Christoph von Münnich , stormed the Crimean fortifications at Perekop and occupied Bakhchysarai on June 17. The Crimean khans failed to defend their territory and repel the invasion. In 1736, 1737, and 1738, Russian expeditionary armies broke through their defensive positions, pushing deep into the Crimean peninsula, driving

4664-608: The Russian Empire. According to the Imperial census's terminology, the Russian language ( Русскій ) was subdivided into Ukrainian (Малорусскій, ' Little Russian '), what is known as Russian today (Великорусскій, ' Great Russian '), and Belarusian (Бѣлорусскій, 'White Russian'). The following table shows the distribution of settlement by native language ( "по родному языку" ) in 1897 in Russian Empire governorates ( guberniyas ) that had more than 100,000 Ukrainian speakers. Although in

4770-457: The Russian fort of Kamenny Zaton , about 10 days' march from Perekop . Here, he turned back because of the cold and the loss of 3,000 horses. The next day, a snowstorm killed another 1,000 horses. By late November, he was back where he started, having lost 9,000 of his 40,000 men and about 9,000 horses. 1736: Azov captured: Around 30 March 1736, Münnich and 5,000 men besieged Azov. Additional soldiers arrived, and on 7 April, Münnich left to join

4876-613: The Russians nor the Ottomans fulfilled their goals. However, there are also sources that claim an Ottoman victory or a Russian victory in the war. For Austria, the war proved a stunning defeat. The Russian forces were much more successful on the field, but they lost tens of thousands to disease. The Russians had access to the Black Sea but were not allowed to maintain any fleet in the Azov and Black Sea. This section summarizes Davies and Amin in sources. The Ottoman Empire held forts along

4982-460: The Soviet Union and a special term, "a language of inter-ethnic communication", was coined to denote its status. After the death of Stalin (1953), a general policy of relaxing the language policies of the past was implemented (1958 to 1963). The Khrushchev era which followed saw a policy of relatively lenient concessions to development of the languages at the local and republic level, though its results in Ukraine did not go nearly as far as those of

5088-509: The Soviet policy of Ukrainianization in the 1920s. Journals and encyclopedic publications advanced in the Ukrainian language during the Khrushchev era, as well as transfer of Crimea under Ukrainian SSR jurisdiction. Yet, the 1958 school reform that allowed parents to choose the language of primary instruction for their children, unpopular among the circles of the national intelligentsia in parts of

5194-444: The Tatar noblemen into the hills and forcing Khan Fetih II Giray to take refuge at sea. They burned Gozlev , Karasubazar , and the khan's palace in the Crimean capital, Bakhchysarai. Additionally, they captured the Ottoman fortress at Azov . Khans Qaplan I Giray and Fetih II Giray were deposed by the Ottoman sultan Mahmud I for their incompetence. However, the years 1737 to 1739 were notable plague years, and all sides of

5300-401: The Turks advanced and took places in Serbia and on the Danube. In 1739, Austria crossed the Danube, fought a battle at Grocka , and fell back to the Danube. Belgrade was under siege by the Turks when talks began. Austria gave up Belgrade , Serbia south of the Danube, and western Wallachia, which was perhaps more than the military situation required. The war was poorly managed. The next year,

5406-428: The Turks came back.) 1737: Second invasion of Crimea: The goal was to prevent the Crimeans from supporting Ochakov, damage Crimea as much as possible, and capture the Turkish fort of Kaffa if possible. On 3 May 1737, Peter Lacy set out from the Mius River near Taganrog, about 50 km west of Azov. Around 320 small boats with supplies and Don Cossacks followed along the coast. On 23 May, the two forces joined at what

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5512-447: The USSR, meant that non-Russian languages would slowly give way to Russian in light of the pressures of survival and advancement. The gains of the past, already largely reversed by the Stalin era, were offset by the liberal attitude towards the requirement to study the local languages (the requirement to study Russian remained). Parents were usually free to choose the language of study of their children (except in few areas where attending

5618-564: The Ukrainian language dates to the late 16th century. By the 16th century, a peculiar official language formed: a mixture of the liturgical standardised language of Old Church Slavonic , Ruthenian and Polish . The influence of the latter gradually increased relative to the former two, as the nobility and rural large-landowning class, known as the szlachta , was largely Polish-speaking. Documents soon took on many Polish characteristics superimposed on Ruthenian phonetics. Polish–Lithuanian rule and education also involved significant exposure to

5724-415: The Ukrainian language held the formal position of the principal local language in the Ukrainian SSR . However, practice was often a different story: Ukrainian always had to compete with Russian, and the attitudes of the Soviet leadership towards Ukrainian varied from encouragement and tolerance to de facto banishment. Officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union until the very end when it

5830-465: The Ukrainian language. Examples include torba (bag) and tyutyun (tobacco). Because of the substantial number of loanwords from Polish, German, Czech and Latin, early modern vernacular Ukrainian ( prosta mova , " simple speech ") had more lexical similarity with West Slavic languages than with Russian or Church Slavonic. By the mid-17th century, the linguistic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages had become so significant that there

5936-409: The Ukrainian school might have required a long daily commute) and they often chose Russian, which reinforced the resulting Russification. In this sense, some analysts argue that it was not the "oppression" or "persecution", but rather the lack of protection against the expansion of Russian language that contributed to the relative decline of Ukrainian in the 1970s and 1980s. According to this view, it

6042-407: The chancellery and gradually evolved into the Ruthenian language. Polish rule, which came later, was accompanied by a more assimilationist policy. By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to Polish administration, resulting in cultural Polonization and visible attempts to colonize Ukraine by

6148-418: The conflict were crippled by disease and unsanitary conditions. Despite his success and a string of battlefield victories, the outbreak of an epidemic coupled with shortages forced Münnich to retreat to Ukraine. On 19 June 1736, the Russian Don Army of 28,000 men, under the command of General Peter Lacy , with support from the Don Flotilla under the command of Vice Admiral Peter Bredahl , seized

6254-407: The existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko , Vsevolod Hantsov , Olena Kurylo , Ivan Ohienko and others. According to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language

6360-406: The following year. In order not to waste that year's campaigning season, he dispatched Leontev on a raid. 1735: Leontev's raid Leontev set off on 1 October 1735, far too late in the season. He started near the Samara River and marched south, east of the Dnieper bend. At Konska Voda , he killed about 1,000 Nogais and stole their livestock. He turned west with the river, and on 16 October, reached

6466-445: The kalga’s seat at Ak Mechet . Most of the Crimean army had scattered to the hills, while the Turks withdrew to Kaffa. Münnich hoped to capture Kaffa before the Turks could send reinforcements, but on 25 June, he decided to withdraw. Dysentery had first been noted on 7 June. Soon, a third of the army was sick, and many of the rest weakened. There was not enough food, fresh water, or fodder to support his army. By 18 July, they were back on

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6572-421: The khan’s army. They blasted Or Kapi with mortars, which surrendered around the beginning of July. They turned south, but on 6 July, they decided to go home. There was little food or fodder because the Crimean interior had been trashed the previous year, supplies with the Azov fleet had been lost (see Azov fleet below), and disease was beginning to appear. They stopped a Tatar attack on 9 July, rested at Perekop for

6678-417: The language of much of the literature was purely or heavily Old Church Slavonic . Some theorists see an early Ukrainian stage in language development here, calling it Old Ruthenian; others term this era Old East Slavic . Russian theorists tend to amalgamate Rus' to the modern nation of Russia, and call this linguistic era Old Russian. However, according to Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak (2012), people from

6784-451: The long sand spit just east of Henichesk Strait . They hauled their boats across the sand spit and reassembled near Henichesk , where they were again caught on 16 June. They landed their guns, built a shore battery, and burned their boats. There was a two-day artillery duel, but the Turks chose not to land, perhaps because they lacked marines. The loss of the supply fleet forced Lacy to withdraw from Crimea. 1738: Western campaign: The goal

6890-420: The main force on the Dnieper. In May Peter Lacy took over and on 26 June the Turks surrendered on condition of safe passage. Lacy set off for Crimea, but turned back when he heard of Münnich's withdrawal. 1736: First Russian invasion of Crimea: In mid-April, Münnich set off south with 54,000 men and 8,000 or 9,000 carts, following Leontiev’s route east of the Dnieper bend. On 4 May, the Tatars were defeated at

6996-402: The modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from the dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. After the fall of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, Ukrainians mainly fell under the rule of Lithuania and then Poland . Local autonomy of both rule and language was a marked feature of Lithuanian rule. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old East Slavic became the language of

7102-443: The name Little Russia for Ukraine and Little Russian for the language, an expression that originated in Byzantine Greek and may originally have meant "old, original, fundamental Russia", and had been in use since the 14th century. Ukrainian high culture went into a long period of steady decline. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was taken over by the Russian Empire. Most of the remaining Ukrainian schools also switched to Polish or Russian in

7208-412: The native language for the majority in the nation on the eve of Ukrainian independence, a significant share of ethnic Ukrainians were russified. In Donetsk there were no Ukrainian language schools and in Kyiv only a quarter of children went to Ukrainian language schools. The Russian language was the dominant vehicle, not just of government function, but of the media, commerce, and modernity itself. This

7314-399: The north shore of the Black Sea and on the eastern side of the Balkans. Azov kept the Don Cossacks out of the Sea of Azov. Kaffa dominated the Crimean Khanate. Or Kapi, behind the Perekop trenches, guarded the entrance to Crimea. Ochakov, at the mouth of the Dnieper, kept the Dnieper Cossacks out of the Black Sea. Khotyn, on the upper Dniester, watched the Polish Commonwealth. The Turkish border

7420-431: The north-eastern side of the underground separated branch - the river Sysyna, flows into the Dnieper. Sich was a city - a fortress surrounded by a rampart and palisades . The Underground Sich consisted of three parts: the suburbs, or the so-called shop bazaar , where all tents and visitors had their shops and taverns for trade, where there were houses of market atamans and military canary or keeper of scales. This suburb

7526-408: The northwest part of the Persian Empire. Russia took the west side of the Caspian and the Ottomans got as far as Tabriz . Nader Shah slowly restored Persian power. By 1734, Persia was reconquering its land south of the Caucasus, and it was clear that Russia could not hold its gains. In 1733 or 1734, the Turks ordered Crimea to send a force across the north Caucasus to attack the Persians. Eropkin on

7632-569: The opposite bank. 250 Russian prisoners were freed there. On 9 January 1737, Austria joined the war drawing Turkish troops away from the Black Sea. The Turko-Persian conflict had ended in September 1736 , but it took time to move Turkish troops west. The plan for 1737 involved one army capturing the Turkish fort of Ochakov at the mouth of the Dnieper-Bug estuary, while a second army invaded Crimea. 1737:Capture of Ochakov: In early April, Münnich left

7738-500: The ostentatious purpose of helping the Cossacks in their war with the Ottomans , but in reality, for the hidden purpose of keeping them in their hands. However, the Cossacks well understood the reason for the construction of the Russian citadel , expressing their dissatisfaction with the words: "We have a Moscow sore liver." Given the historical events that took place during the existence of

7844-472: The population said Ukrainian was their native language. Until the 1920s the urban population in Ukraine grew faster than the number of Ukrainian speakers. This implies that there was a (relative) decline in the use of Ukrainian language. For example, in Kyiv, the number of people stating that Ukrainian was their native language declined from 30.3% in 1874 to 16.6% in 1917. During the seven-decade-long Soviet era ,

7950-510: The present-day reflex is /ɣ/. Ahatanhel Krymsky and Aleksey Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the common spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century. Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak stated that the Old Novgorod dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus' during

8056-565: The priest of the Sich Church of the Intercession, Volodymyr Sokalsky, began to ask that they avoid fratricide . In the end, the Kosh Ataman surrendered Sich without a fight. On June 4, 1775, the Nova (Pidpilnenska) Sich ceased to exist. On the site of the Sich, the village of Pokrovske later appeared, which in the 1950s was submerged under the waters of the artificial Kakhovka Reservoir . The reservoir

8162-573: The printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores. A period of leniency after 1905 was followed by another strict ban in 1914, which also affected Russian-occupied Galicia. For much of the 19th century the Austrian authorities demonstrated some preference for Polish culture, but the Ukrainians were relatively free to partake in their own cultural pursuits in Halychyna and Bukovina , where Ukrainian

8268-543: The prospect of Russian military success. This, coupled with the imminent threat of a Swedish invasion , and Ottoman alliances with Prussia , Poland , and Sweden, forced Russia to sign the Treaty of Niš with Turkey on 29 September, which ended the war. The peace treaty granted Azov to Russia and consolidated Russia's control over the Zaporizhia in exchange for Russia abandoning its claims to Crimea and Moldova. The Russian campaign ended indecisively for both sides; neither

8374-562: The rural regions of the Ukrainian provinces, 80% of the inhabitants said that Ukrainian was their native language in the Census of 1897 (for which the results are given above), in the urban regions only 32.5% of the population claimed Ukrainian as their native language. For example, in Odesa (then part of the Russian Empire), at the time the largest city in the territory of current Ukraine, only 5.6% of

8480-558: The same size as the previous year. On 19 May, he met the supply fleet at what is now Berdiansk on the Azov coast (see Azov fleet below). Lacy learned that Mengli and 30,000 men were waiting behind Perekop, and that Turkish troops had garrisoned Or Kapi. They rested at Molochnye Vody. Instead of attacking Perekop, Lacy chose to cross the Syvash by wading at low tide, possibly near the Chongar Strait . They turned west and got between Perekop and

8586-661: The sixteenth and first half of the 17th century, when Ukraine was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, albeit in spite of being part of the PLC, not as a result. Among many schools established in that time, the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium (the predecessor of the modern Kyiv-Mohyla Academy ), founded by the Orthodox Metropolitan Peter Mogila , was the most important. At that time languages were associated more with religions: Catholics spoke Polish, and members of

8692-508: The spring of 1736. Crimean interference in the Caucasus served as one pretext for the war. In March 1735, through the Treaty of Ganja , Russia returned its territorial gains to Persia and forged an alliance with Persia against Turkey. With Crimean troops absent from the peninsula and the Turks engaged with Persia, Russia seized the opportunity for a surprise attack. General Münnich moved south and discovered that his army would not be ready until

8798-462: The term native language may not necessarily associate with the language they use more frequently. The overwhelming majority of ethnic Ukrainians consider the Ukrainian language native , including those who often speak Russian. According to the official 2001 census data, 92.3% of Kyiv region population responded "Ukrainian" to the native language ( ridna mova ) census question, compared with 88.4% in 1989, and 7.2% responded "Russian". In 2019,

8904-558: The territories controlled by these respective countries, which was followed by a new wave of Polonization and Russification of the native nobility. Gradually the official language of Ukrainian provinces under Poland was changed to Polish, while the upper classes in the Russian part of Ukraine used Russian. During the 19th century, a revival of Ukrainian self-identification manifested in the literary classes of both Russian-Empire Dnieper Ukraine and Austrian Galicia . The Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius in Kyiv applied an old word for

9010-519: The territory of present-day Ukraine. Russification saw the Ukrainian language banned as a subject from schools and as a language of instruction in the Russian Empire , and continued in various ways in the Soviet Union . Even so, the language continued to see use throughout the country, and remained particularly strong in Western Ukraine . Specific developments that led to a gradual change of

9116-546: The time, such as the merger of the Old East Slavic vowel phonemes и /i/ and ы /ɨ/ into the specifically Ukrainian phoneme /ɪ ~ e/, spelled with и (in the 13th/14th centuries), and the fricativisation of the Old East Slavic consonant г /g/, probably first to /ɣ/ (in the 13th century), with /ɦ/ as a reflex in Modern Ukrainian, did not happen in Russian. Only the fricativisation of Old East Slavic г /g/ occurred in Belarusian, where

9222-516: The use of Ukrainian. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over the first decade of independence from a system that is partly Ukrainian to one that is overwhelmingly so. The government has also mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. In the 2001 census , 67.5% of the country's population named Ukrainian as their native language (a 2.8% increase from 1989), while 29.6% named Russian (a 3.2% decrease). For many Ukrainians (of various ethnic origins),

9328-527: Was a need for translators during negotiations for the Treaty of Pereyaslav , between Bohdan Khmelnytsky , head of the Zaporozhian Host , and the Russian state. By the 18th century, Ruthenian had diverged into regional variants, developing into the modern Belarusian , Rusyn , and Ukrainian languages. The accepted chronology of Ukrainian divides the language into Old Ukrainian, Middle Ukrainian, and Modern Ukrainian. Shevelov explains that much of this

9434-741: Was called Hassan - Basha. From it began the gate that led to Kosh - the main fortification, where around the Sich Square were located 38 huts. The huts were spacious barracks. Between the huts of the Ustup Bay and the Podpilna River is the Inner Kish or Palanka, separated by a wall from the Outer Kosh. Palanka housed the houses of the Kosh Ataman and Sich officers, as well as the Sich Cathedral Church of

9540-522: Was close to the current Ukrainian border along the Dniester. Polish claims extended to the Dnieper, except for Kiev. Russia had a very vague border about 100 or more miles south of the current border. The semi-independent Zaporozhian Cossacks were along the Dnieper bend. The Crimean Khanate and its Nogai steppe allies raided Poland and Russia and sold the captives to the Turks at Kaffa . In 1722, Russia and Turkey took advantage of Persian weakness to capture

9646-753: Was destroyed, and the liberty of the Zaporozhian Army was annulled. After the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1768-1774) , in which the Zaporozhian Cossacks took an active part, Lieutenant General Peter Tekeli led 10 infantry , 13 Russian Cossack , 8 cavalry regular regiments , 20 hussars , and 17 Picker squadrons to the Sich. Despite the small number, the Cossacks appealed to the Kosh Ataman Peter Kalnyshevsky for permission to defend himself to death. However, wealthy officers advised Koshov to give in without any conditions; in addition,

9752-629: Was drained following the destruction of the Kakhovka Dam in 2023. Ukrainian language Ukrainian ( українська мова , ukrainska mova , IPA: [ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐ ˈmɔʋɐ] ) is one of the East Slavic languages in the Indo-European languages family, and it is spoken primarily in Ukraine . It is the first (native) language of a large majority of Ukrainians . Written Ukrainian uses

9858-548: Was exiled for seven years to Arkhangelsk . The Ukrainian magazine Osnova was discontinued. In 1863, the tsarist interior minister Pyotr Valuyev proclaimed in his decree that "there never has been, is not, and never can be a separate Little Russian language". Although the name of Ukraine is known since 1187, it was not applied to the language until the mid-19th century. The linguonym Ukrainian language appears in Yakub Holovatsky 's book from 1849, listed there as

9964-504: Was for Münnich to lead the main army to the Dniester and attack the border forts at either Khotin or Bender. On 17 April, he crossed the Dnieper south of Poltava, and in late June, he crossed the Bug . He reached the Dniester, but on 6 August, he abandoned the campaign because of Turkish resistance and reports of plague west of the river. 1739: Failed invasion of Crimea: Levashev was supposed to march from Azov, but an epidemic forced him to halt at

10070-448: Was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to an intensive migration of the population within the territory of today's Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was also supported by George Shevelov 's phonological studies, which argue that specific features were already recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic (seen as ancestors to Ukrainian) as far back as these varieties can be documented. As

10176-407: Was gradually Polonized. In Ruthenia, the language of administrative documents gradually shifted towards Polish. Polish has had heavy influences on Ukrainian (particularly in Western Ukraine ). The southwestern Ukrainian dialects are transitional to Polish. As the Ukrainian language developed further, some borrowings from Tatar and Turkish occurred. Ukrainian culture and language flourished in

10282-554: Was inevitable that successful careers required a good command of Russian, while knowledge of Ukrainian was not vital, so it was common for Ukrainian parents to send their children to Russian-language schools, even though Ukrainian-language schools were usually available. The number of students in Russian-language in Ukraine schools was constantly increasing, from 14 percent in 1939 to more than 30 percent in 1962. The Communist Party leader from 1963 to 1972, Petro Shelest , pursued

10388-482: Was lessened only slightly after 1985. The management of dissent by the local Ukrainian Communist Party was more fierce and thorough than in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, at the start of the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms perebudova and hlasnist’ (Ukrainian for perestroika and glasnost ), Ukraine under Shcherbytsky was slower to liberalize than Russia itself. Although Ukrainian still remained

10494-614: Was located on a large peninsula, washed by the river Pidpilna (a tributary of the Dnieper ). Nova Sich was founded with the permission and under the supervision of the Russian government on March 31, 1734, by Ataman-Hetman I. Malashevich on the Right Bank of the Dnieper in the Great Meadow , which occupied 26 thousand acres. The basis for the continued existence of the Nova Sich as a territory

10600-550: Was no hope, and returned to the Ukrainian line, which he reached on 24 August. 1739: Western campaign: Münnich planned to capture Khotin to take pressure off the Austrians, who were doing poorly. He left Kiev in late April, crossing Polish territory because the land was better and the Poles were too weak to interfere. He won the Battle of Stavuchany in August, took Khotin, and marched south to Jassy . There he learned that Austria had signed

10706-616: Was not enough fresh water and fodder, and sickness was starting to appear. On 23 July, he crossed the Henichesk Strait, and a month later reached "Molochnye Vody". Because of the invasion, the Turks replaced Khan Fetih II with Meñli II Giray . Planning started in November 1737. The goal for 1738 was to tie down the Crimeans while Münnich attacked along the Dniester in support of the Austrians. 1738: Third invasion of Crimea: Peter Lacy started from Vol'chye Vody (location?) with an army about

10812-537: Was proclaimed in 1990 that Russian language was the all-Union state language and that the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. Still it was implicitly understood in the hopes of minority nations that Ukrainian would be used in the Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek would be used in the Uzbek SSR , and so on. However, Russian was used as the lingua franca in all parts of

10918-468: Was signed in 1734, the Lubny Treaty on the recognition of the Russian protectorate by the Cossacks . To oversee the actions of the Cossacks, the imperial government built a fortification 2 km from the Nova Sich with two half-bastions and a permanent garrison - the so-called Nova Sich retransmission. According to historians, the Nova Sich retrenchment was erected in the Sich by the imperial government for

11024-400: Was substantially less the case for western Ukraine, which escaped the artificial famine , Great Purge , and most of Stalinism . And this region became the center of a hearty, if only partial, renaissance of the Ukrainian language during independence. Since 1991, Ukrainian has been the official state language in Ukraine, and the state administration implemented government policies to broaden

11130-651: Was the raids of the Crimean Tatars on the Cossack Hetmanate at the end of 1735 and the Crimean Khan's military campaign in the Caucasus. In 1736, the Russian commanders envisioned the seizure of Azov and the Crimean Peninsula . In 1735, on the eve of the war, Russia made peace with Persia, returning all the remaining territory conquered during the Russo-Persian War ( Treaty of Ganja ). On 20 May 1736,

11236-532: Was widely used in education and official documents. The suppression by Russia hampered the literary development of the Ukrainian language in Dnipro Ukraine, but there was a constant exchange with Halychyna, and many works were published under Austria and smuggled to the east. By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of Austro-Hungary in 1918, Ukrainians were ready to openly develop

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