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113-715: This program seeks to re-establish the horse culture of the Nez Perce , a tradition of selective breeding of Appaloosa horses and horsemanship that was nearly destroyed by the U.S. Government in the 19th century. The breeding program was financed by the United States Department of Health and Human Services , the Nez Perce Tribe and a nonprofit group called the First Nations Development Institute , which promotes such businesses. The Nez Perce Horse

226-593: A reservation in North Central Idaho at 46°18′N 116°24′W  /  46.300°N 116.400°W  / 46.300; -116.400 , primarily in the Camas Prairie region south of the Clearwater River , in parts of four counties. In descending order of surface area, the counties are Nez Perce , Lewis , Idaho , and Clearwater . The total land area is about 1,195 square miles (3,100 km ), and

339-512: A State within which their reservation may be established, and the State gives them no protection." White settlers continued to flood into Indian country. As the population increased, the homesteaders could petition Congress for creation of a territory. This would initiate an Organic Act , which established a three-part territorial government. The governor and judiciary were appointed by the President of

452-450: A ceremonial feast known as " kooyit ". Thanksgiving was offered to the Creator and to the fish for having returned and given themselves to the people as food. In this way, it was hoped that the fish would return the next year. Like salmon, plants contributed to traditional Nez Perce culture in both material and spiritual dimensions. Aside from fish and game, Plant foods provided over half of

565-508: A dream or trance. The weyekin was to bestow the animal's powers on its bearer—for example; a deer might give its bearer swiftness. A person's weyekin was very personal. It was rarely shared with anyone and was contemplated in private. The weyekin stayed with the person until death. Helen Hunt Jackson , author of " A Century of Dishonor ", written in 1881 refers to the Nez Perce as "the richest, noblest, and most gentle" of Indian peoples as well as

678-505: A fast and smooth running walk. The Nez Perce people are historically known for their selective horse breeding practices, according to NPHR breeders Jon and Rosa Yearout. https://www.idahocountyfreepress.com/farm-and-ranch/how-a-new-line-of-nez-perce-horses-came-home/article_8d8a5908-cdaf-11e9-9195-0b55da9a3cef.html Nez Perce people The Nez Perce ( / ˌ n ɛ z ˈ p ɜːr s , ˌ n ɛ s -/ ; autonym in Nez Perce language : nimíipuu , meaning "we,

791-539: A federal crime to commit murder, manslaughter, rape, assault with intent to kill, arson, burglary, or larceny within any Territory of the United States. The Supreme Court affirmed the action in 1886 in United States v. Kagama , which affirmed that the U.S. government has plenary power over Native American tribes within its borders using the rationalization that "The power of the general government over these remnants of

904-830: A formal government until after the American Civil War . After the Civil War, the Southern Treaty Commission re-wrote treaties with tribes that sided with the Confederacy , reducing the territory of the Five Civilized Tribes and providing land to resettle Plains Indians and tribes of the Midwestern United States . These re-written treaties included provisions for a territorial legislature with proportional representation from various tribes. In time,

1017-426: A link to the invisible world of spiritual power". The weyekin would protect one from harm and become a personal guardian spirit. To receive a weyekin, a seeker would go to the mountains alone on a vision quest. This included fasting and meditation over several days. While on the quest, the individual may receive a vision of a spirit, which would take the form of a mammal or bird. This vision could appear physically or in

1130-555: A more common name, they changed it to Watopahlute . This comes from pahlute , nasal passage, and is simply a play on words. If translated literally, it would come out as either "Nasal Passage of the Canoe" (Watopa-pahlute) or "Nasal Passage of the Grass" (Wato-pahlute). The Assiniboine called them Pasú oȟnógA wįcaštA , the Arikara sinitčiškataríwiš . The tribe also uses the term "Nez Perce", as does

1243-572: A path for statehood for much of the original Indian Country , Congress never passed an Organic Act for the Indian Territory. Indian Territory was never an organized territory of the United States . In general, tribes could not sell land to non-Indians ( Johnson v. McIntosh ). Treaties with the tribes restricted entry of non-Indians into tribal areas; Indian tribes were largely self-governing, were suzerain nations, with established tribal governments and well established cultures. The region never had

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1356-586: A race once powerful ... is necessary to their protection as well as to the safety of those among whom they dwell". While the federal government of the United States had previously recognized the Indian Tribes as semi-independent, "it has the right and authority, instead of controlling them by treaties, to govern them by acts of Congress, they being within the geographical limit of the United States ;... The Indians [Native Americans] owe no allegiance to

1469-611: A single state. This resulted in passage of the Oklahoma Enabling Act , which President Roosevelt signed June 16, 1906. empowered the people residing in Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory to elect delegates to a state constitutional convention and subsequently to be admitted to the union as a single state. Citizens then joined to seek admission of a single state to the Union. With Oklahoma statehood in November 1907, Indian Territory

1582-467: A survey that established the western border of Arkansas Territory 45 miles west of Ft. Smith. But this was part of the negotiated lands of Lovely's Purchase where the Cherokee , Choctaw, Creek and other tribes had been settling, and these indian nations objected strongly. In 1828 a new survey redefined the western Arkansas border just west of Ft. Smith. After these redefinitions, the "Indian zone" would cover

1695-579: A transliteration of a Sahaptin term. According to D.E. Walker in 1998, writing for the Smithsonian , this term is an adaptation of the term cú·pʼnitpeľu (the Nez Perce people). The term is formed from cú·pʼnit (piercing with a pointed object) and peľu (people). By contrast, the Nez Perce Language Dictionary has a different analysis than did Walker for the term cú·pʼnitpeľu . The prefix cú - means "in single file". This prefix, combined with

1808-606: Is "fit to carry the Nez Perce name," according to Rudy Shebala, director of the Tribe’s Horse Registry and the Nez Perce Young Horsemen program. The Akhal-Teke is an ancient breed that originated in Turkmenistan (near Afghanistan ). They are known for their superb endurance and "metallic" coats. The Akhal-Teke coat colors commonly include palominos , buckskins, and dark bays . A typical Nez Perce Horse

1921-572: Is a buckskin or palomino with Appaloosa characteristics—mottled skin with a spotted coat or a blanket. The Nez Perce Horse 's conformation is longer and leaner than the Quarter Horses or other stock horses of the Western U.S., with narrower shoulders and hindquarters, a longer back, and a lean runner's appearance. They are good at long rides and compete well in endurance races; they are also good jumpers. The Nez Perce Horses are often gaited, with

2034-548: Is an exonym given by French Canadian fur traders who visited the area regularly in the late 18th century, meaning literally "pierced nose". English-speaking traders and settlers adopted the name in turn. Since the late 20th century, the Nez Perce identify most often as Nimíipuu in Sahaptin. This has also been spelled Nee-Me-Poo. The Lakota/Dakota named them the Watopala , or Canoe people, from Watopa . After Nez Perce became

2147-677: Is an alliance of the Ojibwe , Odawa , and Potawatomi tribes. In the Second Treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1829, the tribes of the Council of Three Fires ceded to the United States their lands in Illinois , Michigan , and Wisconsin . The 1833 Treaty of Chicago forced the members of the Council of Three Fires to move first to present-day Iowa , then Kansas and Nebraska and ultimately to Oklahoma . The Illinois Potawatomi moved to present-day Nebraska and

2260-524: Is in the historic territory of the large Wallowa Band. The Homeland has owned 320 acres (130 ha) and a visitor center since 2000, to "enrich relationships among the descendants of indigenous people and the contemporary inhabitants of the Wallowa Valley ... [and to] preserve and celebrate the customs and culture of the indigenous inhabitants." A Methodist church was established in Wallowa in 1877, and in 2021

2373-518: Is now called Weippe Prairie . The explorers were favorably impressed by the Nez Perce whom they met. Preparing to make the remainder of their journey to the Pacific by boats on rivers, they entrusted the keeping of their horses until they returned to "2 brothers and one son of one of the Chiefs." One of these Indians was Walammottinin (meaning "Hair Bunched and tied," but more commonly known as Twisted Hair). He

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2486-567: The Appaloosa horse in the 18th century. Prior to first contact with European colonial people the Nimiipuu were economically and culturally influential in trade and war, interacting with other indigenous nations in a vast network from the western shores of Oregon and Washington , the high plains of Montana , and the northern Great Basin in southern Idaho and northern Nevada . French explorers and trappers indiscriminately used and popularized

2599-635: The Blackfoot Confederacy (Niitsitapi or Siksikaitsitapi) (’Isq’óyxnix/Issq-oykinix - "Blackfooted People") (composed of three Blackfoot speaking peoples – the Piegan or Peigan (Piikáni) , the Kainai or Bloods (Káínaa) , and the Siksika or Blackfoot (Siksikáwa) , later joined by the unrelated Sarcee (Tsuu T'ina) and (for a time) by Gros Ventre or Atsina (A'aninin) (H'elutiin)). The feared Blackfoot Confederacy and

2712-506: The Cherokee , Choctaw , Chickasaw , Creek , Seminole , and other displaced Eastern American tribes. Indian reservations remain within the boundaries of U.S. states, but are largely exempt from state jurisdiction. The term " Indian country " is used to signify lands under the control of Native nations, including Indian reservations, trust lands on Oklahoma Tribal Statistical Area , or, more casually, to describe anywhere large numbers of Native Americans live. Indian Territory, also known as

2825-505: The Clearwater River (in Kamiah and east of Lewiston ), health clinics, a police force and court, community centers, salmon fisheries, radio station, and other institutions that promote economic and cultural self-determination . Their name for themselves is nimíipuu (pronounced [nimiːpuː] ), meaning, "we, the people", in their language, part of the Sahaptin family. Nez Percé

2938-780: The Crow but, upon the Crow's refusal to offer help, the Nez Perce tried to reach the camp in Canada of Lakota Chief Sitting Bull . He had migrated there instead of surrendering after the Indian victory at the Battle of the Little Bighorn . The Nez Perce were pursued by over 2,000 soldiers of the U.S. Army on an epic flight to freedom of more than 1,170 miles (1,880 km) across four states and multiple mountain ranges. The 250 Nez Perce warriors defeated or held off

3051-783: The Great Lakes region , organized following the American Revolutionary War to resist the expansion of the United States into the Northwest Territory . Members of the confederacy were ultimately removed to the present-day Oklahoma, including the Shawnee , Delaware , also called Lenape , Miami , and Kickapoo . The area of Pottawatomie County, Oklahoma was used to resettle the Iowa tribe , Sac and Fox , Absentee Shawnee , Potawatomi , and Kickapoo tribes. The Council of Three Fires

3164-738: The Great Plains , subjected to extended periods of drought and high winds, and the Ozark Plateau is to the east in a humid subtropical climate zone. Tribes indigenous to the present day state of Oklahoma include both agrarian and hunter-gatherer tribes. The arrival of horses with the Spanish in the 16th century ushered in horse culture -era, when tribes could adopt a nomadic lifestyle and follow abundant bison herds. The Southern Plains villagers , an archaeological culture that flourished from 800 to 1500 AD, lived in semi-sedentary villages throughout

3277-547: The Iron Confederacy (Nehiyaw-Pwat) (named after the dominating Plains and Woods Cree (Paskwāwiyiniwak and Sakāwithiniwak) and Assiniboine (Nakoda) (Wihnen’íipel’uu), an alliance of northern plains Native American nations based around the fur trade, and later included the Stoney (Nakoda) , Western Saulteaux / Plains Ojibwe (Bungi or Nakawē) (Sat'sashipunu/Sat'sashipuun - "Porcupine People" or "Porcupine Eater"), and Métis ) and

3390-816: The Native American tribes . The proclamation limited the settlement of Europeans to lands east of the Appalachian Mountains . The territory remained active until the Treaty of Paris that ended the American Revolutionary War , and the land was ceded to the United States. The Indian Reserve was slowly reduced in size via treaties with the American colonists, and after the British defeat in the Revolutionary War,

3503-471: The Nez Perce Horse . They wanted to restore part of their traditional horse culture, where they had conducted selective breeding of their horses, long considered a marker of wealth and status, and trained their members in a high quality of horsemanship. Social disruption due to reservation life and assimilationist pressures by Americans and the government resulted in the destruction of their horse culture in

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3616-755: The Nez Perce War of 1877, and Dawes Act of 1887 land allotments, the Nez Perce remain as a distinct culture and political economic influence within and outside their reservation. As a federally recognized tribe , the Nez Perce Tribe of Idaho govern their Native reservation in Idaho through a central government headquartered in Lapwai known as the Nez Perce Tribal Executive Committee (NPTEC). They are one of five federally recognized tribes in

3729-630: The Pacific Coast (’Eteyekuus) ("Big Water"). Before the 1957 construction of The Dalles Dam , which flooded this area, Celilo Falls (Silayloo) was a favored location on the Columbia River (Xuyelp) ("The Great River") for salmon (lé'wliks) -fishing. The Columbia Basin Initiative aims to improve salmon-fishing for the tribe. The Nez Perce had many allies and trading partners among neighboring peoples, but also enemies and ongoing antagonist tribes. To

3842-723: The Snake (Weyikespe) , Grande Ronde River , Salmon (Naco’x kuus) (" Chinook salmon Water") and the Clearwater (Koos-Kai-Kai) ("Clear Water") rivers. The tribal area extended from the Bitterroots in the east (the door to the Northwestern Plains of Montana) to the Blue Mountains in the west between latitudes 45°N and 47°N. In 1800, the Nez Perce had more than 70 permanent villages, ranging from 30 to 200 individuals, depending on

3955-708: The Snake Indians (various Northern Paiute (Numu) bands (Hey’ǘuxcpel’uu) in the southwest and Bannock (Nimi Pan a'kwati) - Northern Shoshone (Newe) bands (Tiwélqe/Tewelk'a, later Sosona') in the southeast), to the east lived the Lemhi Shoshone (Lémhaay), north of them the Bitterroot Salish / Flathead (Seliš) (Séelix/Se'lix), further east and northeast on the Northern Plains were the Crow (Apsáalooke) (’Isúuxe/Isuuxh'e - "Crow People") and two powerful alliances –

4068-616: The South were the most prominent tribes displaced by the policy, a relocation that came to be known as the Trail of Tears during the Choctaw removals starting in 1831. The trail ended in what is now Arkansas and Oklahoma, where there were already many Indians living in the territory, as well as whites and escaped slaves. Other tribes, such as the Delaware , Cheyenne , and Apache were also forced to relocate to

4181-542: The U.S. Cavalry . During the surrender negotiations, Chief Joseph sent a message, usually described as a speech, to the US soldiers. It has become renowned as one of the greatest American speeches: "...Hear me, my chiefs, I am tired. My heart is sick and sad. From where the sun now stands, I will fight no more forever." Chief Joseph went to Washington, D.C., in January 1879 to meet with the President and Congress, after which his account

4294-418: The Washita River and South Canadian River in Oklahoma. Member tribes of the Caddo Confederacy lived in the eastern part of Indian Territory and are ancestors of the Caddo Nation. The Caddo people speak a Caddoan language and is a confederation of several tribes who traditionally inhabited much of what is now East Texas , North Louisiana , and portions of southern Arkansas , and Oklahoma . The tribe

4407-399: The 18th century, prior to Indian Removal by the U.S. federal government, the Kiowa , Apache , and Comanche people entered into Indian Territory from the west, and the Quapaw and Osage entered from the east. During Indian Removal of the 19th century, additional tribes received their land either by treaty via land grant from the federal government of the United States or they purchased

4520-415: The 19th century. The 20th-century breeding program was financed by the United States Department of Health and Human Services , the Nez Perce tribe, and the nonprofit called the First Nations Development Institute . It has promoted businesses in Native American country that reflect values and traditions of the peoples. The Nez Perce Horse breed is noted for its speed. The current tribal lands consist of

4633-472: The Confederacy, reducing the territory of the Five Civilized Tribes and providing land to resettle Plains Native Americans and tribes of the mid-west. General components of replacement treaties signed in 1866 include: One component of assimilation would be the distribution of property held in-common by the tribe to individual members of the tribe. The Medicine Lodge Treaty is the overall name given to three treaties signed in Medicine Lodge, Kansas between

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4746-454: The Five Civilized Tribes, and others who had relocated to the Oklahoma section of Indian Territory, fought primarily on the side of the Confederacy during the American Civil War in Indian territory . Brigadier General Stand Watie , a Confederate commander of the Cherokee Nation , became the last Confederate general to surrender in the American Civil War, near the community of Doaksville on June 23, 1865. The Reconstruction Treaties signed at

4859-420: The Indian Western Confederacy at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, and imposed the Treaty of Greenville , which ceded most of what is now Ohio, part of present-day Indiana , and the lands that include present-day Chicago and Detroit , to the United States federal government . The period after the American Revolutionary War was one of rapid western expansion. The areas occupied by Native Americans in

4972-404: The Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land in the United States reserved for the forced resettlement of Native Americans . As such, it was not a traditional territory for the tribes settled upon it. The general borders were set by the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834. The territory was located in the Central United States . While Congress passed several Organic Acts that provided

5085-402: The Indian Territory was reduced to what is now Oklahoma . The Organic Act of 1890 reduced Indian Territory to the lands occupied by the Five Civilized Tribes and the Tribes of the Quapaw Indian Agency (at the borders of Kansas and Missouri). The remaining western portion of the former Indian Territory became the Oklahoma Territory . The Oklahoma Organic Act applied the laws of Nebraska to

5198-416: The Indian territory. The Five Civilized Tribes established tribal capitals in the following towns: These tribes founded towns such as Tulsa , Ardmore , Muskogee , which became some of the larger towns in the state. They also brought their African slaves to Oklahoma, which added to the African American population in the state. The Western Lakes Confederacy was a loose confederacy of tribes around

5311-450: The Indiana Potawatomi moved to present-day Osawatomie, Kansas , an event known as the Potawatomi Trail of Death . The group settling in Nebraska adapted to the Plains Indian culture but the group settling in Kansas remained steadfast to their woodlands culture . In 1867, part of the Kansas group negotiated the "Treaty of Washington with the Potawatomi" in which the Kansas Prairie Band Potawatomi Nation split and part of their land in Kansas

5424-512: The Nez Perce encampment the following spring, again hungry and exhausted. The tribe constructed a large tent for them and again fed them. Desiring fresh red meat, the party offered an exchange for a Nez Perce horse. Quoting from the Lewis and Clark diary, Fletcher writes, "The hospitality of the Chiefs was offended at the idea of an exchange. He observed that his people had an abundance of young horses and that if we were disposed to use that food, we might have as many as we wanted." The party stayed with

5537-413: The Nez Perce for a month before moving on. The Nez Perce were one of the tribal nations at the Walla Walla Council (1855) (along with the Cayuse , Umatilla , Walla Walla , and Yakama ), which signed the Treaty of Walla Walla. Under pressure from the European Americans , in the late 19th century the Nez Perce split into two groups: one side accepted the coerced relocation to a reservation and

5650-508: The Nez Perce had seasonal villages and camps to take advantage of natural resources throughout the year. Their migration followed a recurring pattern from permanent winter villages through several temporary camps, nearly always returning to the same locations each year. The Nez Perce traveled via the Lolo Trail (Salish: Naptnišaqs – "Nez Perce Trail") (Khoo-say-ne-ise-kit) as far east as the Plains (Khoo-sayn / Kuseyn) ("Buffalo country") of Montana to hunt buffalo (Qoq'a lx) and as far west as

5763-428: The Nez Perce when the team encountered the tribe in 1805. Writing in 1889, anthropologist Alice Fletcher , who the U.S. government had sent to Idaho to allot the Nez Perce Reservation, explained the mistaken naming. She wrote, It is never easy to come at the name of an Indian or even of an Indian tribe. A tribe has always at least two names; one they call themselves by and one by which they are known to other tribes. All

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5876-412: The Nez Perce's traditional hunting and fishing areas spanned from the Cascade Range in the west to the Bitterroot Mountains in the east. Historically, in late May and early June, Nez Perce villagers crowded to communal fishing sites to trap eels, steelhead, and chinook salmon, or haul in fish with large dip nets. Fishing took place throughout the summer and fall, first on the lower streams and then on

5989-462: The Reserve was ignored by European American settlers who slowly expanded westward . At the time of the American Revolutionary War, many Native American tribes had long-standing relationships with the British, and were loyal to Great Britain , but they had a less-developed relationship with the American colonists. After the defeat of the British in the war, the Americans twice invaded the Ohio Country and were twice defeated. They finally defeated

6102-423: The Southeast section of the US through a series of treaties. The southern part of Indian Country (what eventually became the State of Oklahoma) served as the destination for the policy of Indian removal, a policy pursued intermittently by American presidents early in the 19th century, but aggressively pursued by President Andrew Jackson after the passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. The Five Civilized Tribes in

6215-475: The U.S. and established framework of a legal system between the Caddo and the U.S. Tribal headquarters are in Binger, Oklahoma . The Wichita and Caddo both spoke Caddoan languages , as did the Kichai people , who were also indigenous to what is now Oklahoma and ultimately became part of the Wichita and Affiliated Tribes . The Wichita (and other tribes) signed a treaty of friendship with the U.S. in 1835. The tribe's headquarters are in Anadarko, Oklahoma . In

6328-577: The U.S. federal government's 18th- and 19th-century policy of Indian removal . After the American Civil War (1861–1865), the policy of the U.S. government was one of assimilation . Indian Territory later came to refer to an unorganized territory whose general borders were initially set by the Nonintercourse Act of 1834, and was the successor to the remainder of the Missouri Territory after Missouri received statehood. The borders of Indian Territory were reduced in size as various Organic Acts were passed by Congress to create organized territories of

6441-428: The U.S. government and southern Plains Indian tribes who would ultimately reside in the western part of Indian Territory (ultimately Oklahoma Territory). The first treaty was signed October 21, 1867, with the Kiowa and Comanche tribes. The second, with the Plains Apache , was signed the same day. The third treaty was signed with the Southern Cheyenne and Arapaho on October 28. Another component of assimilation

6554-502: The United Methodist Church returned a small parcel of land and the church building to the Nez Perce Tribe. The Tamkaliks Celebration is a powwow named after the Nez Perce word for where you can see the mountains. It began in 1991 to welcome the Nez Perce back home to the Wallowa Valley. In addition, the Colville Indian Reservation in eastern Washington contains the Joseph band of Nez Percé. The Triassic gastropod Cryptaulax nezperceorum Nützel & Erwin, 2004, found on

6667-409: The United States were called Indian country. They were distinguished from " unorganized territory " because the areas were established by treaty. In 1803, the United States agreed to purchase France 's claim to French Louisiana for a total of $ 15 million (less than 3 cents per acre). President Thomas Jefferson doubted the legality of the purchase. Robert R. Livingston , the chief negotiator of

6780-415: The United States . The 1906 Oklahoma Enabling Act created the single state of Oklahoma by combining Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory, annexing and ending the existence of an unorganized independent Indian Territory as such, and formally incorporating the tribes and residents into the United States. Before Oklahoma statehood, Indian Territory from 1890 onward comprised the territorial holdings of

6893-422: The United States Government in its official dealings with them, and contemporary historians. Older historical ethnological works and documents use the French spelling of Nez Percé , with the diacritic . The original French pronunciation is [ne pɛʁse] , with three syllables. The interpreters Sacagawea and Toussaint Charbonneau of the Lewis and Clark Expedition mistakenly identified this people as

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7006-403: The United States, while the legislature was elected by citizens residing in the territory. One elected representative was allowed a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives . The federal government took responsibility for territorial affairs. Later, the inhabitants of the territory could apply for admission as a full state. No such action was taken for the so-called Indian Territory, so that area

7119-457: The United States, with the intent of combining the Oklahoma and Indian territories into a single State of Oklahoma. The citizens of Indian Territory tried, in 1905, to gain admission to the union as the State of Sequoyah , but were rebuffed by Congress and an Administration which did not want two new Western states, Sequoyah and Oklahoma. Theodore Roosevelt then proposed a compromise that would join Indian Territory with Oklahoma Territory to form

7232-472: The United States; and in the meantime they shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property, and the religion which they profess. This committed the U.S. government to "the ultimate, but not to the immediate, admission" of the territory as multiple states, and "postponed its incorporation into the Union to the pleasure of Congress". After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, President Thomas Jefferson and his successors viewed much of

7345-489: The black huckleberry or " cemi'tk " is the official state fruit and the Indian arrowwood or " sise'qiy ", the Douglas fir or " pa'ps " is the state tree of Oregon and the ponderosa pine or " la'qa " of Montana, the Chinook salmon is the state fish of Oregon, the cutthroat trout or " wawa'lam " of Idaho, Montana and Wyoming, and the West Coast steelhead or "heyey" of Washington. The Nez Perce believed in spirits called weyekins (Wie-a-kins) which would, they thought, offer

7458-406: The boundaries of the present-day U.S. state of Oklahoma , and the primary residents of the territory were members of the Five Civilized Tribes or Plains tribes that had been relocated to the western part of the territory on land leased from the Five Civilized Tribes. In 1861, the U.S. abandoned Fort Washita , leaving the Chickasaw and Choctaw Nations defenseless against the Plains tribes. Later

7571-491: The dietary calories, with winter survival depending largely on dried roots, especially Kouse , or " qáamsit " (when fresh) and " qáaws " (when peeled and dried) ( Lomatium especially Lomatium cous ), and Camas , or " qém'es " (Nez Perce: "sweet") ( Camassia quamash ), the first being roasted in pits, while the other was ground in mortars and molded into cakes for future use, both plants had been traditionally an important food and trade item. Women were primarily responsible for

7684-462: The end of the Civil War fundamentally changed the relationship between the tribes and the U.S. government. The Reconstruction era played out differently in Indian Territory and for Native Americans than for the rest of the country. In 1862, Congress passed a law that allowed the president, by proclamation, to cancel treaties with Indian Nations siding with the Confederacy (25 USC 72). The United States House Committee on Territories (created in 1825)

7797-609: The following bands were also counted to the Nez Perce (which today are viewed as being linguistically and culturally closely related, but separate ethnic groups): The semi-sedentary Nez Percés were Hunter-gatherers , living in a society in which most or all food is obtained by foraging (collecting wild plants and roots and pursuing wild animals). They depended on hunting, fishing, and the gathering of wild roots and berries. Nez Perce people historically depended on various Pacific salmon and Pacific trout for their food: Chinook salmon or " nacoox " ( Oncorhynchus tschawytscha ) were eaten

7910-1266: The gathering and preparing of these root crops. Camas bulbs were gathered in the region between the Salmon and Clearwater river drainages. Techniques for preparing and storing winter foods enabled people to survive times of colder winters with little or no fresh foods. Favorite fruits dried for winter were serviceberries or " kel " ( Amelanchier alnifolia or Saskatoon berry ), black huckleberries or " cemi'tk " ( Vaccinium membranaceum ), red elderberries or " mi'ttip " ( Sambucus racemosa var. melanocarpa ), and chokecherries or " ti'ms " ( Prunus virginiana var. melanocarpa ). Nez Perce textiles were made primarily from dogbane or " qeemu " ( Apocynum cannabinum or Indian hemp ), tules or " to'ko " ( Schoenoplectus acutus var. acutus ), and western redcedar or " tala'tat " ( Thuja plicata ). The most important industrial woods were redcedar, ponderosa pine or " la'qa " ( Pinus ponderosa ), Douglas fir or " pa'ps " ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ), sandbar willow or " tax's " ( Salix exigua ), and hard woods such as Pacific yew or " ta'mqay " ( Taxus brevifolia ) and syringa or " sise'qiy " ( Philadelphus lewisii or Indian arrowwood ). Many fishes and plants important to Nez Perce culture are today state symbols:

8023-427: The higher tributaries, and catches also included salmon, sturgeon, whitefish, suckers, and varieties of trout. Most of the supplies for winter use came from a second run in the fall, when large numbers of Sockeye salmon, silver, and dog salmon appeared in the rivers. Fishing is traditionally an important ceremonial and commercial activity for the Nez Perce tribe. Today Nez Perce fishers participate in tribal fisheries in

8136-581: The land of the Nez Percé tribe, has been named in their honour. Indian Territory Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the United States government for the relocation of Native Americans who held original Indian title to their land as an independent nation-state. The concept of an Indian territory was an outcome of

8249-491: The land receiving fee simple recorded title . Many of the tribes forcibly relocated to Indian Territory were from Southeastern United States , including the so-called Five Civilized Tribes or Cherokee , Chickasaw , Choctaw , Muscogee Creeks , and Seminole , but also the Natchez , Yuchi , Alabama , Koasati , and Caddo people . Between 1814 and 1840, the Five Civilized Tribes had gradually ceded most of their lands in

8362-605: The land west of the Mississippi River as a place to resettle the Native Americans, so that white settlers would be free to live in the lands east of the river. Indian removal became the official policy of the United States government with the passage of the 1830 Indian Removal Act , formulated by President Andrew Jackson . When Louisiana became a state in 1812, the remaining territory was renamed Missouri Territory to avoid confusion. Arkansaw Territory , which included

8475-585: The mainstream Columbia River between Bonneville and McNary dams. The Nez Perce also fish for spring and summer Chinook salmon and Rainbow trout/steelhead in the Snake River and its tributaries. The Nez Perce tribe runs the Nez Perce Tribal Hatchery on the Clearwater River, as well as several satellite hatchery programs. The first fishing of the season was accompanied by prescribed rituals and

8588-700: The most industrious. The museum at the Nez Perce National Historical Park , headquartered in Spalding, Idaho , and managed by the National Park Service , includes a research center, archives, and library. Historical records are available for on-site study and interpretation of Nez Perce history and culture. The park includes 38 sites associated with the Nez Perce in the states of Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, many of which are managed by local and state agencies. In 1805 William Clark

8701-847: The most, but other species such as Pacific lamprey (Entosphenus tridentatus or Lampetra tridentata), and chiselmouth were eaten too. Other important fishes included the Sockeye salmon ( Oncorhynchus nerka ), Silver salmon or ka'llay ( Oncorhynchus kisutch ), Chum salmon or dog salmon or ka'llay ( Oncorhynchus keta ), Mountain whitefish or " ci'mey " ( Prosopium williamsoni ), White sturgeon ( Acipenser transmontanus ), White sucker or " mu'quc " ( Catostomus commersonii ), and varieties of trout – West Coast steelhead or " heyey " ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ), brook trout or " pi'ckatyo " ( Salvelinus fontinalis ), bull trout or " i'slam " ( Salvelinus confluentus ), and Cutthroat trout or " wawa'lam " ( Oncorhynchus clarkii ). Prior to contact with Europeans,

8814-622: The name Oklahoma, which derives from the Choctaw phrase okla , 'people', and humma , translated as 'red'. He envisioned an all–American Indian state controlled by the tribes and overseen by the United States Superintendent of Indian Affairs . Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory , and it was officially approved in 1890, two years after that area was opened to white settlers. The Oklahoma Organic Act of 1890 created an organized Oklahoma Territory of

8927-628: The name "Nez Percé" for the Nimíipuu and nearby Chinook . The name translates as " pierced nose ", but only the Chinook used that form of body modification. Cut off from most of their horticultural sites throughout the Camas Prairie by an 1863 treaty (subsequently known as the "Thief Treaty" or "Steal Treaty" among the Nimiipuu), confinement to reservations in Idaho, Washington and Oklahoma Indian Territory after

9040-516: The north of them lived the Coeur d’Alene (Schitsu'umsh) (’Iskíicu’mix), Spokane (Sqeliz) (Heyéeynimuu/Heyeynimu - "Steelhead [Eating] People"), and further north the Kalispel (Ql̓ispé) (Qem’éespel’uu/Q'emespelu, both meaning "Camas People" or "Camas Eaters"), Colville (Páapspaloo/Papspelu - "Fir Tree People") and Kootenay / Kootenai (Ktunaxa) (Kuuspel’úu/Kuuspelu - "Water People", lit. "River People"), to

9153-547: The northwest lived the Palus (Pelúucpuu/Peluutspu - "People of Pa-luš-sa/Palus [village]") and to the west the Cayuse (Lik-si-yu) (Weyíiletpuu – "Ryegrass People"), west bound there were found the Umatilla (Imatalamłáma) (Hiyówatalampoo/Hiyuwatalampo), Walla Walla , Wasco (Wecq’úupuu) and Sk'in (Tike’éspel’uu) and northwest of the latter various Yakama bands (Lexéyuu), to the south lived

9266-568: The opening of Native American lands in Oklahoma by allowing acquisition of surplus by non-natives after households received plots, the U.S. government opened the Nez Percé reservation for general settlement on November 18, 1895. The proclamation had been signed less than two weeks earlier by President Grover Cleveland . Thousands rushed to grab land on the reservation, staking out their claims even on land owned by Nez Perce families. The Nez Perce Wallowa Homeland at Wallowa in northeast Oregon

9379-624: The organized Oklahoma Territory, and the laws of Arkansas to the still unorganized Indian Territory, since for years the federal U.S. District Court on the eastern borderline in Ft. Smith, Arkansas had criminal and civil jurisdiction over the territory. The concept of an Indian territory is the successor to the British Indian Reserve , a British American territory established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763 that set aside land for use by

9492-491: The other refused to give up their fertile land in Washington and Oregon. Those willing to go to a reservation made a treaty in 1877. The flight of the non-treaty Nez Perce began on June 15, 1877, with Chief Joseph , Looking Glass , White Bird , Ollokot , Lean Elk ( Poker Joe ) and Toohoolhoolzote leading 750 men, women and children in an attempt to reach a peaceful sanctuary. They intended to seek shelter with their allies

9605-536: The people had ever seen and the women thought them beautiful." She wrote that the Nez Perce "were kind to the tired and hungry party. They furnished fresh horses and dried meat and fish with wild potatoes and other roots which were good to eat, and the refreshed white men went further on, westward, leaving their bony, wornout horses for the Indians to take care of and have fat and strong when Lewis and Clark should come back on their way home." On their return trip they arrived at

9718-589: The people") are an Indigenous people of the Plateau who still live on a fraction of the lands on the southeastern Columbia River Plateau in the Pacific Northwest . This region has been occupied for at least 11,500 years. Members of the Sahaptin language group , the Nimíipuu were the dominant people of the Columbia Plateau for much of that time, especially after acquiring the horses that led them to breed

9831-409: The present State of Arkansas plus much of the state of Oklahoma, was created out of the southern part of Missouri Territory in 1819. During negotiations with the Choctaw in 1820 for the Treaty of Doak's Stand , Andrew Jackson ceded more of Arkansas Territory to the Choctaw than he realized, from what is now Oklahoma into Arkansas, east of Ft. Smith, Arkansas . The General Survey Act of 1824 allowed

9944-599: The present states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Nebraska and part of Iowa. Before the 1871 Indian Appropriations Act , much of what was called Indian Territory was a large area in the central part of the United States whose boundaries were set by treaties between the US Government and various indigenous tribes. After 1871, the Federal Government dealt with Indian Tribes through statute; the 1871 Indian Appropriations Act also stated that "hereafter no Indian nation or tribe within

10057-553: The purchase, however, believed that the 3rd article of the treaty of the Louisiana Purchase would be acceptable to Congress . The 3rd article stated, in part: the inhabitants of the ceded territory shall be incorporated in the Union of the United States, and admitted as soon as possible, according to the principles of the Federal Constitution, to the enjoyment of all the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of

10170-598: The pursuing troops in 18 battles, skirmishes, and engagements. More than 100 US soldiers and 100 Nez Perce (including women and children) were killed in these conflicts. A majority of the surviving Nez Perce were finally forced to surrender on October 5, 1877, after the Battle of the Bear Paw Mountains in Montana, 40 miles (64 km) from the Canada–US border. Chief Joseph surrendered to General Oliver O. Howard of

10283-399: The reservation's population at the 2000 census was 17,959. Due to tribal loss of lands, the population on the reservation is predominantly white, nearly 90% in 1988. The largest community is the city of Orofino , near its northeast corner. Lapwai is the seat of tribal government, and it has the highest percentage of Nez Perce people as residents, at about 81.4 percent. Similar to

10396-577: The rights of Indians to continue their separate tribal governments, and vocally championed opening the area to white settlement while campaigning for Abraham Lincoln in 1860. Some historians argued Seward's words steered many tribes, notably the Cherokee and the Choctaw into an alliance with the Confederate States. At the beginning of the Civil War , Indian Territory had been essentially reduced to

10509-707: The same year, the Confederate States of America signed a Treaty with Choctaws and Chickasaws . Ultimately, the Five Civilized Tribes and other tribes that had been relocated to the area, signed treaties of friendship with the Confederacy. During the Civil War, Congress gave the U.S. president the authority to, if a tribe was "in a state of actual hostility to the government of the United States... and, by proclamation, to declare all treaties with such tribe to be abrogated by such tribe"(25 USC Sec. 72). Members of

10622-643: The season and social grouping. Archeologists have identified a total of about 300 related sites including camps and villages, mostly in the Salmon River Canyon. In 1805, the Nez Perce were the largest tribe on the Columbia River Plateau , with a population of about 6,000. By the beginning of the 20th century, the Nez Perce had declined to about 1,800 due to epidemics , conflicts with non-Indians, and other factors. The tribe reports having more than 3,500 members in 2021. Like other Plateau tribes ,

10735-761: The state of Idaho. The Nez Perce only own 12% of their own reservation and some Nez Perce lease land to farmers or loggers. Today, hatching, harvesting and eating salmon is an important cultural and economic strength of the Nez Perce through full ownership or co-management of various salmon fish hatcheries, such as the Kooskia National Fish Hatchery in Kooskia or the Dworshak National Fish Hatchery in Orofino . Some still speak their traditional language. The Tribe owns and operates two casinos along

10848-470: The territories were: Kansas became a state in 1861, and Nebraska became a state in 1867. In 1890 the Oklahoma Organic Act created Oklahoma Territory out of the western part of Indian Territory, in anticipation of admitting both Indian Territory and Oklahoma Territory as a future single State of Oklahoma. Some in federal leadership, such as Secretary of State William H. Seward did not believe in

10961-411: The territory of the United States shall be acknowledged or recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty: Provided, further, That nothing herein contained shall be construed to invalidate or impair the obligation of any treaty heretofore lawfully made and ratified with any such Indian nation or tribe". The Indian Appropriations Act also made it

11074-588: The time before the Nez Perce had horses. The Nez Perce language , or Nimiipuutímt, is a Sahaptian language related to the several dialects of Sahaptin . The Sahaptian sub-family is one of the branches of the Plateau Penutian family, which in turn may be related to a larger Penutian grouping. The Nez Perce territory at the time of Lewis and Clark (1804–1806) was approximately 17,000,000 acres (69,000 km ) and covered parts of present-day Washington , Oregon , Montana , and Idaho , in an area surrounding

11187-513: The tribes living west of the Rocky Mountains were called "Chupnit-pa-lu", which means people of the pierced noses; it also means emerging from the bushes or forest; the people from the woods. The tribes on the Columbia river used to pierce the nose and wear in it some ornament as you have seen some old fashioned white ladies wear in their ears. Lewis and Clark had with them an interpreter whose wife

11300-513: The various Teton Sioux (Lakota) (Iseq'uulkt - "Cut Throats") and their later allies, the Cheyenne (Suhtai/Sutaio Tsitsistas) (T'septitimeni'n - "[People with] Painted arrows"), were the main enemies of the Plateau peoples when entering the Northwestern Plains to hunt buffalo. Because of large amount of inter-marriage between Nez Perce bands and neighboring tribes or bands to forge alliances and peace (often living in mixed bilingual villages together),

11413-529: The verb -piní , "to come out (e.g. of forest, bushes, ice)". Finally, with the suffix of -pelú , meaning "people or inhabitants of". Together, these three elements: cú - + - piní + pelú = cú·pʼnitpeľu , or "the People Walking Single File Out of the Forest". Nez Perce oral tradition indicates the name "cú·pʼnitpeľu" meant "we walked out of the woods or walked out of the mountains" and referred to

11526-587: The western part of Indian Territory, where they farmed maize and hunted buffalo. They are likely ancestors of the Wichita and Affiliated Tribes . The ancestors of the Wichita have lived in the eastern Great Plains from the Red River north to Nebraska for at least 2,000 years. The early Wichita people were hunters and gatherers who gradually adopted agriculture. By about 900 AD, farming villages began to appear on terraces above

11639-482: Was a Shoshone or Snake woman and so it came about that when it was asked "What Indians are these?" the answer was "They are 'Chupnit-pa-lu ' " and it was written down in the journal; spelled rather queerly, for white people's ears do not always catch Indian tones and of course the Indians could not spell any word. In his journals, William Clark referred to the people as the Chopunnish / ˈ tʃ oʊ p ə n ɪ ʃ / ,

11752-582: Was effectively extinguished. However, in 2020, the United States Supreme Court prompted a review of tribal lands through its decision in McGirt v. Oklahoma . Subsequently, almost the entire eastern half of Oklahoma was found to have remained Indian country . Indian Territory marks the confluence of the Southern Plains and Southeastern Woodlands cultural regions . Its western region is part of

11865-504: Was examining the effectiveness of the policy of Indian removal, which was after the war considered to be of limited effectiveness. It was decided that a new policy of Assimilation would be implemented. To implement the new policy, the Southern Treaty Commission was created by Congress to write new treaties with the Tribes siding with the Confederacy. After the Civil War the Southern Treaty Commission re-wrote treaties with tribes that sided with

11978-428: Was homesteading. The Homestead Act of 1862 was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln . The Act gave an applicant freehold title to an area called a "homestead" – typically 160 acres (65 hectares or one-fourth section ) of undeveloped federal land . Within Indian Territory, as lands were removed from communal tribal ownership, a land patent (or first-title deed) was given to tribal members. The remaining land

12091-586: Was not treated as a legal territory. The reduction of the land area of Indian Territory (or Indian Country, as defined in the Indian Intercourse Act of 1834), the successor of Missouri Territory began almost immediately after its creation with: Indian Country was reduced to the approximate boundaries of the current state of Oklahoma by the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, which created Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory . The key boundaries of

12204-630: Was once part of the Caddoan Mississippian culture and thought to be an extension of woodland period peoples who started inhabiting the area around 200 BC. In an 1835 Treaty made at the agency-house in the Caddo Nation and state of Louisiana , the Caddo Nation sold their tribal lands to the U.S. In 1846, the Caddo, along with several other tribes, signed a treaty that made the Caddo a protectorate of

12317-600: Was published in the North American Review . The route of the Nez Perce flight is preserved by the Nez Perce National Historic Trail . The annual Cypress Hills ride in June commemorates the Nez Perce people's attempt to escape to Canada. In 1994 the Nez Perce tribe began a breeding program, based on crossbreeding the Appaloosa and a Central Asian breed called Akhal-Teke , to produce what they called

12430-537: Was sold on a first-come basis, typically by land run , with settlers also receiving a land patent type deed. For these now former Indian lands, the United States General Land Office distributed the sales funds to the various tribal entities, according to previously negotiated terms. It was in 1866 during treaty negotiations with the federal government on the use of the land, that Choctaw Nation Chief Kiliahote suggested that Indian Territory be given

12543-782: Was sold, purchasing land near present-day Shawnee, Oklahoma , they became the Citizen Potawatomi Nation . The Odawa tribe first purchased lands near Ottawa, Kansas , residing there until 1867 when they sold their lands in Kansas and purchased land in an area administered by the Quapaw Indian Agency in Ottawa County, Oklahoma , becoming the Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma . The Peoria tribe , native to Southern Illinois , moved south to Missouri then and Kansas , where they joined

12656-476: Was the father of Chief Lawyer , who by 1877 was a prominent member of the "Treaty" faction of the tribe. The Nez Perce were generally faithful to the trust; the party recovered their horses without serious difficulty when they returned. Recollecting the Nez Perce encounter with the Lewis and Clark party, in 1889 anthropologist Alice Fletcher wrote that "the Lewis and Clark explorers were the first white men that many of

12769-527: Was the first known Euro-American to meet any of the tribe, excluding the aforementioned French Canadian traders. While he, Meriwether Lewis and their men were crossing the Bitterroot Mountains , they ran low of food, and Clark took six hunters and hurried ahead to hunt. On September 20, 1805, near the western end of the Lolo Trail , he found a small camp at the edge of the camas-digging ground, which

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