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197-633: The Natives Representative Council ( NRC ) was an advisory body that existed in South Africa from 1936 to 1951. Its primary function was to provide representation for Black South Africans who had been disenfranchised following the passage of the Representation of Natives Act in 1936. The NRC was established with 22 members. Six white members from the Department of Native Affairs , twelve elected African members, and four nominated African members selected by
394-749: A German colony , except for Walvis Bay and the Offshore Islands which remained part of the Cape, outside of German control. Following the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, the Union of South Africa occupied and annexed the German colony of German South West Africa . With the establishment of the League of Nations and cessation of the war, South Africa obtained a Class C Mandate to administer South West Africa "under
591-536: A Trusteeship agreement instead. This invitation was in turn rejected by the Union, which subsequently did not modify the administration of South West Africa and continued to adhere to the original mandate. This caused a complex set of legal wranglings that were not finalised when the Union was replaced with the Republic of South Africa. In 1949, the Union passed a law bringing South West Africa into closer association with it including giving South West Africa representation in
788-732: A broad church , and, like many dominant parties , resembles a catch-all party , accommodating a range of ideological tendencies. As Mandela told the Washington Post in 1990: The ANC has never been a political party. It was formed as a parliament of the African people. Right from the start, up to now, the ANC is a coalition, if you want, of people of various political affiliations. Some will support free enterprise , others socialism . Some are conservatives , others are liberals . We are united solely by our determination to oppose racial oppression . That
985-575: A memorandum to the British government and the Versailles Peace Conference . The delegation was protesting against the treatment of Africans by the South African government. One of the ANC leaders, Sol Plaatje , highlighted the discriminatory legislation passed by the Union government, which he attributed to the lack of African representation in the government. While the conference overlooked
1182-456: A neoliberal policy, and it was disowned by both COSATU and the SACP. While some analysts viewed Mbeki's economic policy as undertaking the uncomfortable macroeconomic adjustments necessary for long-term growth, others – notably Patrick Bond – viewed it as a reflection of the ANC's failure to implement genuinely radical transformation after 1994. Debate about ANC commitment to redistribution on
1379-591: A campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the apartheid state, carried out under its military wing, uMkhonto we Sizwe , which was founded in 1961 in partnership with the South African Communist Party (SACP). The ANC was condemned as a terrorist organisation by the governments of South Africa, the United States , and the United Kingdom . However, it positioned itself as a key player in
1576-485: A close relationship. Xuma, the national leader of the ANC, wrote to Smit, the secretary of Native Affairs, saying that they were united and their cause was one. Xuma did not run as a candidate for the NRC elections set for November 4, 1942, because he felt the council was limited by the act that established it, making the ANC a more effective body. In August 1946, Xuma suggested that Council members adjourn their next session as
1773-477: A dog tax and a hut tax , the latter of which was only implemented in Natal to discourage Zulus from having multiple wives . Only 20% of the poll tax was used for the direct benefit of Africans, despite being the only source of funding for African facilities of all kinds, including health and education . The NRC repeatedly called for the abolition of the poll tax and its replacement by an income tax , as they felt it
1970-503: A fixed venue for its biannual meetings, and instead convened in different locations across Pretoria , including school halls and other less impressive venues. On some occasions, the meetings were also held in Cape Town . The NRC was responsible for providing feedback on legislation affecting Africans and advising Parliament on matters of importance to the NRC's constituents. All proposed legislation concerning Africans had to be presented to
2167-490: A form of protest against discriminatory legislation. The upcoming 1948 election posed the question of what the Council members should do. The ANC, after much discussion, decided that all councilors should run for re-election unopposed, but this was not feasible due to a lack of support. Only three councilors would be re-elected unopposed. The high number of nominations, particularly for Xuma, highlights that although voters supported
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#17328556335552364-469: A greater share in their own administration. However, once these proposals were revealed, Smuts was accused by white politicians of wanting to form a black parliament that would unite the 8 million Africans under anti-white leadership. While the council's adjournment succeeded in forcing the government to acknowledge the need for a new "native policy", its refusal to abolish discriminatory legislation made it impossible for Smuts' ideas to have any real impact on
2561-651: A group of bills that led to the establishment of the Natives Representative Council and the abolition of the Cape Franchise ten years later. The formation of a nationwide African council was a controversial matter in the all-white parliament, and much debate took place before the government agreed to it. By 1927, the influence of the Industrial and Commercial Workers' Union (ICU) was at its peak, and its popularity among Africans made both Hertzog and Smuts ,
2758-461: A lack of respect for the NRC, failure to consult the council, inaction on the council's resolutions, and continued oppressive legislation. This included restrictions on rights such as the prohibition of all meetings in the northern Transvaal , the prohibition of meetings on mining ground, the extension of Pass Laws to the Cape , and restrictions on travel . From August to November, a strict control measure
2955-506: A leadership vote in 1985. Also notable about this period was the extremely close relationship between the ANC and the reconstituted South African Communist Party (SACP), which was also in exile. In 1961, partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre, leaders of the SACP and the ANC formed a military body, Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK, Spear of the Nation ), as a vehicle for armed struggle against
3152-501: A leading example of the triumph of humanity over adversity. The exemplary role of the collective leadership of the Communist Party of China in this regard should be a guiding lodestar of our own struggle. Towards the end of Jacob Zuma 's presidency, an ANC faction aligned to Zuma pioneered a new policy platform referred to as radical economic transformation (RET). Zuma announced the new focus on RET during his February 2017 State of
3349-487: A lifelong member of the ANC, he would not be campaigning for the ANC in the 2024 South African general election , and would instead be voting for MK. In July 2024, Jacob Zuma was expelled from the ANC, because of campaigning for a rival party ( MK party ) in the 29 May general election. Under the ANC constitution, every member of the ANC belongs to a local branch, and branch members select the organisation's policies and leaders. They do so primarily by electing delegates to
3546-560: A memorandum of understanding to train ANC members in China. President Cyril Ramaphosa and the ANC have not condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine , and have faced criticism from opposition parties, public commentators, academics, civil society organisations, and former ANC members due to this. The ANC youth wing has meanwhile condemned sanctions against Russia and denounced NATO's eastward expansion as "fascistic". Officials representing
3743-596: A separate colony and 40.6% in favour of joining the Union of South Africa. The inhospitable coast of what is now the Republic of Namibia remained uncolonised up until the end of the 19th century. From 1874, the leaders of several indigenous peoples, notably Maharero of the Herero nation, approached the Cape Parliament to the south. Anticipating invasion by a European power and already suffering Portuguese encroachment from
3940-539: A series of bilateral accords with the government establishing a mutual commitment to negotiations. Importantly, the Pretoria Minute of August 1990 included a commitment by the ANC to unilaterally suspend its armed struggle. This made possible the multi-party Convention for a Democratic South Africa and later the Multi-Party Negotiating Forum, in which the ANC was regarded as the main representative of
4137-631: A small number of them being eligible to vote. In 1903, the African vote caused controversy when it played a significant role in electing Leander Starr Jameson during the Cape Colony elections , while a number of European voters who were against Jameson were not allowed to vote. This led to the South African Native Affairs Commission's opposition to the Cape Franchise , and eventually the disenfranchisement of Africans in 1936. Upon
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#17328556335554334-474: A socialist scale has continued: in 2013, the country's largest trade union, the National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa , withdrew its support for the ANC on the basis that "the working class cannot any longer see the ANC or the SACP as its class allies in any meaningful sense". It is evident, however, that the ANC never embraced free-market capitalism , and continued to favour a mixed economy : even as
4531-453: A statement on apartheid that would satisfy the councilors and convince them to cooperate. Verwoerd delivered his address and promptly left the meeting, having made a significant effort to resolve the deadlock. He made it clear that if the council were to comply, no political discussions would be entertained and the topics of discussion were to be at Eiselen's discretion. In the past, the agenda was not strictly adhered to, and councilors were given
4728-469: A strong preference for a significant degree of state intervention in the economy . The ANC's first comprehensive articulation of its post-apartheid economic policy framework was set out in the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) document of 1994, which became its electoral manifesto and also, under the same name, the flagship policy of Nelson Mandela's government . The RDP aimed both to redress
4925-528: A surge in trade union activity and by the formation in 1944 of the left-wing ANC Youth League under a new generation of activists, among them Walter Sisulu , Nelson Mandela , and Oliver Tambo . After the National Party was elected into government in 1948 on a platform of apartheid , entailing the further institutionalisation of racial segregation , this new generation pushed for a Programme of Action which explicitly advocated African nationalism and led
5122-650: A wide audience during apartheid. " Amandla ngawethu ", or the Sotho variant "Matla ke arona", is a common rallying call at ANC meetings, roughly meaning " power to the people ". It is also common for meetings to sing so-called struggle songs, which were sung during anti-apartheid meetings and in MK camps. In the case of at least two of these songs – Dubula ibhunu and Umshini wami – this has caused controversy in recent years. The ANC has received criticism from both internal and external sources. Internally Mandela publicly criticized
5319-561: Is a member of the Socialist International , and its close partner the SACP traditionally conceives itself as a vanguard party . Specifically, and as implied by the 1969 document, NDR doctrine entails that the transformation of the domestic political system (national struggle, in Joe Slovo 's phrase) is a precondition for a socialist revolution (class struggle). The concept remained important to ANC intellectuals and strategists after
5516-412: Is considered a dominant-party state . However, the ANC's electoral majority has declined consistently since 2004, and in the 2021 local elections , its share of the national vote dropped below 50% for the first time ever. Over the last decade, the party has been embroiled in a number of controversies, particularly relating to widespread allegations of political corruption among its members. Following
5713-413: Is overseen by so-called list committees and tends to involve a degree of broad democratic participation, especially at the local level, where ANC branches vote to nominate candidates for the local government elections. Between 2003 and 2008, the ANC also gained a significant number of members through the controversial floor crossing process, which occurred especially at the local level. The leaders of
5910-439: Is the only thing that unites us. There is no question of ideology as far as the odyssey of the ANC is concerned, because any question approaching ideology would split the organization from top to bottom. Because we have no connection whatsoever except at this one, of our determination to dismantle apartheid. The post-apartheid ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement , pursuing "the complete liberation of
6107-634: The 2024 general election , the ANC lost its majority in parliament for the first time in South Africa's democratic history. It still remains the largest party however, with under 41% of the vote. The party also lost its majority in Kwa-Zulu Natal, Gauteng and Northern Cape. Despite these setbacks, the ANC retained power at the national level through a grand coalition referred to as the Government of National Unity , including parties which together have 72% of
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6304-527: The 54th National Conference in 2017, the ANC endorsed a number of policy principles advocated by RET supporters, including their proposal to pursue land expropriation without compensation as a matter of national policy. The ANC has long had close ties with China and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the CCP having supported ANC's struggle of apartheid since 1961. In 2008, the two parties signed
6501-674: The British Crown as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire . With the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the Union and other dominions became equal in status to the United Kingdom, and the Parliament of the United Kingdom could no longer legislate on behalf of them. This had the effect of making the Union and the other dominions de jure sovereign nations. The Status of
6698-731: The British Parliament in December 1931, which repealed the Colonial Laws Validity Act and implemented the Balfour Declaration 1926 , had a profound impact on the constitutional structure and status of the Union. The most notable effect was that the South African Parliament was released from many restrictions concerning the handling of the so-called "native question". However, the repeal was not sufficient to enable
6895-480: The British Parliament 's adoption of the South Africa Act , which ratified the Union. The four colonies that would become South Africa were represented, along with a delegation from Rhodesia . The 33 delegates assembled behind closed doors, in the fear that a public affair would lead delegates to refuse compromising on contentious areas. The delegates drew up a constitution that would, subject to some amendments by
7092-517: The Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP). However, once negotiations resumed, they resulted in November 1993 in an interim Constitution , which governed South Africa's first democratic elections on 27 April 1994. In the elections, the ANC won an overwhelming 62.65% majority of the vote. Mandela was elected president and formed a coalition Government of National Unity , which, under the provisions of
7289-786: The Kingdom of Portugal or the German Empire . In response, the Cape Parliament appointed a special Commission under William Palgrave , to travel to the territory between the Orange and Cunene rivers and to confer with these leaders regarding accession to the Cape. In the negotiations with the Palgrave Commission , some indigenous nations such as the Damara and the Herero responded positively (October 1876), other reactions were mixed. Discussions regarding
7486-534: The National Conference , which is currently convened every five years. Between conferences, the organisation is led by its 86-member National Executive Committee , which is elected at each conference. The most senior members of the National Executive Committee are the so-called Top Six officials, the ANC president primary among them. A symmetrical process occurs at the subnational levels: each of
7683-463: The National Party government came to power in 1948 , the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised apartheid . To this end, its methods and means of organisation shifted; its adoption of the techniques of mass politics , and the swelling of its membership, culminated in the Defiance Campaign of civil disobedience in 1952–53. The ANC was banned by
7880-518: The Oilgate scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were funnelled into ANC coffers. The ANC has also been accused of using government and civil society to fight its political battles against opposition parties such as the Democratic Alliance . The result has been a number of complaints and allegations that none of the political parties truly represent the interests of
8077-711: The Prime Minister of South Africa from 1924 to 1939 and was a firm believer in the policy of segregation . He felt that the Cape Franchise posed a threat to white domination and was determined to eliminate it. After reading some of the resolutions of the African National Congress , Hertzog stated in the House of Assembly in 1923 that Africans seemed to be satisfied with nothing less than direct representation in all legislative bodies , and that something more had to be done to prevent unrest. In 1926, Hertzog presented
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8274-729: The Rivonia trial and Little Rivonia trial . From around 1963, the ANC effectively abandoned much of even its underground presence inside South Africa and operated almost entirely from its external mission, with headquarters first in Morogoro, Tanzania , and later in Lusaka, Zambia . For the entirety of its time in exile, the ANC was led by Tambo – first de facto , with president Albert Luthuli under house arrest in Zululand ; then in an acting capacity, after Luthuli's death in 1967; and, finally, officially, after
8471-520: The Sharpeville massacre occurred on 21 March 1960. In the aftermath, the ANC was banned by the South African government. It was not unbanned until February 1990, almost three decades later. After its banning in April 1960, the ANC was driven underground, a process hastened by a barrage of government banning orders , by an escalation of state repression, and by the imprisonment of senior ANC leaders pursuant to
8668-468: The South African Defence Force (SADF). [REDACTED] Wikimedia Atlas of Union of South Africa 30°S 25°E / 30°S 25°E / -30; 25 African National Congress The African National Congress ( ANC ) is a political party in South Africa . It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed
8865-759: The United Party of Jan Smuts , which favoured close relations with the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth , unlike the Afrikaans-speaking National Party , which had held anti-British sentiments and was opposed to South Africa's intervention in the Second World War . Some Nationalist organisations, like the Ossewabrandwag , were openly supportive of Nazi Germany during the Second World War . Most English-speaking South Africans were opposed to
9062-433: The conservative , educated, and religious professional classes of black South African society. Although they would not take part, Xhosa chiefs would show huge support for the organisation; as a result, King Jongilizwe donated 50 cows to during its founding. Around 1920, in a partial shift away from its early focus on the "politics of petitioning", the ANC developed a programme of passive resistance directed primarily at
9259-484: The electoral area for two years prior to the election, to run for office. Place of birth could be disregarded in some cases, as demonstrated by Albert Luthuli , who was not born in South Africa but was still able to run for office. The government had significant control over NRC membership through sections 23 and 24 of the Native Affairs Act, including the power to exclude candidates who had been issued orders under
9456-500: The executive in each sphere of government – the president , the provincial premiers , and the mayors – are indirectly elected after each election. In practice, the selection of ANC candidates for these positions is highly centralised, with the ANC caucus voting together to elect a pre-decided candidate. Although the ANC does not always announce whom its caucuses intend to elect, the National Assembly has thus far always elected
9653-475: The founding members of the League of Nations . It was mandated by the League with the administration of South West Africa (now known as Namibia ). South West Africa became treated in most respects as another province of the Union, but it never was formally annexed. Like Canada , Australia and New Zealand , the Union of South Africa was a self-governing dominion of the British Empire . Its full sovereignty
9850-499: The freedom of the press . Opposition to the bill included otherwise ANC-aligned groups such as COSATU . Notably, Nelson Mandela and other Nobel laureates Nadine Gordimer , Archbishop Desmond Tutu , and F. W. de Klerk have expressed disappointment with the bill for not meeting standards of constitutionality and aspirations for freedom of information and expression. The ANC have been criticised for its role in failing to prevent 16 August 2012 massacre of Lonmin miners at Marikana in
10047-457: The legislation that the NRC was requested to pass and the government's failure to present amendments to legislation, led to growing frustration among the members. They had expected that the end of the war would bring some relief to the restrictions placed on the African population, but instead, the opposite happened and restrictions increased. On August 15, 1946, Z.K. Matthews, as the Chairman of
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#173285563355510244-462: The negotiations to end apartheid , which began in earnest after the ban was repealed in 1990. For much of that time, the ANC leadership, along with many of its most active members, operated from abroad. After the Soweto Uprising of 1976, the ANC remained committed to achieving its objectives through armed struggle, led by its military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe. These circumstances significantly shaped
10441-424: The show of hands method used in rural local councils and electoral committees was inadequate. He believed that voting by a show of hands made the process less reliable. Given the high illiteracy rate of the population, however, it can be argued that there was no feasible alternative to the show of hands method. The use of pictures or symbols was a novel and untested method of voting at that time. In practice, although
10638-589: The 16 members of the NRC were from the Department of Native Affairs, including the five white Chief Native Commissioners and the Secretary of Native Affairs who acted as the Chair of the council and had the power to cast a deciding vote. The African councilors consisted of 12 elected members and 4 nominated members selected by the Department of Native Affairs. The eligible electorate for the election consisted of African males over
10835-499: The 1853 Cape of Good Hope Constitution, which granted the right to vote to British subjects in the Cape regardless of skin colour , so long as they met certain criteria. This system was successful, and in 1887, the Cape Parliament voluntarily extended voting rights to Africans in the Transkei . In 1892, the qualifications for voting were made more stringent by Cecil Rhodes . Although these restrictions applied to all voters, they disproportionately affected Africans, resulting in only
11032-408: The 1937 elections, the All-African Convention (AAC), the African National Congress (ANC), and the Communist Party of South Africa all presented their own candidates. Despite internal conflicts within the ANC and AAC, all three parties made a concerted effort to secure their candidates' victories. Notable leaders, such as James Moroka and George Champion, were put forward by the ANC and AAC, while
11229-524: The 1948 NRC elections generated a lot of debate. ANC leaders and councilors deemed it impossible to boycott the election, as they believed that the NRC was a tool that could be utilised in the struggle for freedom and the elections were too complicated to contemplate a successful boycott. Instead, the councilors aimed to use the adjournment as a tactic to render the Council unworkable. They believed that bills concerning Africans could not be presented before Parliament unless they had been previously presented before
11426-424: The 1970s, conditions for armed struggle soon improved considerably, especially after the Soweto uprising of 1976 in South Africa saw thousands of students – inspired by Black Consciousness ideas – cross the borders to seek military training. MK guerrilla activity inside South Africa increased steadily over this period, with one estimate recording an increase from 23 incidents in 1977 to 136 incidents in 1985. In
11623-407: The ANC Youth League acted as international observers for Russia's staged referendum to annex Ukrainian territory conquered during the war. In February 2024 ANC Secretary-General Fikile Mbalula attend a "forum on combating Western neocolonialism" hosted by Russia, thereby drawing further criticism for the party's perceived support for Russia's invasion. The ANC had received large donations from
11820-502: The ANC during its years in exile. In the post-apartheid era, the ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement , although it is also a registered political party. Partly due to its Tripartite Alliance with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and the Congress of South African Trade Unions , it had retained a comfortable electoral majority at the national level and in most provinces, and has provided each of South Africa's five presidents since 1994. South Africa
12017-430: The ANC president as the national president. The ANC has adhered to a formal policy of cadre deployment since 1985. In the post-apartheid era, the policy includes but is not exhausted by selection of candidates for elections and government positions: it also entails that the central organisation "deploys" ANC members to various other strategic positions in the party, state, and economy. The ANC prides itself on being
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#173285563355512214-430: The ANC president to publish annually a so-called January 8 Statement: a reflective letter sent to members on 8 January, the anniversary of the organisation's founding. In earlier years, the ANC published a range of periodicals , the most important of which was the monthly journal Sechaba (1967–1990), printed in the German Democratic Republic and banned by the apartheid government. The ANC's Radio Freedom also gained
12411-492: The ANC reduced its presence inside South Africa, however, MK cadres were increasingly confined to training camps in Tanzania and neighbouring countries – with such exceptions as the Wankie Campaign , a momentous military failure. In 1969, Tambo was compelled to call the landmark Morogoro Conference to address the grievances of the rank-and-file, articulated by Chris Hani in a memorandum which depicted MK's leadership as corrupt and complacent. Although MK's malaise persisted into
12608-484: The ANC was attracting individuals who viewed the party as "a route to power and self-enrichment." He added that the ANC leadership "did not know how to deal with this problem." During a lecture on 10 December, Mbeki reiterated concerns about "careerists" within the party, and stressed the need to "purge itself of such members". In May 2024, the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists in association with amaBhungane showed in documents that R200 million in
12805-442: The ANC was unbanned, but has deeper historical roots: the SACP had worked closely with the ANC in exile, and COSATU had aligned itself with the Freedom Charter and Congress Alliance in 1987. The membership and leadership of the three organisations has traditionally overlapped significantly. The alliance constitutes a de facto electoral coalition: the SACP and COSATU do not contest in government elections, but field candidates through
13002-440: The ANC's election fund was siphoned off to the church of controversial archbishop Bheki Lukhele in Eswatini; the Chief Financial Officer of the ANC, Bongani Mahlalela along with the Ambassador of Eswatini to Belgium, Sibusisiwe Mngomezulu , were implicated in the scheme. In late 2011 the ANC was heavily criticised over the passage of the Protection of State Information Bill , which opponents claimed would improperly restrict
13199-424: The ANC, for the first time, to the sustained use of mass mobilisation techniques like strikes, stay-aways, and boycotts. This culminated in the 1952–53 Defiance Campaign , a campaign of mass civil disobedience organised by the ANC, the Indian Congress , and the coloured Franchise Action Council in protest of six apartheid laws. The ANC's membership swelled. In June 1955, it was one of the groups represented at
13396-499: The ANC, hold senior positions in the ANC, and influence party policy. However, the SACP, in particular, has frequently threatened to field its own candidates, and in 2017 it did so for the first time, running against the ANC in by-elections in the Metsimaholo municipality, Free State . Under South Africa's closed- list proportional representation electoral system, parties have immense power in selecting candidates for legislative bodies. The ANC's internal candidate selection process
13593-448: The ANC, they were willing to disregard its stance on the NRC. The All-African Convention did not nominate any candidates for the 1948 election. The Communist Party nominated three candidates, including Govan Mbeki , who was running for the first time as an NRC candidate for the Transkei region . However, similar to previous elections, none of the Communist Party candidates were successful in getting elected. Z.K. Matthews stated that
13790-422: The ANC. The proposals included increasing council membership, separating public servants from the council, making an African councilor the chair, moving the venue to Cape Town , extending council sessions , and granting the council statutory powers. However, these changes were never implemented and all the government was willing to endorse was an increase in council membership three years later. From 1942 to 1946,
13987-516: The African people had received from the government, but it did not contain any political concessions or compromise. Hofmeyr was regarded as a leading liberal of his time, and the absence of Smuts —who was overseas at the time—led Africans to believe that Hofmeyr had written the speech himself, without any influence from Smuts. In reality, the government's response had been thoroughly discussed with Smuts, who even made an amendment to Hofmeyr's speech to make it less apologetic and stiffer in tone. Although
14184-504: The Boer republics. Numerous Boer soldiers refused to surrender and took to the countryside to carry out guerrilla operations against the British, who responded by implementing scorched earth tactics. These tactics included interning Afrikaner civilians from the Boer republics in concentration camps (in which roughly 28,000 people died) and destroying homesteads owned by Afrikaners to flush out
14381-589: The British government, become the South Africa Act. This was South Africa's constitution between 1910 and 1961, when the country became a republic under the Constitution of 1961 . In 1922 the colony of Southern Rhodesia had a chance (but ultimately rejected) to join the Union through a referendum . The referendum resulted from the fact that by 1920 British South Africa Company rule in Southern Rhodesia
14578-571: The Communist Party nominated Edwin Mofutsanyana , who was the party secretary but not yet a well-known figure on a national level. The councilors who emerged victorious from the election were experienced and established African leaders from urban areas. Many of them had participated in protests against the abolishment of the Cape Franchise in 1936, but there was no talk of boycotting the NRC elections. The presence of four newspaper editors among
14775-455: The Department of Native Affairs. The NRC had limited powers, and was unable to make laws or veto decisions, but it was allowed to make recommendations to the government. The NRC had an important role in shaping government policy towards Africans, and held great significance among the African population. Following World War II , frustration among councilors grew as they expected discriminatory restrictions against Africans to be eased, only for
14972-500: The Minister of Native Affairs was legally required to present all proposed legislation, whether it was in the form of bills or amendments, to the NRC for review. Following the 1942 elections, newly elected Councilors Z.K. Matthews and James Moroka formed a caucus within the NRC with Matthews as chair. Under his leadership, a recess committee proposed several changes to the NRC, which were supported by A.B. Xuma , President-General of
15169-513: The Ministry of Native Affairs' authority to banish Africans without trial . When the NRC decided to adjourn, it sent a clear message to the government that they had reached their breaking point and could no longer tolerate discriminatory policies. The adjournment also underscored the prominent role of the ANC in shaping African politics. The idea of whether the councilors should resign and not participate in
15366-444: The NRC achieved Hertzog's goals of keeping the African population quiet and preventing them from using their numerical superiority to gain political power. In his autobiography, Albert Luthuli expressed frustration with the lack of progress made through the council, noting that their efforts to raise awareness have fallen on deaf ears. He would later describe the NRC as little more than a hollow show. Luthuli felt that white South Africa
15563-438: The NRC as a stepping stone towards securing a place in the parliamentary system . They aimed to either strengthen the NRC's power to the point where it could challenge the dominance of the white parliament or to replace it and become a part of the parliament themselves. Despite the NRC's significance for the African community, it did not bring about equality for Africans. When Africans demanded equality and refused to cooperate with
15760-407: The NRC caucus hold an informal meeting to discuss ways to resolve the impasse. Although the government had not formally indicated that they were considering using the NRC as a channel to implement apartheid , Eiselen's renewed attempts to heal the breach suggested that he wanted the NRC to be part of his apartheid policy. The NRC's eleventh and final session took place on 5 December 1950. The council
15957-439: The NRC first. In May 1947, Prime Minister Smuts proposed a policy of black self-government under a reformed NRC to end the adjournment. However, the councilors rejected the idea as Smuts refused to abolish discriminatory legislation. In the following year, D.F. Malan's National Party won the general election , defeating Smuts' United Party , and beginning their implementation of apartheid. The new government suggested that
16154-399: The NRC for review, and the council would subsequently submit its reports to Parliament through the Minister of Native Affairs. However, starting in 1941, the government began to consolidate and modify laws without presenting them to the NRC, claiming that they only had to bring bills and not amendments to existing legislation to the NRC. Some members of Parliament disputed this, arguing that
16351-479: The NRC saw as forced labor. In 1937, the pass system , which required Africans to carry documentation that proved their eligibility to be in a specific area, was not yet universally implemented in all four provinces. In the Transvaal and Orange Free State provinces, Africans could carry a maximum of nine passes, while the requirement was absent in the Cape and Natal . The NRC consistently and unanimously condemned
16548-417: The NRC soon realised that the speech did not truly reflect Hofmeyr's views, they became disillusioned with white liberals. They believed that if Hofmeyr could compromise his principles for political expediency, he would likely do so again if he became prime minister. The councilors stressed that, being the only representatives of the African people, they had no intention of resigning. Instead, they would wait for
16745-450: The NRC was already in place by 1936, with local and general councils and advisory boards in urban areas established under the Native Affairs Act of 1920. Once elected, African council members served five-year terms . To be eligible to run for office, candidates needed to be taxpayers or qualify as registered voters in the Cape . This effectively allowed all African males who were over 18 years old, were South African by birth, and lived in
16942-403: The NRC. In May 1948, the National Party led by D.F. Malan won the general election, defeating the United Party under Smuts . This marked the beginning of apartheid , a new policy that aimed to institutionalise racial segregation and discrimination against non-white South Africans. However, several months after the general election, the new National Party government had yet to meet with
17139-594: The NRC. Therefore, Parliament would find it difficult to pass certain legislation. The NRC held their next session on November 20, 1946, as the councilors gathered in Pretoria to hear the government's response to their adjournment resolution. Prior to the session, the government compiled a list of reasons for the August adjournment, based on statements made by Z.K. Matthews to the Bantu World newspaper. The causes listed included
17336-427: The Nation address, and later that year, explaining that it had been adopted as ANC policy and therefore as government policy, defined it as entailing "fundamental change in the structures, systems, institutions and patterns of ownership and control of the economy, in favour of all South Africans, especially the poor". Arguments for RET were closely associated with the rhetorical concept of white monopoly capital . At
17533-589: The Northwest. Some allege that Police Commissioner Riah Phiyega and Police Minister Nathi Mthethwa gave the go ahead for the police action against the miners on that day. Commissioner Phiyega of the ANC came under further criticism as being insensitive and uncaring when she was caught smiling and laughing during the Farlam Commission 's video playback of the massacre. In 2014, Archbishop Desmond Tutu announced that he could no longer bring himself to vote for
17730-514: The People campaign and therefore symbolises a united and non-racial movement for freedom and equality. The logo uses the same colours as the ANC flag, which comprises three horizontal stripes of equal width in black, green and gold. The black symbolises the native people of South Africa; the green represents the land of South Africa; and the gold represents the country's mineral and other natural wealth. The black, green and gold tricolour also appeared on
17927-570: The Prime Minister of South Africa, Jan Smuts , eventually offered terms he considered reasonable and which the United Kingdom government found acceptable. Although opinion among the United Kingdom government, the South African government and the British South Africa Company favoured the union option (and none tried to interfere in the referendum), when the referendum was held the results saw 59.4% in favour of responsible government for
18124-460: The Putin linked Russian oligarch Viktor Vekselberg , whilst the party's investment arm, Chancellor House , has a joint investment with Vekselberg in a South African manganese mine. The logo of the ANC incorporates a spear and shield – symbolising the historical and ongoing struggle, armed and otherwise, against colonialism and racial oppression – and a wheel, which is borrowed from the 1955 Congress of
18321-687: The Riotous Assemblies Amendment Act of 1930 or the Natives Urban Areas Act of 1923. However, these powers were never exercised. George Champion was banned and deported from Natal for three years under the Riotous Assemblies Act but was still able to run for office and was eventually elected in 1942. Some leaders, such as Xuma and D.D.T. Jabavu , expressed skepticism about the use of a communal voting system, arguing that it made individuals vulnerable to bribery due to
18518-505: The South African Parliament to ignore the entrenched clauses of its constitution (the South Africa Act ) which led to the coloured-vote constitutional crisis of the 1950s wherein the right of coloureds to vote in the main South African Parliament was removed and replaced with a separate, segregated, and largely powerless assembly. The military of the Union of South Africa was the Union Defence Force (UDF) until 1957, when it became
18715-411: The South African government between April 1960 – shortly after the Sharpeville massacre – and February 1990. During this period, despite periodic attempts to revive its domestic political underground, the ANC was forced into exile by increasing state repression, which saw many of its leaders imprisoned on Robben Island . Headquartered in Lusaka, Zambia , the exiled ANC dedicated much of its attention to
18912-405: The South African government to increase them. In August 1946, the NRC unanimously passed a motion to adjourn , expressing their disapproval of the government's policy of segregation and demanded the abolition of all discriminatory legislation. The councilors believed that if the NRC was adjourned, Parliament would be unable to pass African-related legislation, as such bills required consultation with
19109-534: The South African government, the government ultimately dissolved the Council in 1951, forcing Africans to resort to alternative methods to achieve their goals. During its years of operation, the Natives Representative Council was deemed a dead-end by some critics who believed that it could not lead to meaningful change. Due to its format, nobody was under any obligation to take the council's decisions and recommendations seriously, while many could defy and ignore their advice. American writer Carter G. Woodson claimed that
19306-551: The South African parliament. Walvis Bay , which is now in Namibia , was originally a part of the Union of South Africa as an exclave as it was a part of the Cape Colony at the time of Unification. In 1921, Walvis Bay was integrated with the Class C Mandate over South West Africa for the rest of the Union's duration and for part of the republican era. The Statute of Westminster passed by
19503-558: The Union Act , passed by the South African Parliament in 1934, incorporated the applicable portions of the Statute of Westminster into South African law, underscoring its status as a sovereign nation. It removed what remaining authority Whitehall had to legislate for South Africa, as well as any nominal role that the United Kingdom had in granting Royal Assent . The governor-general was now required to sign or veto bills passed by Parliament, without
19700-527: The Union. Five years earlier, some 33,000 Natalians had signed the Natal Covenant in opposition to the plans for a republic. Subsequently, the National Party government had passed a Constitution that repealed the South Africa Act . The features of the Union were carried over with very little change to the newly formed Republic. The decision to transform from a Union to Republic was narrowly decided in
19897-490: The act included provisions for organising conferences, where Africans from all regions of the country would voice their opinions on government proposals. Conferences were held regularly from 1924 to 1927, and many future NRC councilors were appointed by the government to attend and provide their opinions on legislation. By 1923, rural Africans were provided a means of expressing their opinions, but urban Africans still lacked any form of representation. The Natives Urban Areas Act
20094-556: The age of 18 who had paid their poll tax and held a receipt for the payment. The African electorate also had the opportunity to vote for 4 white candidates who would serve in the Senate . The Cape Africans, who were recently removed from the common roll, were able to elect 3 white representatives to the House of Assembly . The government created the Natives Representative Council as a platform for educated Africans to express their political desires, granting them official recognition as leaders of
20291-537: The apartheid state. Initially, MK was not an official ANC body, nor had it been directly established by the ANC National Executive: it was considered an autonomous organisation, until such time as the ANC formally recognised it as its armed wing in October 1962. In the first half of the 1960s, MK was preoccupied with a campaign of sabotage attacks, especially bombings of unoccupied government installations. As
20488-489: The black community in South Africa. According to Smuts, Hertzog intended for the council to serve as an outlet for the expression of African views and to steer both public and parliamentary opinions in their desired direction. This was expected to distract them from what the government considered disruptive and hazardous pursuits. The government also viewed the NRC as a useful tool, using it to identify prominent African leaders through its electoral processes. The NRC did not have
20685-412: The black majority even within a market-capitalist scheme. We must develop the capacity of government for strategic intervention in social and economic development. We must increase the capacity of the public sector to deliver improved and extended public services to all the people of South Africa. – 1994 Reconstruction and Development Programme Since 1994, consecutive ANC governments have held
20882-409: The border to target ANC members and ANC bases, as in the 1981 raid on Maputo , 1983 raid on Maputo , and 1985 raid on Gaborone . During this period, MK activities led the governments of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan to condemn the ANC as a terrorist organisation. In fact, neither the ANC nor Mandela were removed from the U.S. terror watch list until 2008. The animosity of Western regimes
21079-460: The colonial empire found just". Several previous unsuccessful attempts to unite the colonies were made, with proposed political models ranging from unitary , to loosely federal . Sir George Grey , the Governor of Cape Colony from 1854 to 1861, decided that unifying the states of southern Africa would be mutually beneficial. The stated reasons were that he believed that political divisions between
21276-446: The council or discuss its abolition, despite Malan's desire to do so. Although they had not held a formal session since 1946, the NRC held its third and final election in 1948. Although the councilors did not want to keep the existing system, they were hesitant to abolish the NRC, as it remained their only platform for advocating equality and amplifying African voices. In January 1949, the National Party government appointed W.J.G Mears as
21473-677: The council, drafted a motion to adjourn the NRC, presented by Moroka and unanimously passed by both elected and nominated councilors. The adjournment statement expressed the council's disapproval of the government's policy of segregation towards non-European citizens, which they see as contrary to the values of the Atlantic Charter and the United Nations Charter , and demanded that all discriminatory legislation affecting non-Europeans be immediately abolished. The NRC's decision to suspend its 1946 session did not arise spontaneously, nor
21670-439: The councilors accept the apartheid legislation without voicing objections, but the NRC refused, leading to the eventual abolition of the council in 1951. During its existence, critics claimed the NRC was nothing more than a tool for the white government to control the black population by granting them representation without real political power. This was due to the council's limited authority as it could only make recommendations to
21867-515: The country from all forms of discrimination and national oppression". It also continues to claim the Freedom Charter of 1955 as "the basic policy document of the ANC". However, as NEC member Jeremy Cronin noted in 2007, the various broad principles of the Freedom Charter have been given different interpretations, and emphasised to differing extents, by different groups within the organisation. Nonetheless, some basic commonalities are visible in
22064-624: The country since 1994, when the first post-apartheid election resulted in Nelson Mandela being elected as President of South Africa . Cyril Ramaphosa , the incumbent national President, has served as President of the ANC since 18 December 2017. Founded on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein as the South African Native National Congress , the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of black South Africans . When
22261-567: The creation of a republic , many of them voting "no" in the 5 October 1960 referendum . But due to the much larger number of Afrikaans-speaking voters, the referendum passed, leading to the establishment of a republic on 31 May 1961. The government led by the National Party consequently withdrew South Africa from the Commonwealth. Following the results of the referendum, some whites in Natal, which had an English-speaking majority, called for secession from
22458-473: The debate over GEAR raged, the ANC declared itself (in 2004) a social-democratic party, and it was at that time presiding over phenomenal expansions of its black economic empowerment programme and the system of social grants . As its name suggests, the RDP emphasised state-led development – that is, a developmental state – which the ANC has typically been cautious, at least in its rhetoric, to distinguish from
22655-578: The delegation, the British Colonial Office sent a clear message to the South African government to address the inadequate African representation. This resulted in Prime Minister Smuts passing the Native Affairs Act of 1920, which laid down provisions for establishing local councils in rural areas and a general council for large rural tribal units in the Transkei and Ciskei . Additionally,
22852-446: The end of apartheid. Indeed, the pursuit of the NDR is one of the primary objectives of the ANC as set out in its constitution. As with the Freedom Charter, the ambiguity of the NDR has allowed it to bear varying interpretations. For example, whereas SACP theorists tend to emphasise the anti-capitalist character of the NDR, some ANC policymakers have construed it as implying the empowerment of
23049-448: The end of his tenure and, having little experience of southern Africa, he preferred to enforce the more familiar model of confederation used in Canada. He pushed ahead with his Confederation plan, which unraveled as predicted, leaving a string of destructive wars across southern Africa. These conflicts eventually fed into the first and second Anglo-Boer Wars , with far-reaching consequences for
23246-609: The establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910, nationwide extension of the multi-racial franchise was not implemented, leaving most Africans, excluding the small number of eligible voters in the Cape Province , disenfranchised. Following the formation of the Union , the South African government largely disregarded African political organizations and their calls for equality. An exception occurred in 1919 when an African National Congress (ANC) delegation traveled to Europe to present
23443-413: The expansion and entrenchment of pass laws . When Josiah Gumede took over as ANC president in 1927, he advocated for a strategy of mass mobilisation and cooperation with the Communist Party , but was voted out of office in 1930 and replaced with the traditionalist Seme, whose leadership saw the ANC's influence wane. In the 1940s, Alfred Bitini Xuma revived some of Gumede's programmes, assisted by
23640-514: The final act of Union in 1909. A crucial difference was that the Cape's liberal constitution and multiracial franchise were to be extended to the other states of the union. These smaller states would gradually accede to the much larger Cape Colony through a system of treaties, whilst simultaneously gaining elected seats in the Cape parliament . The entire process would be locally driven, with Britain's role restricted to policing any set-backs. While subsequently acknowledged to be more viable, this model
23837-460: The financial burden of their schooling through the poll tax . As a result, by 1947, Africans were receiving free primary education , books , and meals . The number of high school students had also increased three-fold from 1936, a clear indication of the government's recognition of the NRC's resolutions. The NRC appreciated the improvements made in education, but opposed the segregationist policies that were being implemented and were unhappy with
24034-612: The flag of the KwaZulu bantustan and appears on the flag of the ANC's rival, the IFP; and all three colours appear in the post-apartheid South African national flag . Since 1996, the ANC Department of Political Education has published the quarterly Umrabulo political discussion journal; and ANC Today , a weekly online newsletter, was launched in 2001 to offset the alleged bias of the press. In addition, since 1972, it has been traditional for
24231-410: The formation of the NRC, there were 5.5 million rural African voters and 1.1 million urban Africans. The government's main goal was to provide adequate representation to urban Africans, who were believed to be the source of potential future problems for the government. The belief was that any African revolt would originate from cities where most of the educated Africans lived. The electoral machinery for
24428-593: The former South African President, was charged with fraud, bribery and corruption in the Arms Deal, but the charges were subsequently withdrawn by the National Prosecuting Authority of South Africa due to their delay in prosecution. The ANC has also been criticised for its subsequent abolition of the Scorpions , the multidisciplinary agency that investigated and prosecuted organised crime and corruption, and
24625-411: The freedom to express their opinions at any time. Eiselen insisted that they pass the apartheid legislation first, and only then would they be allowed to comment on it. These new rules meant that the councilors were expected to approve apartheid legislation without giving their opinion or objections. The councilors refused to comply and eventually left the hall one by one. Eiselen continued as long as there
24822-534: The gold and diamond mines there and highly protective of its own citizens, demanded reforms, which the Afrikaners rejected. A small-scale private British effort to overthrow Transvaal's President Paul Kruger , the Jameson Raid of 1895, proved a fiasco, and presaged full-scale conflict as diplomatic efforts all failed. The Second Boer War started on 11 October 1899 and ended on 31 May 1902. The United Kingdom gained
25019-422: The government to fully meet their demands before taking any further action. Following the councilors' meeting with the South African government, the NRC adjourned again. In May 1947, Prime Minister Smuts requested a meeting with six members of the NRC, including Matthews, to discuss proposals. The Smuts proposals were for a policy of self-government in black areas under a reconstituted NRC, thereby giving Africans
25216-506: The government's efforts to discourage African migration from rural areas to cities was due to a need for cheap labor for mines. However, the government also feared allowing free African entry to urban areas would upset white farmers, as well as the decline of rural labor for mines. In 1947, a regulation was put in place allowing the railways to refuse tickets to Africans without secure employment. Those caught by authorities without employment would be jailed, fined, and expelled from urban areas. At
25413-420: The government, which was under no obligation to implement them. The NRC's lack of autonomy also drew criticism, as it was established to represent Black South Africans, yet ultimately remained subject to the control of the South African government. Additionally, the NRC was criticised for failing to bring about any meaningful change. The history of Black South African political representation can be traced back to
25610-673: The guerillas and deny them a base of civilian support. Using these tactics combined with a system of blockhouses and barriers to seal off Boer holdouts, the British were able to gradually track down and defeat the guerillas. In the 1902 Treaty of Vereeniging , the British formally annexed the Boer republics into the Cape Colony , ending the war. The National Convention was a constitutional convention held between 1908 and 1909 in Durban (12 October to 5 November 1908), Cape Town (23 November to 18 December 1908, 11 January to 3 February 1909) and Bloemfontein (3 to 11 May 1909). This convention led to
25807-416: The high level of illiteracy among the population. However, no evidence of such cases was ever presented. On the contrary, there are reports suggesting that even in the most arbitrary electoral units, where voting was conducted through a chief , the chief was required to take into account the views of their followers. A more significant critique of the voting system was made by Z.K. Matthews , who argued that
26004-473: The historical injustices perpetrated against the indigenous majority and thus lay the basis for a new – and deeper internationalist – approach". For the movement's intellectuals, the concept of the National Democratic Revolution (NDR) was a means of reconciling the anti-apartheid and anti-colonial project with a second goal, that of establishing domestic and international socialism – the ANC
26201-572: The idea in principle and the Transvaal may also eventually have agreed. However, he was overruled by the British Colonial Office which ordered him to desist from his plans. His refusal to abandon the idea eventually led to him being recalled. In the 1870s, the London Colonial Office, under Secretary for the Colonies Lord Carnarvon , decided to apply a system of confederation onto southern Africa. On this occasion, however, it
26398-464: The impact of these laws on African urban dwellers to the government and municipalities. During the time the NRC was in operation from 1937 to 1950, two types of taxes were imposed on Africans. The first and more significant one was the poll tax , which required all African men aged 18 to 65 years to pay a fixed rate of one pound per year. The second type was a collection of various local taxes, primarily paid in rural areas and consisting of taxes like
26595-489: The interest of the people as a whole". The proposed developmental state was also central to the ANC's campaign in the 2009 elections , and it remains a central pillar of the policy of the current government, which seeks to build a "capable and developmental" state. In this regard, ANC politicians often cite China as an aspirational example. A discussion document ahead of the ANC's 2015 National General Council proposed that: China['s] economic development trajectory remains
26792-602: The interests of the anti-apartheid movement. However, ongoing political violence , which the ANC attributed to a state-sponsored third force , led to recurrent tensions. Most dramatically, after the Boipatong massacre of June 1992, the ANC announced that it was withdrawing from negotiations indefinitely. It faced further casualties in the Bisho massacre , the Shell House massacre , and in other clashes with state forces and supporters of
26989-580: The interim Constitution, also included the National Party and IFP. The ANC has controlled the national government since then. In the post-apartheid era, several significant breakaway groups have been formed by former ANC members. The first is the Congress of the People , founded by Mosiuoa Lekota in 2008 in the aftermath of the Polokwane elective conference , when the ANC declined to re-elect Thabo Mbeki as its president and instead compelled his resignation from
27186-611: The last months of 1899, Boer forces launched the first attacks of the war, besieging the British-held settlements of Ladysmith , Kimberley and Mafeking , and winning several engagements against British troops at Colenso , Magersfontein and Stormberg . However, by the next year the British soon organised an effective response to these attacks, lifting the three sieges and winning several battles against Boer forces. The British, now deploying approximately 400,000 soldiers from across their colonial empire, successfully invaded and occupied
27383-425: The latter half of the 1980s, a number of South African civilians were killed in these attacks, a reversal of the ANC's earlier reluctance to incur civilian casualties. Fatal attacks included the 1983 Church Street bombing , the 1985 Amanzimtoti bombing , the 1986 Magoo's Bar bombing , and the 1987 Johannesburg Magistrate's Court bombing . Partly in retaliation, the South African Defence Force increasingly crossed
27580-471: The laws of the mandatory (South Africa) as integral portions of its territory". Subsequently, the Union of South Africa generally regarded South West Africa as a fifth province, although this was never an official status. With the creation of the United Nations , the Union applied for the incorporation of South West Africa, but its application was rejected by the U.N., which invited South Africa to prepare
27777-466: The leader of the parliamentary opposition , uneasy. Between the years of 1927 and 1930, no conferences were held to gather the opinion of African citizens, a direct result of the rise of the ICU and the government's fear of militant opinions being displayed during these conferences, despite the fact that all participants were nominated by the government. The idea of an African council was now seen as premature, and
27974-424: The level of segregation present in the education system. The issue of land ownership was a major source of conflict within the Natives Representative Council. The council members were opposed to both the 1913 Land Act and the 1936 Trust and Land Act . The Council believed that Africans were doing well before the 1913 Land Act was passed, which they saw as enacted to provide labor for the mines , and felt there
28171-500: The magisterial structure for the area's political integration into the Cape dragged on until, from 1876, it was blocked by Britain. Britain relented, insofar as allowing the Cape to incorporate Walvis Bay as an exclave, which was brought under the magisterial district of Cape Town , but when the Germans established a protectorate over the area in 1884, South West Africa was predominantly autonomous. Thereafter, South West Africa became
28368-568: The multi-racial Congress of the People in Kliptown, Soweto , which ratified the Freedom Charter , from then onwards a fundamental document in the anti-apartheid struggle . The Charter was the basis of the enduring Congress Alliance , but was also used as a pretext to prosecute hundreds of activists, among them most of the ANC's leadership, in the Treason Trial . Before the trial was concluded,
28565-585: The name of the Crown (cited in the format Rex / Regina v Accused ) and government officials served in the name of the Crown. An entrenched clause in the Constitution mentioned Dutch and English as official languages of the Union, but the meaning of Dutch was changed by the Official Languages of the Union Act, 1925 to include both Dutch and Afrikaans. Most English-speaking whites in South Africa supported
28762-547: The national presidency. The second breakaway is the Economic Freedom Fighters , founded in 2013 after youth leader Julius Malema was expelled from the ANC. Before these, the most important split in the ANC's history occurred in 1959, when Robert Sobukwe led a splinter faction of African nationalists to the new Pan Africanist Congress . uMkhonto weSizwe rose to prominence in December 2023, when former president Jacob Zuma announced that, while planning to remain
28959-427: The needs of the African intelligentsia, which was the primary goal of the original Council bill. By 1935, the threat posed by the ICU had diminished and the only other significant African organization, the ANC, was in disarray. After a decade of discussions, the Representation of Natives Act was finally passed, abolishing the Cape Franchise and establishing the Natives Representative Council with 22 members. Six of
29156-585: The needs of the government of the day. Parliamentary sovereignty was a convention of the constitution, inherited from the United Kingdom; save for procedural safeguards in respect of the entrenched sections of franchise and language, the courts were unable to intervene in Parliament's decisions. Pretoria was the seat of government, while the Parliament sat in Cape Town and the Appellate Division in Bloemfontein . The Union initially remained under
29353-438: The neighbouring concept of a welfare state . In the mid-2000s, during Mbeki's second term, the notion of a developmental state was revived in South African political discourse when the national economy worsened; and the 2007 National Conference whole-heartedly endorsed developmentalism in its policy resolutions, calling for a state "at the centre of a mixed economy... which leads and guides that economy and which intervenes in
29550-409: The new chair of the NRC and called for a meeting of the council. Mears conveyed the government's message that it was not willing to accept the council's demand for the abolition of discriminatory legislation, and that it intended to abolish the NRC since it served no useful purpose. Despite talks of abolition, a by-election was held in 1949 after the death of a former councilor. There was much debate in
29747-563: The nine provincial executive committees and regional executive committees are elected at provincial and regional elective conferences respectively, also attended by branch delegates; and branch officials are elected at branch general meetings. The ANC has three leagues: the Women's League , the Youth League and the Veterans' League . Under the ANC constitution, the leagues are autonomous bodies with
29944-416: The north and Afrikaner encroachment from the south, these leaders approached the Cape Colony government to discuss the possibility of accession and the political representation it would entail. Accession to the Cape Colony, a self-governing state with a system of multi-racial franchise and legal protection for traditional land rights, was at the time considered marginally preferable to annexation by either
30141-411: The onset of the war, the British were both overconfident about the chances of success in a military confrontation with the Boer republics and underprepared for a long-term conflict. British Prime Minister Lord Salisbury and members of his cabinet , in particular Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain , ignored repeated warnings that Boer forces were more powerful than previous reports had suggested. In
30338-514: The option of seeking advice from London. The monarch was represented in South Africa by a governor-general , while effective power was exercised by the Executive Council, headed by the prime minister . Louis Botha , formerly a Boer general, was appointed first prime minister of the Union, heading a coalition representing the white Afrikaner and English-speaking British diaspora communities. Prosecutions before courts were instituted in
30535-572: The outcome of the election, which saw that the councilors remained unchanged, indicated that the aspirations of the African community had not altered. They would present their demands for the elimination of racial discrimination to the newly elected National Party government. The NRC saw education as the key to freedom and equality for the African community. Z.K. Matthews claimed that the only career options for an educated African were to teach , preach , or agitate . The NRC aimed to expand these limited career options and believed that Africa's future
30732-476: The party, following the conclusion of his presidency, for ignoring instances of corruption and mismanagement, whilst allowing for the growth of a culture of racial and ideological intolerance. The most prominent corruption case involving the ANC relates to a series of bribes paid to companies involved in the ongoing R55 billion Arms Deal saga , which resulted in a long term jail sentence to then Deputy President Jacob Zuma 's legal adviser Schabir Shaik . Zuma,
30929-505: The pass system, but despite protests towards the Department of Native Affairs and the Native Affairs Commission, nothing came of their efforts. The Pass Laws were instead more strictly enforced than ever before. The Natives Representative Council had great significance for the African community. Its establishment enabled the formation of a racial consciousness and helped them to understand their political standing more clearly. It
31126-409: The policy and ideological preferences of the organisation's mainstream. The ANC is committed to the ideal of non-racialism and to opposing "any form of racial, tribalistic or ethnic exclusivism or chauvinism". The 1969 Morogoro Conference committed the ANC to a "national democratic revolution [which] – destroying the existing social and economic relationship – will bring with it a correction of
31323-454: The poor. This has resulted in the " No Land! No House! No Vote! " Campaign which became very prominent during elections. In 2018, the New York Times reported on the killings of ANC corruption whistleblowers. During an address on 28 October 2021, former president Thabo Mbeki commented on the history of corruption within the ANC. He reflected that Mandela had already warned in 1997 that
31520-571: The practice. The council members viewed freedom of movement as a fundamental aspect of a free and democratic society and saw the pass system as a form of enslavement . The councilors made arguments that they believed would appeal to the Department of Native Affairs, which frequently used native custom to justify its actions. Therefore, the councilors argued that the Pass Laws were inconsistent with native customs and should be abolished for that reason. The NRC initially held hope that changes could be made to
31717-545: The press about whether NRC councilors should resign, but significant pressure came from the African National Congress Youth League . The councilors argued that they had a mandate from the people who elected them, and thus refused to resign from the council. An informal meeting took place in August 1950 between the NRC and the South African government, with the new Secretary of Native Affairs W.W.M. Eiselen present. Eiselen contacted Matthews and proposed that
31914-497: The provision of basic services, including health and education. Although the RDP was abandoned in 1996, these three channels of state economic intervention have remained mainstays of subsequent ANC policy frameworks. In 1996, Mandela's government replaced the RDP with the Growth Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) programme, which was maintained under President Thabo Mbeki , Mandela's successor. GEAR has been characterised as
32111-598: The referendum. The decision together with the South African Government's insistence on adhering to its policy of apartheid resulted in South Africa's de facto expulsion from the Commonwealth of Nations . The South Africa Act dealt with race in two specific provisions. First it entrenched the liberal (by South African standards) Cape Qualified Franchise system of the Cape Colony which operated free of any racial considerations (although due to socio-economic restrictions no real political expression of non-whites
32308-489: The scope to devise their own constitutions and policies; for the purpose of national conferences, they are treated somewhat like provinces, with voting delegates and the power to nominate leadership candidates. The ANC is recognised as the leader of a three-way alliance, known as the Tripartite Alliance , with the SACP and Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU). The alliance was formalised in mid-1990, after
32505-559: The seats in Parliament . A successor of the Cape Colony 's Imbumba Yamanyama organisation, the ANC was founded as the South African Native National Congress in Bloemfontein on 8 January 1912, and was renamed the African National Congress in 1923. Pixley ka Isaka Seme , Sol Plaatje , John Dube , and Walter Rubusana founded the organisation, who, like much of the ANC's early membership, were from
32702-420: The socioeconomic inequalities created by colonialism and apartheid, and to promote economic growth and development ; state intervention was judged a necessary step towards both goals. Specifically, the state was to intervene in the economy through three primary channels: a land reform programme ; a degree of economic planning , through industrial and trade policy; and state investments in infrastructure and
32899-587: The subcontinent. After the discovery of gold in the 1880s, thousands of British immigrants flocked to the gold mines of the Transvaal Republic and the Orange Free State . The newly arrived miners, though needed for the mines, were distrusted by the politically dominant Afrikaners, who called them " uitlanders ", imposed heavy taxes on them and granted them very limited civil rights, with no right to vote. The British government, interested in profiting from
33096-541: The support of its Cape Colony, of its Colony of Natal and of some African allies. Volunteers from across the British Empire further supplemented the British war effort. All other nations remained neutral, but public opinion in them was largely hostile to Britain. Inside Britain and its Empire there was also significant opposition to the Second Boer War , spearheaded by anti-war activists such as Emily Hobhouse . At
33293-453: The time, Prime Minister Smuts believed the territorial separation of black and white wouldn't require force, as it would happen naturally through the Slums Act and government-approved housing. A 1937 census showed the number of "surplus" Africans living in cities, leading to many expulsions and efforts by some municipalities to reduce the African population. The NRC tried to raise awareness of
33490-506: The twelve elected councilors demonstrates their significant influence over political opinions. The majority of political power available to African intellectuals during this time was largely controlled by the newly elected members of the Natives Representatives Council. Following the 1937 election, it became evident that the ANC was the most popular political party. By 1942, the ANC and the Natives Representatives Council had
33687-450: The vote was by a show of hands, the results were recorded and placed in a sealed envelope for submission to the relevant authorities, ensuring that the vote was as confidential as possible. The elections were conducted in two stages, which added complexity to the process. During the first stage, potential candidates were nominated by one or more electoral units. Some candidates self-nominated, while others were nominated against their will, as
33884-402: The way it was imposed from outside without understanding of local issues. The Confederation model was also seen as unsuitable for the disparate entities of southern Africa , with their wildly different sizes, economies and political systems. The Molteno Unification Plan (1877), put forward by the Cape government as a more feasible unitary alternative to confederation , largely anticipated
34081-412: The white-controlled states "weakened them against the natives", threatened an ethnic divide between British and Boer, and left the Cape vulnerable to interference from other European powers. He believed that a united "South African Federation", under British control, would resolve all three of these concerns. His idea was greeted with cautious optimism in southern Africa; the Orange Free State agreed to
34278-433: Was a unitary state , rather than a federation like Canada and Australia, with each colony's parliaments being abolished and replaced with provincial councils . A bicameral parliament was created, consisting of the House of Assembly and Senate , with members of the parliament being elected mostly by the country's white minority. During the course of the Union, the franchise changed on several occasions always to suit
34475-407: Was a quorum, but ultimately, everyone left the hall, and the last session of the Natives Representative Council ended in defeat for Eiselen. The NRC was officially abolished the following year in 1951. During elections, 12 of the 16 councilors were elected, with nine being chosen through electoral colleges . The remaining three were selected by the black advisory boards in urban areas. At the time of
34672-476: Was an extremely controversial topic within the organisation. Following preliminary contact between the ANC and representatives of the state, business, and civil society, President F. W. de Klerk announced in February 1990 that the government would unban the ANC and other banned political organisations, and that Mandela would be released from prison. Some ANC leaders returned to South Africa from exile for so-called "talks about talks", which led in 1990 and 1991 to
34869-409: Was called together to hear an explanation of apartheid, which was the first time that Africans were formally addressed on the policy by the government. The outcome of the meeting was deemed important because the government had indicated that it would not abolish the Council if it cooperated with them, but that depended on whether the newly appointed Minister of Native Affairs, Hendrik Verwoerd, would make
35066-454: Was confirmed with the Balfour Declaration of 1926 and the Statute of Westminster 1931 . It was governed under a form of constitutional monarchy , with the Crown being represented by a governor-general. The Union came to an end with the enactment of the constitution of 1961 , by which it became a republic and left the Commonwealth of Nations . The Republic of South Africa rejoined the Commonwealth on 1 June 1994. The Union of South Africa
35263-426: Was described as a gathering place for " Communist agitators". Smuts expressed concern that the proposed council could easily become a breeding ground for agitation and Bolshevism among the law-abiding natives. The proposal for a Council bill was abandoned in 1930 due to concerns that it would disturb the existing white civilization. Despite attempts to come up with alternative plans, none of them adequately addressed
35460-454: Was heavily involved in the investigation into Zuma and Shaik. Tony Yengeni , in his position as chief whip of the ANC and head of the Parliaments defence committee has recently been named as being involved in bribing the German company ThyssenKrupp over the purchase of four corvettes for the SANDF. Other corruption issues in the 2000s included the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of Beaufort West municipal manager Truman Prince , and
35657-415: Was imposed in the form of a proclamation that restricted the rights of Africans in urban areas under the control of certain local authorities. This proclamation demonstrated the government's intention to ignore the council's decision to adjourn until discriminatory legislation was abolished. During their meeting with the NRC, Jan Hofmeyr , the deputy prime minister, delivered a speech which outlined what
35854-465: Was intertwined with its educational system . In 1941, it was announced that the council's resolutions had been approved, and primary education in government schools would be provided for free. In 1945, J.H. Hofmeyr, then the deputy prime minister, introduced a bill to Parliament which transferred responsibility for financing black education from African people to the Department of Education . This change meant that Africans would no longer have to bear
36051-428: Was it solely caused by the brutal suppression of a mineworkers' strike 11 days earlier, as is popularly claimed. It was the result of a carefully arranged agreement between the NRC and A.B. Xuma, who was the President-General of the ANC. At the request of Xuma, the NRC agreed to terminate its session unilaterally unless the Smuts' government agreed to abolish all pass laws , recognise African trade unions , and repeal
36248-443: Was largely rejected by southern Africans, primarily due to its very bad timing. The various component states of southern Africa were still simmering after the last bout of British expansion, and inter-state tensions were high. The Orange Free State this time refused to even discuss the idea, and Prime Minister John Molteno of the Cape Colony called the idea badly informed and irresponsible. In addition, many local leaders resented
36445-467: Was no longer practical with many favouring some form of ' responsible government '. Some favoured responsible government within Southern Rhodesia while others (especially in Matabeleland ) favoured membership of the Union of South Africa. Politician Sir Charles Coghlan claimed that such membership with the Union would make Southern Rhodesia the " Ulster of South Africa". Prior to the referendum, representatives of Southern Rhodesia visited Cape Town where
36642-510: Was no security under the new Trust Land system. The NRC rejected the government's explanation for the 1936 Trust and Land Act, which claimed to protect African land from white acquisition, and instead believed it was enacted to safeguard white land ownership. The council's main focus was to help individual black farmers . At the time, about one-seventh of South Africa's land was still in African hands, with black land companies using collective financing to purchase and lease large farms. The government
36839-420: Was partly explained by the Cold War context, and by the considerable amount of support – both financial and technical – that the ANC received from the Soviet Union . From the mid-1980s, as international and internal opposition to apartheid mounted, elements of the ANC began to test the prospects for a negotiated settlement with the South African government, although the prudence of abandoning armed struggle
37036-542: Was possible). The Cape Prime Minister at the time, John X. Merriman , fought hard, but ultimately unsuccessfully, to extend this system of multi-racial franchise to the rest of South Africa. Second it made "native affairs" a matter for the national government. The practice therefore was to establish a Minister of Native Affairs . According to Stephen Howe, "colonialism in some cases—most obviously among white minorities in South Africa — meant mainly that these violent settlers wanted to maintain more racial inequalities than
37233-408: Was rejected at the time by London. At the other extreme, another powerful Cape politician at the time, Saul Solomon , proposed an extremely loose system of federation, with the component states preserving their very different constitutions and systems of franchise. Lord Carnarvon rejected the (more informed) local plans for unification, as he wished to have the process brought to a conclusion before
37430-477: Was subsequently passed in 1923, which included provisions for the creation of advisory boards, consisting solely of African members, with the exception of the chairpersons, who were white officials. These boards served as advisory bodies for regulations passed by the corresponding urban local authority. Despite their lack of legislative or any other political power, the government was wary of these advisory boards and viewed them with caution. J.B.M. Hertzog served as
37627-438: Was supposed to provide loans for black farmers to buy land , but only loans in white areas were given, making black farmers indebted to the government. In 1938, an amendment to the 1936 Land and Trust Act was passed, making it mandatory for the government to buy out black farmers on white land. Africans who wanted to farm were frustrated by the lack of support and restrictions on expanding their holdings. The government's priority
37824-513: Was the case for Xuma in 1942 and 1948. The reason for the nomination stage is unclear, but it may have been used by the government to gauge the level of support for African candidates, particularly those considered to be "agitators". On the other hand, for the candidates, the nomination stage allowed them to assess their level of support prior to the election day. Those who were only locally known were able to withdraw if it became clear that they did not have enough support from other electoral units. In
38021-405: Was the first time since the creation of the Union that black individuals had an official platform to express their opinions. For the black leaders, the Council served as a means to present their views to the government and elevated their status among their constituents. Perhaps most importantly, it allowed them to address their constituents at political gatherings in their districts. Africans viewed
38218-433: Was the historical predecessor to the present-day Republic of South Africa . It came into existence on 31 May 1910 with the unification of the Cape , Natal , Transvaal , and Orange River colonies. It included the territories that were formerly part of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State . Following World War I , the Union of South Africa was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles and became one of
38415-650: Was to provide plots for homeless people rather than promoting independent black farming, leading to low productivity on Trust Lands. Farmers couldn't succeed and most people who lived there did not want to become farmers, resulting in a wasteful use of manpower and damaging the land. The Department of Native Affairs was aware of the problem but was unable to resolve it. The legislation of the time made it difficult for Africans to gain permanent residency in cities, with urban areas considered as "white" and only open to black people as servants. Those who couldn't prove employment were deemed "surplus" and pushed out. The NRC believed
38612-662: Was unjust for only Africans to be required to pay a tax that was not imposed on other sections of the population. Efforts to abolish the tax were defeated in 1939. To enforce payment of the poll tax, the Native Taxation Act allowed for police raids to check for tax receipts, and Africans had to produce their receipts to get employment in the mines and vote for the NRC. Tax evasion was widespread, including among NRC councilors, and measures were taken to address this, such as detention camps for defaulters and paying bonuses to chiefs and headmen. The threat of prosecution for tax evasion compelled African men to seek employment with cash wages, which
38809-479: Was unresponsive to the plight of non-white South Africans and that the media was complicit in perpetuating this indifference. Despite this, Luthuli maintained a belief that the NRC should stay and that their advocacy efforts should increase because there were people beyond South Africa who could hear their message. Union of South Africa The Union of South Africa ( Dutch : Unie van Zuid-Afrika ; Afrikaans : Unie van Suid-Afrika ; pronunciation )
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