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66-471: The Palgrave Commission (1876–1885) was a series of diplomatic missions undertaken by Special Commissioner William Coates Palgrave (1833–1897) to the territory of South West Africa (modern Namibia ). Palgrave was commissioned by the Cape Government to meet with the leaders of the nations of Hereroland and Namaland, hear their wishes regarding political sovereignty, and relay the assembled information to

132-640: A Constituent Assembly were held in November 1989 and the territory became independent as the Republic of Namibia on 21 March 1990. Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Maharero Maharero, was born about 1820 at Okahandja . In 1843 he went with his father Tjamuaha to Windhoek to stay with Jonker Afrikaner , Captain of the Oorlam Afrikaners. Tjamuaha

198-700: A desperate request for incorporation from Maharero and other leaders. Once again, the British Imperial Government adopted its own course and vacillated, and when Palgrave arrived back in Cape Town he learned that the Imperial government had recognised German authority over the South West African hinterland. The failure of the Palgrave Commission was due primarily due to ill-advised interference in

264-706: A peace was brokered by missionary Carl Hugo Hahn of the Rhenish Missionary Society . In the decade that followed, many more white traders entered Damaraland, mostly from the Cape Colony. More serious still were the Boer incursions into the Herero lands from the Boer republics to the east. Maharero complained to the governor of the Cape Colony about Boers entering the eastern part of the territory. The Cape government sent

330-604: A result, Maharero requested his son Samuel Maharero to succeed as chief of the Hereros living in the east and Ovambanderu under Kahimemua and Tjetjoo. His request was supported by the German governor, who subsequently appointed Nikodemus in his new position. This brought so many arguments on this leadership style, which finally led to both Nikodemus and Kahimemua being captured and executed in Okahandja in 1896. When Jonker Afrikaner died, he

396-472: A set of proposed scenarios. On the one extreme, some parliamentary factions favoured total non-involvement. On the other extreme, many favoured full annexation to the Cape Colony with all the political rights that would entail. The Cape Prime Minister John Molteno concluded that the final decision would depend on the views and wishes of the various nations of South West Africa, and that a delegation must immediately depart to consult them and report back. To head

462-567: A sharp deterioration in the conditions in South West Africa. Among the overall rise in violence, notable was the renewed military expansion of Jonker Afrikaner's Oorlam. Meanwhile, the Herero polity began to fragment, the Basters came under growing attack, and the migration of Boer "Thirst Trekkers" approached from the Transvaal (in the end, in fact, for all the fear they generated among the locals,

528-634: A system of confederation in Southern Africa under British control. The Cape government rejected this Confederation plan, as it predicted (correctly) that it would lead to war with the Boer Republics. However, Bartle Frere used his ability to obstruct the implementation of Palgrave's work as a tactical tool, to pressurise the Cape government to agree to confederation. Failing to persuade the Cape government, Bartle Frere dissolved it, and assumed direct control of

594-522: A three-month rotational basis. The DTA was awarded 22 seats in the National Assembly with five other parties being awarded 8 seats each. Johannes Skrywer would again become Speaker of the National Assembly and Dawid Bezuidenhout would be the first Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The second-tier of governance in South West Africa consisted of ethnic-based Representative Authorities which replaced

660-468: A treaty accepting German protection over the country. When he died on October 5, 1890, a serious dispute about his succession erupted. Maharero's brother Kavezeri, who was born in 1845, became custodian of the sacred fire. His other brother Kavikunua, who had already died in 1858, had a son named Nikodemus (Kambahahiza). Owing to Nikodemus powerful personality he had been in a strong position to become paramount chief of Hereroland but had not been successful. As

726-556: The British Imperial Government first to push for the annexation, but then to actively forestall it as a way of putting pressure on the Cape government. This fatally undermined Palgrave's work. Nonetheless, aside from any humanitarian considerations, the Cape began to have serious strategic reasons for wanting to secure South West Africa. It correctly predicted the invasion of this area by an imperialist European power (in this case, Imperial Germany ), and it wished to protect

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792-660: The Cape Colony Government . In the early 1870s, South West Africa was torn by internecine warfare and threatened with impending invasion and colonisation by Portugal, Germany and the Boers. In desperation, several local leaders requested incorporation into the relatively peaceful Cape Colony, with the promise of equal representation in the Cape Parliament . The Cape Government commissioned Palgrave to investigate, and Palgrave recommended that South West Africa be incorporated into

858-540: The Palgrave Commission , and later annexed Walvis Bay in 1878, though this was not actually part of Maharero's territory. In 1880, there were renewed hostilities between Maharero and Jan Jonker Afrikaner . What was originally a dispute over grazing escalated into a pogrom against all Nama living in Maharero's territory, and over 200 were killed. One who escaped with his life was Hendrik Witbooi , who thereafter led

924-868: The Union of South Africa in 1910, Walvis Bay became part of the Cape Province . As part of the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty in 1890, a corridor of land taken from the northern border of Bechuanaland , extending as far as the Zambezi River, was added to the colony. It was named the Caprivi Strip ( Caprivizipfel ) after the German Chancellor Leo von Caprivi . In 1915, during the South West Africa campaign of World War I , South Africa captured

990-553: The Windhoek Declaration of Basic Principles in 1984 and a Bill of Fundamental Rights and Objectives the following year, resulting in the establishment of a Transitional Government of National Unity (TGNU) on 17 June 1985. Unlike the previous Interim Government, the TGNU was not directly elected but instead consisted of an appointed 62 member National Assembly and an 8-member Council of Ministers which would be led by each member on

1056-447: The 19th century, the frontiers of the Cape Colony and the neighbouring Boer republics were inhabited by expanding waves of semi-nomadic farmers. These Afrikaans-speaking nomads included the mixed-race Oorlam , Griqua and Baster nations as well as the white Trekboers . Leaving the colonies, they spilled over into neighbouring territories and entered into clashes with the pre-existing African peoples. In South West Africa , which

1122-478: The Cape and its inhabitants granted equal political rights. This would have resulted in a new state, comprising the Cape and modern Namibia . However the breakdown in relations between the local Cape government and the British Imperial government prevented it from being implemented. The region remained vulnerable without a unified state structure, and was taken over and colonised by Germany soon afterwards. In

1188-648: The Council of Ministers on 1 July 1980. Johannes Skrywer, also of the DTA, became Speaker of the National Assembly. The interim government collapsed on 18 January 1983 following the resignation of the Council of Ministers citing interference from the South African government and proposals to create a State Council. Following the collapse of the Interim Government, its legislative and executive powers returned to South African Administrator-General Willie van Niekerk , who

1254-780: The Court ruling in 1966 that they were not the proper parties to bring the case. There was a protracted struggle between South Africa and forces fighting for independence, particularly after the formation of the South West Africa People's Organisation ( SWAPO ) in 1960. On 27 October 1966, the General Assembly passed resolution 2145 (XXI) which declared the Mandate terminated and that the Republic of South Africa had no further right to administer South West Africa. South African control over

1320-514: The German chancellor Otto von Bismarck to annex and occupy South West Africa, before the Cape did. In 1884 Bismarck did so, thereby establishing German South West Africa as a colony (Deutsch-Südwestafrika in German). Too late, the Cape tried to forestall the German invasion. Surrounded by bitter accusations from his former staff and in the context of the German expansion, Palgrave departed for his 5th and final commission in 1884. Once again, he conveyed

1386-614: The German colony. After the war, it was declared a League of Nations Class C Mandate territory under the Treaty of Versailles , with the Union of South Africa responsible for the administration of South West Africa. From 1922, this included Walvis Bay, which, under the South West Africa Affairs Act, was governed as if it were part of the mandated territory. South West Africa remained a League of Nations Mandate until World War II and

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1452-483: The Herero and Nama leadership, and of the British authorities he was working for. Having worked for nearly a decade on a project that was now a failure, he retired. The question has yet to be resolved, of whether he was a hard-working and well-intentioned diplomat attempting to pre-empt the German colonial invasion, or whether he was merely another agent of oppressive colonialism. South West Africa South West Africa

1518-648: The National Party. An additional consequence of this was the extension of apartheid laws to the territory. This gave rise to several rulings at the International Court of Justice , which in 1950 ruled that South Africa was not obliged to convert South West Africa into a UN trust territory, but was still bound by the League of Nations Mandate, with the United Nations General Assembly assuming

1584-508: The Oorlam wished to remain sovereign. However his conclusion was that annexation was overwhelmingly favoured by the leaders and people of the region, and that it was the only way of ending the devastating warfare that was engulfing the region. Back in Cape Town, additional recommendations included: The Cape government immediately agreed to incorporation, but other forces were at play in southern Africa that would prevent it. Palgrave's commission

1650-533: The Rehoboth Self-Determination Act, 1976. An advisory council was established for San Bushmen in 1986. No representative body was established for Himbas . Local authorities formed the lowest tier of governance in South West Africa. Previously established local government bodies would continue to exist and new ones could be formed. In urban areas, the local authority would be an elected local council. In rural areas where local governance structures

1716-675: The South West Africa Affairs Act was amended to give representation in the Parliament of South Africa to whites in South West Africa, which gave them six seats in the House of Assembly and four in the Senate . This was to the advantage of the National Party , which enjoyed strong support from the predominantly Afrikaner and ethnic German white population in the territory. Between 1950 and 1977, all of South West Africa's parliamentary seats were held by

1782-613: The UN when the General Assembly changed the territory's name by Resolution 2372 (XXII) of 12 June 1968. SWAPO was recognised as representative of the Namibian people , and gained UN observer status when the territory of South West Africa was already removed from the list of non-self-governing territories . In 1977, South Africa transferred control of Walvis Bay back to the Cape Province , thereby making it an exclave . The South African authorities established 10 bantustans in South West Africa in

1848-419: The ability to pass legislation known as Ordinances. Unlike the former Bantustans, Representative Authorities functioned on the basis of ethnicity only and were no longer based on geographically defined areas. Representative Authorities were created for Whites , Coloureds , Ovambos , Kavangos , Lozi , Damaras , Namas , Tswanas , and Herero . A similar body had been established for Rehoboth Basters by

1914-549: The affairs of southern Africa by the British Colonial Office in London, whose obstruction of the commission led to German colonisation of South West Africa. The subsequent wars, rebellions and resulting Herero and Namaqua Genocide all ensued from German colonisation. However, it is difficult to hypothesize on what would have resulted if the Palgrave Commission had succeeded. The hypothetical enlarged state would have included

1980-489: The biggest. Travel was arduous and dangerous, in a desert country with no infrastructure and unsettled nomads. However Palgrave knew much of the country well from his youth, and many of his personnel were local men who were also knowledgeable of the enormous land. They generally travelled at night, so as to avoid the deadly heat of the desert. When arriving in settlements like Okahandja , Walvis Bay and Otjimbingwe , they were usually expected, and treated as honoured guests by

2046-526: The collapse of the League of Nations. The Mandate was supposed to become a United Nations Trust Territory when League of Nations Mandates were transferred to the United Nations following World War II. The Prime Minister , Jan Smuts , objected to South West Africa coming under UN control and refused to allow the territory's transition to independence, instead seeking to make it South Africa's fifth province in 1946. Although this never occurred, in 1949,

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2112-457: The commission, Molteno chose William Palgrave, a gentle and learned man who had spent many years living with the Herero and knew many of the traditional leaders personally. Palgrave initially declined. He claimed that his personal friendships with some of the Herero leaders, such as Maharero and Shikongo, meant that he could not be fully impartial with regard to the region's conflicts. Charles Brownlee

2178-627: The country to enforce the Confederation system. The Confederation plan collapsed as predicted, culminating in the Anglo-Zulu War and the First Boer War . In a peculiar step, the incorporation of Walvis Bay and the offshore islands was then authorised by the British in 1878, while the rest of the country remained in legal limbo until the Germans arrived. Palgrave's following trips coincided with

2244-524: The dominance of the Afrikaners and was recognized by both Herero's and the European in the country as the representative of all the Hereros. Shortly afterwards he emerged as the first Herero paramount chief though his leadership was not uncontested. He sought to consolidate his position by marrying into all the important Hereros families and he apparently had over 60 wives by the time he was old. In 1885 he signed

2310-429: The ensuing conflict with the other nations of the area, they established a republic and parliament in 1872, around the settlement of Rehoboth . From the 1870s however, increasing numbers of white Trekboers began to enter South West Africa from the east, causing even worse internecine warfare. Furthermore, as the scramble for Africa loomed, several observant local leaders became aware that full European colonisation of

2376-728: The entire (predominantly mixed-race and Afrikaans-speaking) western half of southern Africa, corresponding largely to the dry, winter-rainfall climatic area, and holding abundant mineral resources. It would also have inherited a relatively liberal, inclusive and multi-racial political system. Had it not been united with the Boer republics and the Johannesburg mines that seeded apartheid , it is possible that this region would have avoided that most unfortunate part of history. A social development akin to that of Brazil might have followed, but with no way of predicting either way, no judgement can be made. Palgrave himself became increasingly critical, both of

2442-524: The fighting as further fighting broke out between the Herero and the Nama, and his staff largely deserted him. As the various political factions in the British administration of the Cape disagreed and delayed, the unrest in South West Africa continued. Finally, as predicted, the German Colonisers arrived. In 1883, a German trader, Adolf Lüderitz bought a section of coast, renamed it after himself, and advised

2508-438: The flank of the new Kimberley diamond fields. It was also very aware of the need to secure the only viable harbour of the region (Walvis Bay) and the trade routes to the north. The British government believed it to be a strife-torn territory which was of no significant value. A reflection of its ignorance of the land was Lord Carnarvon 's belief that Walvis Bay was the port for Kimberley. The British government wanted to implement

2574-747: The government of the Cape Colony . But by that time the Scramble for Africa was under way, and the Cape Colony government was powerless to intervene, even if it had wanted to. The European powers had by then recognised South West Africa as a German sphere of influence. Maharero reaffirmed the treaty with the Germans in May 1890. Maharero died on 7 October 1890 in Okahandja . Historian Heinrich Vedder claims that his main wife Kataree poisoned him in order to prevent him from changing his mind on who his successor should be. His eldest son Samuel Maharero succeeded him as chief of

2640-566: The late 1960s and early 1970s in accordance with the Odendaal Commission , three of which were granted self-rule. These bantustans were replaced with separate ethnicity based second-tier representative authorities in 1980. The South African government convened the Turnhalle Constitutional Conference between 1976 and 1978 with a view to achieving an "internal" solution to the status of South West Africa. The conference

2706-514: The local leaders of Omaruru and Ameib, the Basters, the Nama, Damaras, Bondelswarts and the powerful and expansionist Oorlam people of Jonker Afrikaner. His report back to the Cape Parliament was that Maharero formally requested full incorporation, with a magistrate specifically to be based in his own town of Okahandja . The other nations, suffering from the internecine strife, likewise requested incorporation by treaty. Notably, he reported that

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2772-443: The local leaders. Initially, before leaving Cape Town, Palgrave's opinion had been that a simple bilateral treaty and the posting of a magistrate for each nation would suffice to protect and ensure peace in the region. On seeing the current state of the country though, he personally came to feel that full annexation was the only way to bring about peace. In his 1st commission, Palgrave visited Maharero and his government, as well as

2838-452: The opposition to Maharero. Also faced with repeated attacks by the ǀKhowesin , a subtribe of the Khoikhoi under Hendrik Witbooi , Maharero signed a protection treaty with Imperial Germany 's colonial governor Göring on 21 October 1885 but did not cede the land of the Herero. Due to lack of German support against Witbooi, Maharero renounced this treaty in 1888 and reopened negotiations with

2904-461: The other more oppressive states of the region. It implemented a multi-racial franchise , laws prohibiting racial discrimination and legal protection of African traditional land from white appropriation. Maharero therefore chose the Cape for his overture, first requesting long-term assistance and protection, and later requesting incorporation of his people into the Cape's parliamentary democracy. The Cape Parliament responded to Maharero 's request with

2970-475: The previous system of Bantustans that were established in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Each authority would have executive and legislative competencies, being made up of elected Legislative Assemblies who would appoint Executive Committees led by chairmen. Representative Authorities had responsibility for land tenure, agriculture, education up to primary level, teachers' training, health services, and social welfare and pensions and their Legislative Assemblies had

3036-468: The supervisory role. The ICJ also clarified that the General Assembly was empowered to receive petitions from the inhabitants of South West Africa and to call for reports from the mandatory nation, South Africa. The General Assembly constituted the Committee on South West Africa to perform the supervisory functions. In another Advisory Opinion issued in 1955, the Court further ruled that the General Assembly

3102-787: The territory nevertheless continued despite its illegality under international law. In 1971, acting on a request for an Advisory Opinion from the United Nations Security Council , the ICJ ruled that the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia was illegal and that South Africa was under an obligation to withdraw from Namibia immediately. It also ruled that all member states of the United Nations were under an obligation not to recognise as valid any act performed by South Africa on behalf of Namibia. South West Africa became known as Namibia by

3168-486: The territory of South West Africa. A German colony known as German South West Africa from 1884 to 1915, it was made a League of Nations mandate of the Union of South Africa following Germany 's defeat in the First World War . Although the mandate was repealed by the United Nations on 27 October 1966, South African control over the territory continued despite its illegality under international law. The territory

3234-508: The territory was probably on the way. In this context, the great Herero leader Maharero , still engaged in a bitter war with the Oorlam leader Jonker Afrikaner, heard rumours of a large body of white Trekboers preparing to leave the Transvaal Boer Republic to invade South West Africa and establish another Boer republic there. These rumours were in fact correct, as the " Dorsland Trekkers " were mobilising, and their great migration

3300-506: The territory, as well as a draft constitution for "a republican, democratic state" to be known as "South West Africa/Namibia" with its own flag and national anthem. Under the proposals, there was to be a three-tiered system of governance. The first tier, the Central Government, would consist of a National Assembly which would appoint a Council of Ministers. The second tier would consist of ethnically based Representative Authorities and

3366-487: The third tier would be made up of Local Authorities. The upper tier of governance consisted of an elected fifty member National Assembly with legislative powers. The assembly would appoint a Council of Ministers with executive powers. Multi-racial elections for the National Assembly were held in December 1978. The Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) won 41 of the 50 seats and its leader, Dirk Mudge would become Chairman of

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3432-543: The trekkers ended up in a state of near starvation in the Kaokoveld, decimated by the harsh climate.) Related to the rise in violence, local leaders' trust in Palgrave declined. Maharero, no longer relying directly on Palgrave, sent his son Willem on a diplomatic mission to Cape Town to negotiate with the new pro-imperialist Prime Minister, John Gordon Sprigg . The Oorlam broke off relations completely, and Palgrave even had to flee

3498-469: The war was bad for trade, and took a hand in organising and leading the Herero army. Green led a force that captured most of the Oorlams cattle, and on 22 June 1864 there was a decisive battle in which Jan Jonker Afrikaner's forces were defeated. Dispensing with the services of the traders, Maharero won more battles, and took control of Damaraland , and even sent his forces into Namaqualand . Eventually in 1870

3564-495: Was a territory under South African administration from 1915 to 1966, and under South African occupation from 1966 to 1990. Renamed Namibia by the United Nations in 1968, it became independent under this name on 21 March 1990. South West Africa bordered Angola ( a Portuguese colony before 1975), Botswana ( Bechuanaland before 1966), South Africa , and Zambia ( Northern Rhodesia before 1964). During its administration, South Africa applied its own apartheid system in

3630-411: Was administered directly by the South African government from 1915 to 1978, when the Turnhalle Constitutional Conference laid the groundwork for semi-autonomous rule. During an interim period between 1978 and 1985, South Africa gradually granted South West Africa a limited form of home rule, culminating in the formation of a Transitional Government of National Unity . As a German colony from 1884, it

3696-475: Was an ally of Jonker Afrikaner until his death in 1861, albeit in a subordinate position. Maharero a leader of Ovaherero community in (1861-1890) was born in ca 1820 at Otjikune near Okahandja and he was the son of Tjamuaha and his chief wife Tjorozumo. He had several brothers and half-brothers, amongst them were Kavezeri, Kariteova, Kavikunua and Rijarua. Like his father, Maharero became an ally of Jonker Afrikaner in 1843. As from 1863 onwards, he refused to accept

3762-569: Was as yet uncolonised by Europeans, incursions from the south by mounted gunmen of the Oorlam people began in the late 18th century. After decades of war with the Damara , Nama and Herero people , they established a powerful semi-nomadic state in the area of modern Windhoek , under their dynamic leader Jan Jonker Afrikaner . In 1868, a second group, the Basters , began to push north into South West Africa. In

3828-417: Was assisted by and Jan F Greebe as chief executive officer. The Representative Authorities and Local Authorities continued to function as intended during this period. A Multi-Party Conference was established in September 1983 to suggest arrangements for the formation of a new Central Government. Nineteen parties participated in the conference, but again SWAPO was excluded. The Multi-Party Conference issued

3894-419: Was attended by representatives of 11 ethnic groups: Herero , Baster , Tswana , Damara , Ovambo , Lozi , Nama , Kavango , San , the Coloureds , and the Whites . However, the largest freedom movement, SWAPO , was not invited. The conference produced a 29-page document entitled "Petition for the establishment of an interim government" . The petition contained a request to set up an interim government for

3960-422: Was based on traditional customary law, the relevant Representative Authority could support their further development. The Three-tier system of governance was suspended on 28 February 1989 following the signing of a peace agreement the previous year. As stipulated by United Nations Security Council Resolution 435 , a United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) was deployed on 1 April 1989. Elections to

4026-404: Was increasingly undermined by the growing tension between the local Cape government and the British Empire. The Cape Colony had attained a degree of independence, but its first Prime Minister, John Molteno , was engaged in a growing struggle with the British Governor, Sir Henry Bartle Frere for control over the Cape's external relations (of which Palgrave's commission formed a part). This caused

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4092-410: Was known as German South West Africa ( Deutsch-Südwestafrika ). Germany had a difficult time administering the territory, which experienced many insurrections against the harsh German rule, especially those led by guerrilla leader Jacob Morenga . The main port, Walvis Bay , and the Penguin Islands were annexed by the UK in 1878, becoming part of the Cape Colony in 1884. Following the creation of

4158-452: Was not required to follow League of Nations voting procedures in determining questions concerning South West Africa. In 1956, the Court further ruled that the committee had the power to grant hearings to petitioners from the mandated territory. In 1960, Ethiopia and Liberia filed a case in the International Court of Justice against South Africa alleging that South Africa had not fulfilled its mandatory duties. This case did not succeed, with

4224-450: Was soon to begin. Motivated by the combined severity of the situation, from 1874 Maharero began sending diplomatic missions southwards, to the Parliament of the Cape of Good Hope . The Cape, under its local system of " Responsible Government ", had recently attained a degree of independence from the British Empire. Its locally elected parliament was viewed by many in southern Africa as being relatively benign and inclusive, as compared to

4290-483: Was succeeded by Christian Afrikaner . Due to this, Maharero rebelled against the Afrikaners . They subsequently attacked Maharero's men at Otjimbingwe on 15 June 1863, a battle in which Christian Afrikaner was killed. Christian's successor, Jan Jonker Afrikaner did not want to allow the Hereros to escape from his overlordship, and so hostilities continued for several years. Some traders at Otjimbingwe , notably C.J. Andersson and Frederick Green , considered that

4356-404: Was therefore temporarily suggested as a replacement. However, on Molteno's insistence, Palgrave accepted. So finally, in 1876, Palgrave entered the arid vastness of South West Africa as "Special Commissioner to Hereroland and Namaland", with a multi-ethnic assemblage of personnel and a long train of ox-wagons. Palgrave undertook a total of 5 commissions to South West Africa, of which the first were

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