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163-541: The Treason Trial was a trial in Johannesburg in which 156 people, including Nelson Mandela , were arrested in a raid and accused of treason in South Africa in 1956. The main trial lasted until 1961, when all of the defendants were found not guilty. During the trials, Oliver Tambo left the country and was exiled. Whilst in other European and African countries, he started an organisation which helped bring publicity to
326-605: A Seventh-day Adventist mission in Bulawayo , Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). In 1908 he moved to Groutville , where his parents and grandparents had lived, to attend school under the care of his uncle. After graduating from high school with a teaching degree, Luthuli became principal of a small school in Natal where he was the sole teacher. He accepted a government bursary to study for the Higher Teacher's Diploma at Adams College . After
489-688: A converted Christian community within the Umvoti Mission Station, elected Ntaba as their chief in 1860. This marked the start of a family tradition, as Ntaba's brother, son Martin, and grandson Albert were also subsequently elected as chiefs. Around 1908 or 1909, the Seventh-day Adventists expressed their interest in beginning missionary work in Natal and requested the services of Luthuli's brother, Alfred, to work as an interpreter. Luthuli and his mother followed, and departed Rhodesia to return to South Africa. Luthuli's family settled in
652-443: A police state . Resuming on 20 December 1956, the hearing was interrupted again when the defence objected to their clients being behind a six-foot-high (1.8 m) wire fence. After an adjournment, it was agreed by the two sides to reduce it to a barrier four foot (1.2 m) tall. The prosecutor J.C. van Niekerk then presented an outline of his evidence stretching back to 1953 of the liberation movement's activities but his evidence
815-403: A Zulu boy his age such as fetching water, herding, and building fires. Additionally, he attended school for the first time. Under Martin's care, Luthuli was also provided with an early knowledge of traditional African politics and affairs, which aided him in his future career as a traditional chief. Luthuli's mother, Mtonya, returned to Groutville and Luthuli returned to her care. They lived in
978-432: A brand-new house built by his brother, Alfred, on the site where their grandfather, Ntaba, had once lived. In order to be able to send her son to boarding school, Mtonya worked long hours in the fields of the land she owned. She also took in laundry from European families in the township of Stanger to earn the necessary money for school. Luthuli was educated at a local ABM mission school until 1914, and then transferred to
1141-401: A communist system. The defence lawyers opened the trial by lodging an objection to two of the three trial judges. They called for Justice Joseph Ludorf to withdraw because of his involvement as a lawyer in other cases against some defendants while Justice Frans Rumpff should withdraw as he had asked for the former to be appointed as a judge on the treason trial. The case was then adjourned until
1304-521: A comprehensive system of racial separation was imposed upon South Africa starting in 1948. For its growth, the economy of Johannesburg depended upon hundreds of thousands of skilled white workers imported from Europe and semi- and un-skilled black workers imported from other parts of Southern Africa. Though they worked together they were forced by the government to live separately. Work was considered to be an exception to apartheid in order to keep Johannesburg functioning as South Africa's economic capital. In
1467-691: A dedicated reader of the Bible until her death. Despite being able to read, Mtonya never learned how to write. After their marriage, Luthuli's father left Natal and went to Rhodesia during the Second Matabele War to serve with the Rhodesian forces . When the war ended, John stayed in Rhodesia with a Seventh-day Adventist mission near Bulawayo and worked as an interpreter and evangelist . Mtonya and Alfred then travelled to Rhodesia to reunite with John, and Luthuli
1630-657: A democratic, multi-racial, and free South Africa. While well-received by the attendants of the Congress of the People, the Africanist bloc of the ANC rejected it. They opposed the multiracial nature of the charter and what they perceived as communist principles. Although Luthuli recognised the socialist clauses in the Freedom Charter, he rejected any comparison to the communist ideology of
1793-520: A destination for visitors and a safe, integrated community for residents. A beacon of strength in Africa's most economically prosperous city". After being destroyed in 2008 to make way for a motor showroom by Imperial Holdings, the iconic Rand Steam Laundries are now being redeveloped as an exact replica, by the order of the Johannesburg Heritage Council. Apart from one filtration shed, there
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#17328483317751956-499: A hearing on 19 December 1956. The raids were follow-ups to those conducted in 1955 and included search warrants to look for documents at 48 anti-government organisations. On 19 December 1956, 153 prisoners were driven to the Johannesburg Drill Hall for a preliminary hearing to examine the state's evidence. Magistrate Frederick Wessels was the presiding judge with J.C. van Niekerk as the state's public prosecutor. An attempt by
2119-478: A job at Adams College, where he worked with people of different ethnicities from all over South Africa, to become a Zulu chief appeared to be a move towards a more insular way of life. Luthuli opted for the role of chief and said he was not motivated by a desire for wealth, fame, or power. At the end of 1935, he was elected as chief and relocated to Groutville . He commenced his duties in January 1936 and continued in
2282-535: A jury trial, the alternative being a trial by two or three judges, a request rejected by the state in treason trials. The Treason Trial began in Pretoria on 1 August 1958 with 91 people on trial having been charged with high treason. The trial saw 57 blacks, 16 whites, 16 Indians, and two coloureds charged with attempting to overthrow the South African government between 1952 and 1956 with the intention to replace it with
2445-617: A member of the Natives Representative Council through a by-election. He brought his long-standing grievances about insufficient land for African people to the NRC meetings. In August 1946, Luthuli, along with other councilors, objected to the government's use of force to quell a large strike by African mineworkers. Luthuli accused the government of disregarding African complaints against their segregationist policies, and African councilors adjourned in protest. He would later describe
2608-406: A minor celebrity status among some white people, which caused the government to view him with more contempt. When news of his ban spread, supporters of all races gathered to bid farewell to Luthuli. While Luthuli was still under a banning order, the ANC, led by Luthuli, announced an anti-pass campaign starting at the end of March 1960. The recently created Pan-Africanist Congress , who split from
2771-461: A moderate population density of 2,364 per square kilometre (6,120/sq mi). Controversy surrounds the origin of the name. There were quite a number of people with the name "Johannes" who were involved in the early history of the city. Among them is the principal clerk attached to the office of the surveyor-general Hendrik Dercksen, Christiaan Johannes Joubert , who was a member of the Volksraad and
2934-519: A national figure and a symbol of resistance to apartheid . On 16 June 1976, demonstrations broke out in Soweto over a government decree that black school-children be educated in Afrikaans instead of English, and after the police fired on the demonstrations, rioting against apartheid began in Soweto and spread into the greater Johannesburg area. About 575 people, the majority of whom were black, were killed in
3097-593: A result of laws passed that controlled their social mobility. The Hertzog Bills were introduced a year after Luthuli was elected chief and were instrumental in the restriction and control of Africans. The first bill, the Natives Representation Bill, removed Africans from the voters' roll in the Cape and created the Natives Representative Council (NRC). The second bill, the Natives Land and Trust Bill, restricted
3260-727: A result, an offshoot of the Zulu kingdom, the Ndebele (often referred to as the Matabele, the name given them by the local Sotho–Tswana), set up a kingdom to the northwest of Johannesburg around modern-day Rustenburg. The main Witwatersrand gold reef was discovered in June 1884 on the farm Vogelstruisfontein by Jan Gerritse Bantjes , son of Jan Bantjes , this triggered the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and
3423-603: A separate trial against 30 accused. Their trial commenced in August 1959. The remaining 61 accused were tried separately before the case against them was dismissed in mid 1960. Prosecutors included: Judges included: Witnesses included: After the British priest, Canon John Collins learnt about the trial, and the calls for the death penalty, he set up the Defence and Aid Fund for Southern Africa to pay all legal expenses and look after
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#17328483317753586-485: A structure. Johannesburg Johannesburg ( / dʒ oʊ ˈ h æ n ɪ s b ɜːr ɡ / joh- HAN -iss-burg , US also /- ˈ h ɑː n -/ - HAHN - , Afrikaans: [jʊəˈɦanəsbœrχ] ; Zulu and Xhosa : eGoli [ɛˈɡɔːli] ) (colloquially known as Jozi , Joburg , Jo'burg or " The City of Gold ") is the most populous city in South Africa with 4,803,262 people, and
3749-473: A teaching degree in 1917. Around the age of nineteen years old, Luthuli's first job after graduation came as a principal at a rural intermediate school in Blaauwbosch, located in the Natal midlands. The school was small, and Luthuli was the sole teacher working there. While teaching at Blaauwbosch, Luthuli lived with a Methodist's family. As there were no Congregational churches around him, he became
3912-681: A way to bring freedom to South Africa. After convening a secret meeting in December 1954 due to Luthuli's ban, the Congress of the People took place in Kliptown, Johannesburg, in June 1955. Inspired by the values held in the United States Declaration of Independence and the UN Declaration of Human Rights , the Congress of the People developed the Freedom Charter , a list of demands for
4075-540: Is a popular recreational park. Johannesburg and environs also offer various options to visitors wishing to view wildlife , in addition to the Johannesburg Zoo , one of the largest in South Africa. The Lion Park nature reserve, next to Lesedi Cultural Village , is home to over 80 lions and various other game, while the Krugersdorp Nature Reserve , a 1500 ha game reserve , is a forty-minute drive from
4238-404: Is a smaller number of synagogues serving the city's Reform Jews , including Temple Israel and Beit Emanuel . 32% of Johannesburg residents speak Nguni languages at home, 24% speak Sotho languages , 18% speak English, 7% speak Afrikaans and 6% speak Tshivenda . Johannesburg has a well-developed higher education system of both private and public universities . Johannesburg is served by
4401-549: Is awarded to individuals who have made significant contributions in the fight for freedom in South Africa. After his second banning order expired in July 1956, he was arrested on 5 December and detained during the preliminary Treason Trial hearings in 1957. Luthuli was one of 156 leaders who were arrested on charges of high treason due to their opposition to apartheid and the Nationalist Party government . High treason carried
4564-545: Is classified as a megacity ; it is one of the 100 largest urban areas in the world . It is the provincial capital of Gauteng , the wealthiest province in South Africa. Johannesburg is the seat of the Constitutional Court , the highest court in South Africa. Most of the major South African companies and banks have their head offices in Johannesburg. The city is located within the mineral-rich Witwatersrand hills,
4727-485: Is nothing left on the site after being destroyed. The site will consist of a 5,000 m (54,000 sq ft) precinct. On 12 May 2008, a series of riots started in the township of Alexandra , in the north-eastern part of Johannesburg, when locals attacked migrants from Mozambique , Malawi and Zimbabwe , killing two people and injuring 40 others. These riots sparked the xenophobic attacks of 2008. The 2019 Johannesburg riots were similar in nature and origin to
4890-417: Is predominantly populated by English-speaking Indo-South Africans (people of Indian and South Asian descent). These areas were, in previous decades, designated as non-white areas, in accordance with apartheid policies of the time. Johannesburg was one of the host cities of the official tournament of the 2010 FIFA World Cup including the final . The metropolis is an alpha global city , as listed by
5053-700: Is to help us shout louder." — Albert Luthuli's response to claims that the Native Representative Council was ineffective. The Natives Representative Council (NRC), an advisory body to the government, was established in 1936 with the purpose of compensating and appeasing the African population, who had lost their limited voting rights in the Cape Province due to the enactment of the Hertzog Bills. In 1946, after John Dube's death, Luthuli became
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5216-408: The 2008 xenophobic riots . A completely refurbished Soccer City stadium in Johannesburg hosted the 2010 FIFA World Cup final . From 22 to 24 August 2023, Johannesburg hosted 15th BRICS summit . On 31 August 2023, at least 76 people died when a building caught fire in Johannesburg. The building had been taken over by a gang who were illegally renting it out. Johannesburg is located in
5379-681: The African National Congress 's cause in South Africa. Some of the defendants were later convicted in the Rivonia Trial in 1964. Chief Luthuli has said of the Treason Trial: The treason trial must occupy a special place in South African history. That grim pre-dawn raid, deliberately calculated to strike terror into hesitant minds and impress upon the entire nation the determination of the governing clique to stifle all opposition, made one hundred and fifty-six of us, belonging to all
5542-532: The Defiance Campaign to protest the pass laws and other laws of apartheid. As a result, the government removed him from his chief position as he refused to choose between being a member of the ANC or a chief at Groutville. In the same year, he was elected President-General of the ANC. After the Sharpeville massacre , where sixty-nine Africans were killed, leaders within the ANC such as Nelson Mandela believed
5705-494: The Defiance Campaign , Sophiatown removals protest, and the Congress of the People . Following the preparatory examination period that began on 19 December 1956, all defendants were released on bail . The pre-trial examination concluded in December 1957, resulting in charges being dropped against 65 of the accused, including Luthuli who was acquitted . The trial for the remaining 91 accused individuals began in August 1958 as
5868-473: The Globalization and World Cities Research Network . In 2019, the population of the city of Johannesburg was 5,635,127, making it the most populous city in South Africa. In the same year, the population of metro Johannesburg's urban agglomeration was put at 8 million. Land area of the municipal city (1,645 km or 635 sq mi) is large in comparison with those of other major cities, resulting in
6031-638: The Johannesburg South Africa Temple ( Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ). Most of Johannesburg's estimated 50,000 Jews live in the North Eastern suburbs; Glenhazel , Raedene Estate , Kew , Norwood , Highlands North , Sandringham , Savoy Estate , Waverley , Orchards , Oaklands and Fairmount . There are many Orthodox synagogues in the city including; Great Park Synagogue , Oxford Shul and Doornfontein Synagogue . There
6194-505: The Limpopo Province . More specifically, the stone-walled ruins of Sotho–Tswana towns and villages are scattered around the parts of the former Transvaal province in which Johannesburg is situated. Many Sotho–Tswana towns and villages in the areas around Johannesburg were destroyed and their people driven away during the wars emanating from Zululand during the late 18th and early 19th centuries (the mfecane or difaqane wars), and as
6357-674: The Ohlange Institute . Ohlange was founded by John Dube , who was the school principal at the time Luthuli attended. Dube was educated in America but returned to South Africa to open the Ohlange Institute to provide an education to black children. He was the first President-General of the South African Native National Congress and founded the first Zulu-language newspaper, Ilanga lase Natal . Luthuli joined
6520-479: The Orange . Most of the springs from which many of these streams emanate are now covered in concrete and canalised, accounting for the fact that the names of early farms in the area often end with "fontein", meaning "spring" in Afrikaans. Braamfontein, Rietfontein, Zevenfontein, Doornfontein, Zandfontein and Randjesfontein are some examples. When the first white settlers reached the area that is now Johannesburg, they noticed
6683-461: The Sharpeville massacre . On 11 July 1963, the South African Police raided a house in the Johannesburg suburb of Rivonia where nine members of the banned African National Congress (ANC) were arrested on charges of planning sabotage. Their arrest led to the famous Rivonia Trial . The nine arrested included one Indo-South African, one coloured, two whites and five blacks, one of whom was
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6846-559: The Soviet Union . The ANC ratified the Charter at a conference one year after it was ratified by the Congress of the People. Luthuli was not able to attend the Congress of the People or the framing of the Freedom Charter due to a stroke and heart attack as well as the banning order that confined him to Groutville. In his absence, he was bestowed the honour of the Isitwalandwe , which
7009-453: The Soweto uprising of 1976. Between 1984 and 1986, South Africa was in turmoil as a series of nationwide protests, strikes and riots took place against apartheid, and the black townships around Johannesburg were scenes of some of the fiercest struggles between the police and anti-apartheid demonstrators. The central area of the city underwent something of a decline in the 1980s and 1990s, due to
7172-536: The Special Branch handed him new banning orders, not only prohibiting the attendance of meetings but confining him to the Groutville area for two years until July 1956. In 1953, Z. K. Matthews proposed a large democratic convention, to be known as the Congress of the People , where all South Africans would be invited to create a Freedom Charter . Despite complaints within the ANC from Africanists who believed
7335-521: The University of Fort Hare in the Eastern Cape . He refused, as he wanted to earn a salary to take care of his ageing mother. This led him to accept a teaching position at Adams College, where he and Z. K. Matthews were among the first African teachers at the school. Luthuli taught Zulu history, music , and literature, and during his time as a teacher, he met his future wife, Nokukhanya Bhengu. She
7498-512: The Vryheid district of Northern Natal, and resided on the farm of a Seventh-day Adventist. During this time, Luthuli was responsible for tending to the missionary's mules as educational opportunities were not available. Luthuli's mother recognised his need for a formal education and sent him to live in Groutville under the care of his uncle. Groutville was a small village inhabited predominantly by poor Christian farmers who were affiliated with
7661-454: The death penalty . One of the main charges against the African National Congress leaders were that they were involved in a communist conspiracy to overthrow the government. Anti-apartheid activists were often accused of being communists, and Luthuli was accustomed to such accusations and frequently dismissed them. The charges brought against the accused covered the period from 1 October 1952 to 13 December 1956, which included events such as
7824-523: The " AmaWasha ", Zulu men who surprisingly dominated laundry work. As the value of control of the land increased, tensions developed between the Boer –dominated Transvaal government in Pretoria and the British, culminating in the Jameson Raid that ended in fiasco at Doornkop in January 1896. The Second Boer War (1899–1902) saw British forces under Field Marshal Frederick Sleigh Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts, occupy
7987-522: The 1950s and early 1960s, the apartheid government constructed the massive agglomeration of townships that became known as Soweto . New freeways encouraged massive sub urban sprawl to the north of the city. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, tower blocks (including the Carlton Centre and the Southern Life Centre ) filled the skyline of the central business district. The system of apartheid ,
8150-424: The 1950s, the government began a policy of building townships for black families (prior to this unskilled workers were asked to work on "single status" in male-only hostels at the mines and had to commute to see their families in whatever province they originated) outside of Johannesburg to provide workers for Johannesburg. Soweto , a township founded for black workers coming to work in the gold mines of Johannesburg,
8313-445: The 21st century, there was light sleet in 2006, as well as snow proper on 27 June 2007 (accumulating up to 10 centimetres or 4 inches in the southern suburbs), 7 August 2012, and 10 July 2023. Regular cold fronts pass over in winter bringing very cold southerly winds but usually clear skies. The annual average rainfall is 713 millimetres (28.1 in), which is mostly concentrated in the summer months. Infrequent showers occur through
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#17328483317758476-445: The ANC adopt a self-defense platform. With the government's bans on the ANC and nonviolent protests, Mandela believed waiting for revolutionary conditions to arise, which was favoured by communist members, was not an option. Instead, the ANC had to adapt to their new underground conditions and draw inspiration from successful uprisings in Cuba , Algeria , and Vietnam . Mandela argued that
8639-577: The ANC because of their opposition to the ANC's multi-racial alliances, decided to jump ahead of the ANC's planned protest by ten days. On 21 March the PAC called for all African men to go to police stations and hand over their passbooks. The peaceful march in Sharpeville resulted in sixty-nine people killed by police fire . Additionally, three people were also killed in Langa . Luthuli and several other ANC leaders ceremonially burned their passbooks in protest against
8802-420: The ANC during South Africa's state of emergency , were determined to steer the ANC in a new direction. In May 1961, following a strike , they believed that " traditional weapons of protest … were no longer appropriate." They constantly evaluated whether the conditions were favourable to launch an armed resistance. In June 1961, during a National Executive Committee Working Group session, Mandela proposed that
8965-415: The ANC in 1944, partially out of respect to his former school principal. Luthuli describes his experience at the Ohlange Institute as "rough-and-tumble." The outbreak of World War I led to rationing and a scarcity of food among the African population. After attending Ohlange for only two terms, Luthuli was transferred to Edendale, a Methodist school near Pietermaritzburg , the capital of Natal . It
9128-523: The ANC in its most difficult years; many of his executive members, such as Secretary-General Walter Sisulu , Moses Kotane , JB Marks , and David Bopape were either to be banned or imprisoned. The 1950s witnessed the erosion of black civil liberties, through the Treason Trial and the passage of the Suppression of Communism Act , which gave the police power to suppress government critics. On 30 May 1953,
9291-529: The ANC leaders decided to end the campaign in January 1953. Prior to the campaign, the ANC's membership numbered 25,000 in 1951. After the conclusion of the Campaign in 1953, it had increased to 100,000. For the first time African, Indian, and Coloured communities across the country cooperated on a national scale. The Defiance Campaign was also praised for its absence of violence. Even though there were thousands of protesters and some incidents of violence occurred,
9454-495: The ANC members were ill-prepared without modern firearms and battlefield experience. In a following meeting a day later, a contentious back-and-forth arose. Supporters of armed defence believed the ANC was afraid and running from a physical fight while others believed counter-violence would provoke the government into arresting and killing them. While Luthuli did not support an armed struggle, he also did not oppose it. According to Mandela, Luthuli suggested "two separate streams of
9617-552: The ANC should not work with other races, a multiracial organization, the Congress Alliance , was created as part of the preparation for the Congress of the People. The alliance was led by the ANC and included the South African Indian Congress , Coloured Peoples Conference, Federation of South African Women , Congress of Trade Unions, and the Congress of Democrats . Luthuli viewed the multiracial organisation as
9780-408: The ANC was the only anti-apartheid organisation that had the capacity to adopt an armed struggle and if they didn't take the lead, they would fall behind in their own movement. In July 1961, the ANC and Congress Alliance met to hold debates during an ANC NEC meeting surrounding the feasibility of Nelson Mandela's proposal of armed self-defence. Luthuli did not support an armed struggle as he believed
9943-544: The ANC with the support of the ANC Youth League (ANCYL) and African communists. Nelson Mandela was elected as his deputy. The ANCYL's support for Luthuli reflected its desire for a leader who would enact its programmes and goals, and marked a pattern of younger, more militant members within the ANC ousting presidents they deemed inflexible. The ANCYL had previously succeeded in removing Xuma , Moroka , and Champion when they no longer met their expectations. Luthuli led
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#173284833177510106-422: The ANC's paramilitary wing, marked the anti-apartheid movement's shift from nonviolence to an armed struggle. Inspired by his Christian faith and the nonviolent methods used by Gandhi , Luthuli was praised for his dedication to nonviolent resistance against apartheid as well as his vision of a non-racial South African society. In 1961, Luthuli was awarded the 1960 Nobel Peace Prize for his role in leading
10269-532: The ANC. Following the expiration of his ban, Luthuli continued to attend and speak at anti-apartheid conferences. In mid-1954, following the expiration of his ban, Luthuli was due to lead a protest in the Transvaal against the Western Areas Removals, a government scheme where close to 75,000 Africans were forced to move from Sophiatown and other townships . As he stepped off his plane in Johannesburg ,
10432-485: The Attorney General decide whether to proceed to a trial. The trial was taking so long, the male prisoners formed a choir. On 17 December 1957, Attorney General W.J. McKenzie decided to drop charges against 61 and proceed to with the remaining 95 defendants on 13 January 1958. Albert Luthuli and 44 black, six white, four Indian, and six coloured defendants were released. The hearing resumed on 13 January 1958 with
10595-459: The Boer war, many African mineworkers left Johannesburg creating a labour shortage, which the mines ameliorated by bringing in labourers from China, especially southern China. After the war, they were replaced by black workers, but many Chinese stayed on, creating Johannesburg's Chinese community, which during the apartheid era, was not legally classified as "Asian", but as "Coloured". The population in 1904
10758-477: The Drill Hall deepens and recreates their relationships. The trial and resulting periods of detention also allowed ANC leaders to consult about the direction of their struggle and the possibility of armed struggle. Ironically, the court found that the ANC was nonviolent just as the ANC was starting to question the effectiveness of this strategy. In court, the 156 defendants sat in alphabetical order, visibly displaying
10921-414: The Fort, resulting in what Mandela described as "the largest and longest unbanned meeting of the Congress Alliance in years." However, white men, white women, black men and black women were all held in a separate parts of the jail. Initially, 156 defendants were charged with high treason. The number of defendants was later reduced to 92. In November 1957, the prosecution reworded the indictment and proceeded
11084-523: The Greater Johannesburg metropolitan area. An acronym for "South-Western Townships", Soweto was organised initially as a collection of nondescript settlements on the outskirts of the city, populated mostly by African labourers working in the gold mining industry. Soweto , although eventually incorporated into Johannesburg, had been explicitly separated as a residential area for blacks only—no whites allowed—who were not permitted to live in other "white-designated" areas of Johannesburg. Another region, Lenasia ,
11247-453: The Metropolitan Municipality, the old centre, established in 1886 and given city status in 1928, has been listed in recent censuses as a "main place". As of 2011 , this main place had a population of 957,441 and an area of 334.81 km . Some authors consider the metropolitan area to include most of Gauteng province. The UN 's Population Division in 2016 estimated the metropolitan area population to be 9,616,000. Blacks account for 73% of
11410-452: The NRC as a "toy telephone" requiring him to "shout a little louder" even though no one was listening. The NRC reconvened later in 1946 but adjourned again indefinitely. Its members refused to co-operate with the government, which caused it to become ineffective. The NRC never met after that point and it was disbanded by the government in 1952. Luthuli frequently addressed the criticism from black South Africans who believed that serving in
11573-417: The Natal ANC in preparation for the planned Defiance Campaign, a large act of civil disobedience by non-white South Africans. Some members of the ANC did not support his request, and he was jeered at and labelled a coward. However, Luthuli had no prior knowledge of this planned campaign and only found out about it as he was travelling to Bloemfontein , where the ANC's national conference was held. Many of
11736-516: The Natal and Zululand Bantu Cane Growers' Association, which he served as chairman. The association brought almost all African cane growers into a single union. It had very few achievements, but one of them was securing indirect representation on the central board through a non-white advisory board that was concerned with the production, processing, and marketing of sugar. The structural inequalities and discrimination present in South African society hindered
11899-484: The Native Representative Council would lead to nothing but talk, and that the NRC was a form of deceit served by the South African government . He often agreed with these sentiments, but he and other contemporary African leaders believed that Africans should represent themselves in all structures created by the government , even if only to change them. He was determined to take the demands and grievances of his people to
12062-602: The Sharpeville massacre. Following a state of emergency and the passing of the Unlawful Organisations Act , the government banned the PAC and the ANC. Luthuli and other political leaders were arrested and found guilty of burning their passbooks. In August, Luthuli was fined 100 pounds and initially sentenced to six months in jail . However, in September, this was later reduced to a three year suspended sentence on
12225-547: The Teachers' Association and Zulu Society, Luthuli felt compelled to reject the government as a potential collaborator. The 1936 Sugar Act limited production of sugar in order to keep the price from falling. A quota system was implemented, and, for African cane growers, it was severely limiting. As a response Luthuli decided to revive the Groutville Cane Growers' Association of which he became chairman. The association
12388-466: The Treason Trial commenced. By 1959, only thirty of the accused remained. The trial concluded on 29 March 1961 as all of the remaining defendants were found not guilty . Many of the lawyers who defended the accused were drawn by Luthuli and Z. K. Matthews being on trial. Their involvement contributed to raising global awareness and support for the accused. The impression that Luthuli made on
12551-516: The Witwatersrand was the gold-bearing rock from the Bantjes mine crushed using the Struben brothers stamp machine. News of the discovery soon reached Kimberley and directors Cecil Rhodes and Sir Joseph Robinson rode up to investigate the rumours for themselves. They were guided to the Bantjes camp with its tents strung out over several kilometres and stayed with Bantjes for two nights. In 1884, they purchased
12714-611: The Zulu Language and Cultural Society was to secure government recognition of the Zulu royal family as the official leaders of the Zulu people. The preservation of Zulu tradition and custom was a secondary goal. Grants and gifts from the South African Native Affairs Department as well as the society's involvement with the Zulu royal house led to its demise as it collapsed in 1946. Seeing no real progress being made by
12877-628: The administrative boundary of the municipality . The population of the whole area has been estimated to be variously at 7,860,781 in 2011 by "citypopulation.de",. Johannesburg's suburbs are the product of urban sprawl and are regionalised into north, south, east and west, and they generally have different personalities. Greater Johannesburg consists of more than five hundred suburbs in an area covering more than two hundred square miles (520 square kilometres). Although black Africans can be found throughout Johannesburg and its surrounding area, greater Johannesburg remains highly racially segregated. Within
13040-502: The area that became Johannesburg, as he found gold on a farm in July 1886. He did not remain in the area. On 3 October 1886 the name Johannesburg was first used. Surveyor Jos de Villiers surveyed Johannesburg's first neighborhood, Randjeslaagte, between 19 October and 3 November that year. Gold was earlier discovered some 400 kilometres (249 miles) to the east of present-day Johannesburg in Barberton . Gold prospectors soon discovered
13203-517: The area. Joubert had a park in the city named after him, and Rissik has his name for one of the main streets in the city where the historically important albeit dilapidated Rissik Street Post Office is located. The City Hall is also located on Rissik Street. The region surrounding Johannesburg was originally inhabited by San hunter-gatherers who used stone tools. There is evidence that they lived there up to ten centuries ago. Stone-walled ruins of Sotho–Tswana towns and villages are scattered around
13366-503: The association's efforts to promote the interests of non-white canegrowers, and they proved to be little match for the white canegrowers' associations. As with the Teachers' Association, Luthuli was disappointed with the Growers' Association's few successes. He believed that whatever political role he took part in, the stubbornness and hostility of the government would prevent any significant progress from being made. Luthuli continued to support
13529-476: The city centre. The De Wildt Cheetah Centre in the Magaliesberg runs a successful breeding program for cheetah , wild dog and other endangered species . The Rhino & Lion Nature Reserve, situated in the "Cradle of Humankind" on 1200 ha of "the typical highveld of Gauteng" also runs a breeding programme for endangered species including Bengal tigers, Siberian tigers and the extremely rare white lion . To
13692-506: The city on 30 May 1900 after a series of battles to the south-west of its then-limits, near present-day Krugersdorp. Fighting took place at the Gatsrand Pass (near Zakariyya Park) on 27 May, north of Vanwyksrust—today's Nancefield, Eldorado Park and Naturena—the next day, culminating in a mass infantry attack on what is now the waterworks ridge in Chiawelo and Senaoane on 29 May. During
13855-410: The city with the number growing every year—1.2 million on pavements and sidewalks, and a further 4.8 million in private gardens. City Parks continues to invest in planting trees, particularly those previously disadvantaged areas of Johannesburg which were not positive beneficiaries of apartheid Johannesburg's urban planning. Johannesburg Botanical Garden , located in the suburb of Emmarentia ,
14018-1048: The community, social and personal services and 12% are in manufacturing. Only 0.7% work in mining. 53% belong to mainstream Christian churches, 24% are not affiliated with any organised religion, 14% are members of African Independent Churches , 3% are Muslim , 1% are Jewish and 1% are Hindu . There are Muslim mosques, Hindu temples, A Sikh Gurudwara (Sikh Temple) in Sandton and a large number of synagogues. Places of worship in Johannesburg are predominantly Christian churches: Serbian Orthodox Church , Zion Christian Church , Apostolic Faith Mission of South Africa , Assemblies of God , Baptist Union of Southern Africa ( Baptist World Alliance ), Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa (NGK) , Methodist Church of Southern Africa ( World Methodist Council ), Anglican Church of Southern Africa ( Anglican Communion ), Presbyterian Church of Africa ( World Communion of Reformed Churches ), Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Johannesburg ( Catholic Church ) and
14181-407: The community. He was a people's chief." Luthuli involved women, who were considered socially inferior, in the decision-making process of his leadership. He also improved their economic status by allowing them to engage in activities such as beer brewing and running unlicensed bars , despite a government prohibition on these practices. The position of Africans in the reserves continued to regress as
14344-589: The completion of his studies in 1922, he accepted a teaching position at Adams College where he was one of the first African teachers. In 1928, he became the secretary of the Natal Native Teachers' Association, then its president in 1933. Luthuli's entered South African politics and the anti-apartheid movement in 1935, when he was elected chief of the Umvoti River Reserve in Groutville. As chief, he
14507-403: The concept of Ubuntu, which emphasized the humanity of all people, and governed with an inclusive and democratic approach. He believed that traditional Zulu governance was inherently democratic, with chiefs obligated to respond to the needs of their people. Luthuli was seen as a chief of his people: one community member remembered Luthuli as a "man of the people who had a very strong influence over
14670-471: The condition that he would not be found guilty of a similar offense during that time. Following his return from prison to Groutville , Luthuli's power began to wane due to the banning of the ANC and the banning and imprisonment of supporting leaders, a decline in his health since his stroke and heart attack, and the rise of members in the ANC advocating for an armed struggle. Duma Nokwe , Walter Sisulu , and Nelson Mandela , who had provided leadership for
14833-421: The course of the winter months. The lowest nighttime minimum temperature ever recorded in Johannesburg is −8.2 °C (17.2 °F), on 13 June 1979. The lowest daytime maximum temperature recorded is 1.5 °C (34.7 °F), on 19 June 1964. According to the 2011 South African National Census , the population of Johannesburg is 4,434,827 people, making it the most populous city in South Africa (it has been
14996-403: The defence arguing for the trial to be moved back to Johannesburg, due to the hardship of travel for the defendants, a city where the majority of them lived. The case was postponed on the first day until after lunch as the bus carrying the defendants had broken down. The trial resumed on 2 February 1959, with the venue change request squashed and the defence lawyers continuing their argument against
15159-624: The details about the campaign were given to his predecessor, A.W.G Champion. The Natal ANC agreed to prepare for the Defiance Campaign, which was slated for the latter half of 1952, and participate as soon as they were ready. The preparations for the Defiance Campaign began on 6 April 1952, while the campaign itself was scheduled for 26 June 1952. The preparation day served as a warm-up, with large demonstrations in cities such as Cape Town , Port Elizabeth , East London , Pretoria , and Durban . Concurrently, many White South Africans observed
15322-425: The early 1960s. The stated goal of uMkhonto we Sizwe was to cripple South Africa's economy without bloodshed and force the government into negotiating. Mandela explained to Luthuli that only attacks against military installations, transportation links, and power plants would be carried out, which eased Luthuli's fears of the potential of loss of life. In October 1961, during his most severe ban yet, Luthuli received
15485-562: The eastern plateau area of South Africa known as the Highveld , at an elevation of 1,753 metres (5,751 ft). The former Central Business District is located on the southern side of the prominent ridge called the Witwatersrand (English: White Water's Ridge) and the terrain falls to the north and south. By and large the Witwatersrand marks the watershed between the Limpopo and Vaal rivers as
15648-495: The efforts of the Defiance Campaign, the government's attitude remained unchanged, and they viewed the event as " communist-inspired " and a threat to law and order. This perception led to increased security measures and tighter controls. The Criminal Law Amendment Act allowed for individuals to be banned without trial, and the Public Safety Act allowed the government to suspend rule of law . With more restrictions put in place,
15811-495: The election meeting, Luthuli was unexpectedly appointed as acting chair. Serving on Champion's executive, Luthuli remained politically active. However, the Youth League's adoption of a more confrontational Programme of Action in 1949 led to growing dissatisfaction with Champion's leadership, as he prioritised Natal's separateness over the new strategy. Champion frequently failed to implement strategies and programmes set forth by
15974-464: The end of October, the Defiance Campaign remained nonviolent and disciplined. As the movement gained momentum, violence suddenly flared. The outbreaks were not a planned part of the campaign, and many, including Luthuli, believe it to be the work of provocateur agents . The police , frustrated by the passive resistors, responded harshly when outbreaks of violence occurred, resulting in a chain reactions that caused dozens of Africans to be shot. Despite
16137-406: The epicentre of the international-scale mineral, gold and (specifically) diamond trade. Johannesburg was established in 1886, following the discovery of gold, on what had been a farm. Due to the extremely large gold deposits found along the Witwatersrand , within ten years, the population had grown to over 100,000 inhabitants. A separate city from the late 1970s until 1994, Soweto is now part of
16300-505: The families of those on trial. This was one of the first examples of foreign intervention against apartheid in South Africa and proved very successful with over £75,000 being raised towards defending those accused. Harry Oppenheimer allegedly contributed £40,000 to the fund. In 1957, the campaigner Mary Benson joined the Defence Fund as its secretary. In many ways, the trial and prolonged periods in detention strengthened and solidified
16463-458: The first government official in the area is another possibility. Precise records for the choice of name were lost. Within ten years, the city of Johannesburg included 100,000 people. In September 1884, the Struben brothers discovered the Confidence Reef on the farm Wilgespruit near present-day Roodepoort, which further boosted excitement over gold prospects. The first gold to be crushed on
16626-526: The first pure refined gold from Bantjes for £3,000. Incidentally, Bantjes had from 1881 been operating the Kromdraai Gold Mine in the Cradle of Humankind together with his partner Johannes Stephanus Minnaar where they first discovered gold in 1881, and which also offered another kind of discovery—the early ancestors of all mankind. Some report Australian George Harrison as the first to make a claim for gold in
16789-450: The following Monday. When the trial resumed on 12 August 1958, chief defence lawyer Israel A. Maisels continued to challenge the indictment referring to the masses of documentary evidence which he claimed was impossible to read in less than two years, and was an abuse of the court process and that the prosecution did not know what its case was about. After the trial collapsed in October, it
16952-476: The foreigners who came to observe the trial led him to be suggested for the Nobel Peace Prize . On 25 May 1959, the government served Luthuli his third banning order, which lasted for five years. This ban prevented Luthuli from attending any meeting held within South Africa and confined him to his home district. Luthuli's democratic values had been recognised by many white South Africans, and he had gained
17115-473: The founding of Johannesburg in 1886. The discovery of gold rapidly attracted people to the area, making necessary a name and governmental organisation for the area. Jan, Johan and Johannes were common male names among the Dutch of that time; two men involved in surveying the area for the best location of the city, Christian Johannes Joubert and Johann Rissik, are considered the source of the name by some. Johannes Meyer,
17278-404: The future president Nelson Mandela . At their trial, the accused freely admitted that they were guilty of what they were charged with, namely of planning to blow up the hydro-electric system of Johannesburg to shut down the gold mines, but Mandela argued to the court that the ANC had tried non-violent resistance to apartheid and failed, leaving him with no other choice. The trial made Mandela into
17441-408: The glistening rocks on the ridges, running with trickles of water, fed by the streams—giving the area its name, the Witwatersrand, "the ridge of white waters". Another explanation is that the whiteness comes from the quartzite rock, which has a particular sheen to it after rain. The site was not chosen for its streams, however. The main reasons the city was founded where it stands today was because of
17604-452: The gold. Indeed, the city once sat near massive amounts of gold, given that at one point the Witwatersrand gold industry produced forty per cent of the planet's gold. Parks and gardens in Johannesburg are maintained by Johannesburg City Parks and Zoo . City Parks is also responsible for planting the city's many green trees, making Johannesburg one of the 'greenest' cities in the world. It has been estimated that there are six million trees in
17767-505: The government banned Luthuli for a year, prohibiting him from attending any political or public gatherings and from entering major cities. He was restricted to small towns and private meetings for the rest of 1953. The Riotous Assemblies Act and the Criminal Law Amendment Act provided the legal framework for the issuing of banning orders. It was the first of four banning orders that Luthuli would receive as President-General of
17930-497: The government. In the end, like others before him, Luthuli realized that his efforts were futile. In an interview with Drum Magazine in May 1953, Luthuli said that joining the NRC gave White South Africans "a last chance to prove their good faith" but they "had not done so". After John Dube suffered a stroke in 1945, Allison Champion succeeded him as Natal president in 1945 after defeating conservative leader Reverend A. Mtimkulu. During
18093-577: The high crime rate and when property speculators directed large amounts of capital into suburban shopping malls, decentralised office parks, and entertainment centres. Sandton City was opened in 1973, followed by Rosebank Mall in 1976, and Eastgate in 1979. During the 1990s, the city faced rapid growth of crime throughout large parts of the city. Some areas of skyscrapers were abandoned, many residents left their homes, and businesses moved out. Some historical buildings in central areas were destroyed by fires that spread relentlessly. Like many cities around
18256-420: The high elevation and its location in the subtropics. Winter is the sunniest time of the year, with mild days and cool nights, dropping to 4.1 °C (39.4 °F) in June and July. The temperature occasionally drops to below freezing at night, causing frost . Snow is a rare occurrence, with snowfall having been experienced in the twentieth century during May 1956, August 1962, June 1964 and September 1981. In
18419-673: The home of his uncle, Chief Martin Luthuli, and his family. Martin was the first democratically elected chief of Groutville. In 1901, Martin founded the Natal Native Congress, which would later become the Natal branch of the African National Congress. Luthuli had a pleasant childhood as his uncle Martin was guardian over many children in Groutville, which led to Luthuli having many friends of his own age. In Martin's traditional Zulu household, Luthuli completed chores expected of
18582-504: The ideological basis for the National Party's Bantu Education policy . After becoming disappointed with the Natal Native Teachers' Association's slow progress, Luthuli shifted his attention to establishing a new branch of the Teachers' Association called the Zulu Language and Cultural Society in 1935. Dinizulu , the Zulu king , served as one of the society's patrons , and John Dube served as its inaugural president. Luthuli described
18745-447: The interests of black cane growers, and was the only black representative on the central board until 1953. In 1933, Luthuli was asked to succeed his uncle, Martin, as chief of the Umvoti River Reserve. He took two years to make his decision. His salary as a teacher was enough for him to send money home to support his family, but if he accepted the chieftainship he would earn less than one-fifth of his current salary. Furthermore, leaving
18908-427: The land available to the African population of 12 million to less than 13 per cent. The remaining 87 per cent of land in South Africa was primarily reserved for the white population of approximately 3 million in 1936. Limited access to land and poor agricultural technology negatively affected the people of Groutville, and the government's policies led to a shortage of land, education, and job opportunities, which limited
19071-526: The low level of violence overall was a notable accomplishment. Due to Luthuli's role in the Defiance Campaign as president of the Natal ANC, he was given an ultimatum by the government to choose between his work as a chief at Umvoti or his affiliation with the ANC. He refused to choose, and the government deposed him as chief in November 1952. In December 1952, Albert Luthuli was elected president general of
19234-612: The most disadvantaged race under apartheid. This schism led to the creation of the Pan-Africanist Congress . Albert John Luthuli was born at the Solusi Mission Station, a Seventh-day Adventist missionary station, in 1898 to John and Mtonya Luthuli ( née Gumede) who had settled in the Bulawayo area of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe ). He was the youngest of three children and had two brothers, Mpangwa, who died at birth, and Alfred Nsusana. Luthuli's father died when he
19397-521: The most populous city in South Africa since at least the 1950s). From the 2001 census, the people live in 1,006,930 formal households, of which 86% have a flush or chemical toilet , and 91% have refuse removed by the municipality at least once a week. 81% of households have access to running water, and 80% use electricity as the main source of energy. 29% of Johannesburg residents stay in informal dwellings. 66% of households are headed by one person. Johannesburg's urban agglomeration spreads well beyond
19560-475: The multiracial nature of the anti-apartheid movement. While the defendants sat side by side in court, they were strictly segregated in jail. When the trialists took over their own defence during the State of Emergency, they eventually convinced prison authorities to let them meet to plan their defence and white female defendants, white male defendants and black women defendants were brought to the African men's prison. Yet
19723-523: The national ANC or Youth League, which made the Natal ANC lag behind. Members of the Youth League in Natal nominated Luthuli for Natal president in 1951 as they viewed him as a new brand of leadership. Luthuli and Champion were the two nominees for the election; Luthuli was elected president of the Natal ANC by a small majority. In Luthuli's first appearance as Natal ANC president at the ANC's national conference, he pleaded for more time to be given to
19886-565: The nearby mission station run by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABM). The ABM, which commenced operations in Southern Africa in 1834, was a Congregationalist organisation responsible for setting up the Umvoti Mission Station. After the death of ABM missionary Aldin Grout in 1894, the town surrounding the mission station was renamed Groutville. Luthuli resided in
20049-516: The new indictments. With the resumption of the trial on 20 April 1959 of the other 61 defendants, it was ended when Judge Rumpff declared that the Crown's case could not accuse the defendants of conspiracy without saying how they entered into the conspiracy and that they would need to know in order to defend their case. The defendants could return home and the prosecution would have to decide whether to re-indict them. On 29 March 1961, down to 28 defendants,
20212-542: The nonviolent anti-apartheid movement. Luthuli's supporters brand him as a global icon of peace similar to Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr , the latter of whom was a follower and admirer of Luthuli. He formed multi-racial alliances with the South African Indian Congress and the white Congress of Democrats , frequently drawing a backlash from Africanists in the ANC. The Africanist bloc believed that Africans should not ally themselves with other races, since Africans were
20375-591: The northern part of the city is drained by the Jukskei River while the southern part of the city, including most of the Central Business District, is drained by the Klip River . The north and west of the city has undulating hills while the eastern parts are flatter. Johannesburg may not be built on a river or harbour, but its streams contribute to two of southern Africa's mightiest rivers, the Limpopo and
20538-441: The organisation should take up armed resistance against the government. Luthuli was initially against the use of violence. He later gradually came to accept it, but stayed committed to nonviolence on a personal level. Following four banning orders , the imprisonment and exile of his political allies, and the banning of the ANC, Luthuli's power as President-General gradually waned. The subsequent creation of uMkhonto we Sizwe ,
20701-492: The parts of the former Transvaal in which Johannesburg is situated. By the mid-18th century, the broader region was largely settled by various Sotho–Tswana communities (one linguistic branch of Bantu-speakers), whose villages, towns, chiefdoms and kingdoms stretched from the Bechuanaland Protectorate (what is now Botswana ) in the west, to present day Lesotho in the south, to the present day Pedi areas of
20864-437: The population, followed by whites at 18%, coloureds at 6% and Asians at 4%. 42% of the population is under the age of 24, while 6% of the population is over 60 years of age. 37% of city residents are unemployed. 91% of the unemployed are Black African. Women comprise 43% of the working population. 19% of economically active adults work in wholesale and retail sectors, 18% in financial, real estate and business services, 17% in
21027-403: The potential achievements of the population. Luthuli viewed the conditions of Groutville as a microcosm that affected all black people in South Africa. It was only too true. For years now they had talked. Nobody listened. I was disillusioned myself, and could only reply, "There are people beyond South Africa who sometimes hear what we say. All we can do is try to shout to the world. All I can do
21190-665: The president of the association in 1933. The association had three goals: improving working conditions for African teachers, motivating members to expand their skills, and encouraging members to participate in leisure activities such as sports , music and social gatherings . Despite making little progress in achieving its stated goals, the association is remembered for its opposition to the Chief Inspector for Native Education in Natal, Charles Loram, and his proposal that Africans be educated in "practical functions" and left to "develop along their own lines". Loram's position would serve as
21353-455: The prison authorities still sought to physically separate these defendants by race and gender in their meeting space. Mandela describes the practical dilemma the proponents of apartheid faced: The authorities erected an iron grille to separate Helen and Leon [Levy] (as whites) from us and a second partition to separate them from Lilian and Bertha [Mashaba Gxowa] (as African women) ... Even a master architect would have had trouble designing such
21516-410: The prosecutor informing the court of the names of those 61 defendants who had been cleared of further charges. The hearing concluded on 30 January 1958 with Magistrate F.C. Wessels finding that there was sufficient evidence for the defendants to be tried on charges of high treason. The defendants were asked to plead, with all pleading not guilty they were released on bail. Their defence lawyers asked for
21679-412: The prosecutor presented his case by stating that the defendants were subversive, having attended the recent Congress of the People gathering at Kliptown where speeches had promoted Communism, the creation of the Freedom Charter , the need to seek help abroad and in other evidence, and the need to raise money to buy firearms. With no charges yet presented to the individual detainees, bail was granted and
21842-535: The prosecutor to proceed with the case was interrupted three times as the noise of 5,000 black South Africans, hoping to attend the case, surrounded the streets of the Drill Hall and sang " Nkosi Sikeleli Afrika ". The proceedings had to be halted. The Labour Party in the UK accused the South African Government of intimidating and victimising those opposed to Apartheid , condemning the trial and called South Africa
22005-480: The public universities University of the Witwatersrand and the University of Johannesburg . Albert Luthuli Albert John Luthuli ( c. 1898 – 21 July 1967) was a South African anti-apartheid activist , traditional leader , and politician who served as the President-General of the African National Congress from 1952 until his death in 1967. Luthuli was born to a Zulu family in 1898 at
22168-405: The purpose of the society as the preservation of what is valuable to Zulu culture while removing the inappropriate practices and beliefs. Luthuli's involvement with the society was brief, as he assumed the role of chief in Groutville and could not remain actively involved. As a result, the society's goals changed from its original purpose. According to historian Shula Marks , the primary goal of
22331-462: The races of our land, into a group of accused facing one of the most serious charges in any legal system. On 5 December 1956, the South African Police's Security Branch raided and arrested 140 people from around the country on the charge of treason as they enforced the Suppression of Communism Act . Those not based in Johannesburg were flown there in military aircraft and held in custody until
22494-408: The relationships between members of the multi-racial Congress Alliance. Rusty Bernstein wrote: Inter-racial trust and co-operation is a difficult plant to cultivate in the poisoned soil outside. It is somewhat easier in here where ... the leaders of all ethnic factions of the movement are together and explore each other's doubts and reservations, and speak about them without constraint. Coexistence in
22657-541: The richer gold reefs of the Witwatersrand offered by Bantjes. The original miners' camp, under the informal leadership of Col Ignatius Ferreira , was located in the Fordsburg dip, possibly because water was available there, and because of the site's proximity to the diggings. Following the establishment of Johannesburg, the area was taken over by the Transvaal government who had it surveyed and named it Ferreira's Township, today
22820-436: The role until he was deposed by the South African government in 1952. Some chiefs abused their power and used their close relationship with the government to act as dictators. They increased their wealth by claiming ownership of land that was not rightfully theirs, charged excessive fees for services, and accepted bribes to resolve disputes. Despite his reduced salary as a chief, Luthuli rejected corrupt practices. He embraced
22983-672: The singing of Nkosi Sikeleli Afrika. In December 1956, many key members of the Congress Alliance were arrested and charged with treason, including almost the entire executive committee of the ANC, as well as the SACP , the SAIC , and the COD . 105 Africans, 21 Indians, 23 whites and 7 coloured leaders were arrested. Ten were women. Many arrestees, including Nelson Mandela, were detained in communal cells in Johannesburg Prison on Constitutional Hill , known as
23146-647: The south, 11 kilometres (6.8 miles) from the city centre, is the Klipriviersberg Nature Reserve home to large mammals and hiking trails. Separating Lenasia and the Soweto suburbs is the Olifantsvlei Nature Reserve protected area. Johannesburg is situated on the highveld plateau, and has a subtropical highland climate ( Köppen Cwb ). The city enjoys a sunny climate, with the summer months (October to April) characterised by hot days followed by afternoon thundershowers and cool evenings, and
23309-497: The struggle": the ANC, which would remain nonviolent, and a "military movement [that] should be a separate and independent organ, linked to the ANC and under the overall control of the ANC, but fundamentally autonomous". The formation of uMkhonto we Sizwe was part of a larger shift towards armed resistance in southern Africa. Other militant organisations were created in South West Africa , Mozambique , and Southern Rhodesia in
23472-600: The student of a local Methodist minister , the Reverend Mthembu. He was confirmed in the Methodist church and later became a lay preacher . Luthuli proved himself to be a good teacher and the Natal Department of Education offered him a bursary in 1920 to study for a Higher Teacher's Diploma at Adams College . Following the completion of his two years of study, he was offered another bursary, this time to study at
23635-409: The suburb of Ferreirasdorp . The first settlement at Ferreira's Camp was established as a tented camp and which soon reached a population of 3,000 by 1887. The government took over the camp, surveyed it and named it Ferreira's Township. By 1896, Johannesburg was established as a city of over 100,000 inhabitants, one of the fastest growing cities ever. Mines near Johannesburg are among the deepest in
23798-615: The three-hundredth anniversary of Jan van Riebeeck's landing at the Cape . Beginning in June, around 8500 volunteers of the ANC and South African Indian Congress , who were carefully selected to follow the method of nonviolent resistance , deliberately set out to break the laws of apartheid . Using strategies inspired by Gandhi , the Defiance Campaign required a strict adherence to a policy of nonviolence . Africans , Indians , and Coloureds used amenities marked "Europeans Only"; they sat on benches and used reserved station platforms, carriages in trains, and post office counters. Until
23961-404: The trial was concluded until 9 January 1957. Rioting broke out at the end of the day's proceedings when police charged a group of 400 black South African protesters. On resumption of the preliminary hearing and an examination of the state's evidence on 9 January 1957, three more defendants were added to the charges bringing the number to 156 persons. The defence would argue that the Freedom Charter
24124-408: The trial's verdict was released and they were all found not guilty of treason and discharged. Judge Rumpff concluded that the prosecution could not show that the African National Congress (ANC) had become a communist organisation and therefore no treason could be proven nor that any act of violence was to be used to overthrow the state. The defendants were met outside the court by their relatives and saw
24287-412: The winter months (May to September) by dry, sunny days followed by cold nights. Temperatures in Johannesburg are usually fairly mild due to the city's high elevation, with an average maximum daytime temperature in January of 25.6 °C (78.1 °F), dropping to an average maximum of around 16 °C (61 °F) in June. The UV index for Johannesburg in summers is extreme, often reaching 14–16 due to
24450-525: The world, there is an increasing focus on the rejuvenation of the inner city of Johannesburg. One of these initiatives is the Maboneng District located on the south-eastern side of the CBD . Originally a hub for art, it has expanded to include restaurants, entertainment venues and retail stores as well as accommodation and hotels. Maboneng calls itself "a place of inspiration—a creative hub, a place to do business,
24613-446: The world, with some as deep as 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). Like many late 19th-century mining towns, Johannesburg was a rough and disorganised place, populated by white miners from all continents, African tribesmen were recruited to perform unskilled mine work, African women beer brewers cooked for and sold beer to the black migrant workers, a very large number of European prostitutes, gangsters, impoverished Afrikaners, tradesmen, and
24776-523: Was 155,642, of whom 83,363 were whites . In 1917, Johannesburg became the headquarters of the Anglo-American Corporation founded by Ernest Oppenheimer which ultimately became one of the world's largest corporations, dominating both gold-mining and diamond-mining in South Africa. Major building developments took place in the 1930s, after South Africa went off the gold standard. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, Hillbrow went high-rise. In
24939-514: Was about six months old, and Luthuli had no recollection of him. His father's death led to him being mainly raised by his mother Mtonya, who had spent her childhood in the royal household of King Cetshwayo in Zululand . Mtonya had converted to Christianity and lived with the American Board Mission prior to her marriage to John Luthuli. During her stay, she learned how to read and became
25102-419: Was also a teacher at Adams and the granddaughter of a Zulu chief. Luthuli was committed to providing quality education to African children and led the Teachers' College at Adams where he trained aspiring teachers and travelled to different institutions to teach students. Luthuli was elected as the secretary of the Natal Native Teachers' Association in 1928 and served under Z. K. Matthews' presidency. He became
25265-443: Was at Edendale that Luthuli participated in his first act of civil disobedience . He joined a protest against a punishment which made boys carry large stones long distances, damaging their uniforms , and leaving many unable to afford replacements. The demonstration failed and Luthuli along with the rest of the strikers were punished by the school. At Edendale, Luthuli developed a passion for teaching and went on to graduate with
25428-495: Was born there soon after. Luthuli's paternal grandparents, Ntaba ka Madunjini and Titsi Mthethwa, were born in the early nineteenth century and had fought against potential annexation from Shaka's Zulu Kingdom. They were also among the first converts of Aldin Grout , a missionary from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABM), which was based near the Umvoti River north of Durban . The abasemakholweni,
25591-514: Was decided in November 1958 to resume the trial on 19 January 1959 with a decision to drop 60 people from the indictment. On 22 November 1958, 30 of the 91 were re-indicted with the charge now been narrowed down to a conspiracy to endanger and overthrow the state based on the 1955 Congress of the People gathering and the adoption of the Freedom Charter. The remaining 61 were to be indicted in April 1959. The trial resumed on 19 January 1959 in Pretoria with
25754-512: Was exposed to the injustices facing many Africans due to the South African government's increasingly segregationist policies. This segregation would later evolve into apartheid , a form of institutionalized racial segregation , following the National Party 's election victory in 1948 . Luthuli joined the African National Congress (ANC) in 1944 and was elected the provincial president of the Natal branch in 1951. A year later in 1952, Luthuli led
25917-413: Was intended to house 50,000 people, but soon was the home of ten times that number as thousands of unemployed rural blacks came to Johannesburg for employment and an income to send back to their villages. It was estimated that in 1989, the population of Soweto was equal to that of Johannesburg, if not greater. In March 1960, Johannesburg witnessed widespread demonstrations against apartheid in response to
26080-407: Was not treasonous, that it did not call for violence, and it argued for peace and racial harmony for the country. The hearing was still ongoing during August 1957, where the accused were spending six hours each day in court. With the hearing to last a few more months, the magistrate had more 6,200 pages of testimony and 10,000 exhibits to examine and decide whether to pass the sentences himself or let
26243-454: Was soon interrupted when violence broke out outside the court. After police began moving back the crowd of around a 1,000 black protesters, a policeman was injured by a stone and they retaliated by firing into the crowd and surrounding cars and shops, injuring fourteen people. Deputy Police Commissioner Colonel Piet Grobler was able to get his men to stop shooting and order was restored. The trial examination would continue on 21 December 1956 and
26406-544: Was the Republic's chief of mining. Another was Stephanus Johannes Paulus Kruger (better known as Paul Kruger ), president of the South African Republic (ZAR) from 1883 to 1900. Johannes Meyer , the first government official in the area is another possibility. Precise records for the choice of name were lost. Johannes Rissik and Johannes Joubert were members of a delegation sent to England to obtain mining rights for
26569-473: Was used to make collective bargaining and advocacy more effective. The association achieved a significant victory: an amendment was made to the Sugar Act that allowed African cane growers to have a comprehensive quota. This meant if some farmers were unable to meet their individual quotas, others could make up the difference, ensuring that all cane would be sold and not wasted in the farms. Luthuli then founded
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