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81-508: Mausolus' name is only known directly in Greek ( Ancient Greek : Μαύσωλος or Μαύσσωλλος ). It is clearly of Carian origin, though, and would have been written as *𐊪𐊠𐊲𐊸𐊫𐊦 ( *Mauśoλ ) or similar. This is a compound name perhaps meaning "much blessed". The first part, *Ma- , may mean "much", similar to the same word in Hieroglyphic Luwian . The second part, *-uśoλ , meaning "blessed",

162-548: A Carian garrison. Vitruvius relates a story about how, when Mausolus died shortly after the end of the Social War, the Rhodian democrats briefly overthrew their Hecatomnid-aligned oligarchy and unsuccessfully rebelled against Artemisia . Mausolus also invaded parts of Ionia and controlled other at undetermined points in his reign. As well as their new capital at Halicarnassus , Mausolus and Artemisia had considerable control over

243-583: A Persian noble-family that settled in Caria, and was one of the nobles who sided with Artaxerxes II during the revolt of Cyrus the Younger . Datames' mother was a Paphlagonian princess named Scythissa, who was married to Camisares sometime before 401 BC. He was in consequence entrusted by the Persian king with the chief command of a force designed for the recovery of Egypt , following the failure of Pharnabazus II ; but

324-537: A pitch accent . In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ ( iotacism ). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have become fricatives , and the pitch accent has changed to a stress accent . Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek period. The writing system of Modern Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes. The examples below represent Attic Greek in

405-468: A city at the eastern border of Lycia with Pamphilia , showing the extent of their domain. Theodectes of Phaselis, a tragic poet , wrote a play called Mausolus to honour the satrap at his funeral. Mausolus and Artemisia cooperated with the rebels against Athens in the Social War (357–355 BCE), by which they helped to extend their authority among the Greek islands and cities neighbouring Caria. After

486-544: A dynast based in eastern Lycia, came to dominate all of Lycia in the 370s and 360s BCE, breaking the historical dominance of the western dynasts based in and around Xanthos. He cast himself as a native Lycian fighting for liberation against Persians in western Lycia; one inscription explicitly describes his rival Arttum̃para as a Mede ( Lycian : 𐊀𐊕𐊗𐊗𐊒𐊐𐊓𐊀𐊕𐊀:𐊎𐊁𐊅𐊁, Arttum̃para mede ). Arttum̃para may have been one of two Achaemenid officials in Lycia whom Pericles contested,

567-472: A lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period. They have the same general outline but differ in some of the detail. The only attested dialect from this period is Mycenaean Greek , but its relationship to the historical dialects and

648-419: A lesser degree. Pamphylian Greek , spoken in a small area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and little preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect group, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid by Doric, with a non-Greek native influence. Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in

729-483: A number of Greek features, including a large theatre and agora . New city walls expanded into harbour fortifications, turning Halicarnassus into the primary port of the Hecatomnid navy. The Hecatomnids built themselves a palace on the promontory of Zephyrion, next to the older Temple of Apollo , which has since been built over by the medieval Castle of St Peter . The synoecism of Halicarnassus may have been inspired by

810-495: A prefix /e-/, called the augment . This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, but not to any of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist). The two kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment

891-671: A separate historical stage, though its earliest form closely resembles Attic Greek , and its latest form approaches Medieval Greek , and Koine may be classified as Ancient Greek in a wider sense. There were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek; Attic Greek developed into Koine. Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language , divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic , Aeolic , Arcadocypriot , and Doric , many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are found in standardized literary forms in literature , while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek

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972-402: A series of unknown conspirators against Mausolus in the 360s BCE, putting their property to auction. Mausolus and Artemisia moved their capital from Mylasa to Halicarnassus early in their reign. Halicarnassus had historically been a Greek colony with a sizeable native population of Carians and Leleges . The city was refounded by Mausolus, being rebuilt on a new grid pattern. Its population

1053-609: A standard subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance . This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the language, which are the best-attested periods and considered most typical of Ancient Greek. From the Hellenistic period ( c.  300 BC ), Ancient Greek was followed by Koine Greek , which is regarded as

1134-401: A victim to treachery, and, after evading numerous plots that had been formed against his life, was assassinated at a conference by Mithridates , the son of Ariobarzanes , who had gained his confidence by assuming the appearance of hostility to the king. Datames appears to have obtained the highest reputation in his day for courage and ability in war, which caused his fame to extend even among

1215-510: A vowel or /n s r/ ; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical period also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes, notably the following: The pronunciation of Ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek . Ancient Greek had long and short vowels ; many diphthongs ; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops ; and

1296-556: Is a literary form of Archaic Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems , the Iliad and the Odyssey , and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic and other Classical-era dialects. The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of

1377-418: Is added to stems beginning with consonants, and simply prefixes e (stems beginning with r , however, add er ). The quantitative augment is added to stems beginning with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel: Some verbs augment irregularly; the most common variation is e → ei . The irregularity can be explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w , which affected

1458-644: Is called 'East Greek'. Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian Greek had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, as exemplified in the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar who wrote in Doric with a small Aeolic admixture. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to

1539-448: Is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek . Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian (see also Graeco-Armenian ) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan ). Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain ways. In phonotactics , ancient Greek words could end only in

1620-487: Is likely that the Mausoleum functioned as a heroön and that Mausolus received cult worship after his death. Archaeological evidence suggests that worship of Mausolus continued until approximately the mid-2nd century BCE. Artemisia threw a lavish funeral for Mausolus, including games and ceremonies, in which many distinguished Greeks participated. Many of were students of Isocrates who themselves were from Greek cities within

1701-545: Is no evidence that they took any concrete action against Artaxerxes II. Mausolus was not punished for his alleged participation in the Revolt of the Satraps, unlike more flagrant rebels such as Datames or Ariobarzanes. He remained in office after the revolt was squashed in 362/1 BCE and was even rewarded by being given Lycia to govern over. After the Satraps' Revolt, Mausolus and Artemisia came to rule Lycia , adding this territory to

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1782-589: Is very common in Carian onomastics . Other examples include just Uśoλ (𐊲𐊸𐊫𐊦 = Ancient Greek : Υσσωλλος , "blessed"), Šaruśoλ (𐤭𐊠𐊥𐊲𐊸𐊫𐊦 = Σαρυσ(σ)ωλλος, "highly blessed"), and Pnuśoλ / Punwśoλ (𐊷𐊵𐊲𐊸𐊫𐊦/𐊷𐊲𐊵𐊿𐊸𐊫𐊦 = Πονυσσωλλος, "blessed by all"). Mausolus was the eldest son of Hecatomnus , a native Carian who became the satrap of Caria shortly after Tissaphernes died, c.  395  – c.  392 BCE. Mausolus succeeded his father upon Hecatomnus' death in 377 BCE. The two may have shared

1863-719: The Archaic period . Another former island member of the Doric Hexapolis, Cos , underwent synoecism shortly after Halicarnassus. This similar synoecism of Cos may have been politically induced by Mausolus — especially because Demosthenes said that Idrieus controlled Cos while he was satrap — although the evidence is inconclusive. Other cities and towns which may have been relocated or rebuilt by Mausolus or his family include Latmus (which became Heraclea at Latmus ), Cnidus (which moved from Datça to Tekir around this time), and Priene (which may instead have been relocated by Alexander

1944-706: The British Museum , where they were taken by Charles Thomas Newton in the 1850s. Modern excavations of the site of the Mausoleum, as with other archaeological features of ancient Halicarnassus at Bodrum, have been led by the Danish Archaeological Project in conjunction with the Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology. Mausolus died shortly after the failed assassination attempt at Labraunda . Diodorus Siculus tells us that he died in 353/2 BCE. Modern consensus agrees with this date, in part because Mausolus

2025-745: The Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, among which the first texts written in Macedonian , such as the Pella curse tablet , as Hatzopoulos and other scholars note. Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella curse tablet , Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that ancient Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect , which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly . Some have also suggested an Aeolic Greek classification. The Lesbian dialect

2106-521: The Greeks , though he did not come into personal collision with them. Cornelius Nepos (to whose biographical sketch we owe the only connected narrative of his life) calls him the bravest and most able of all non-Greek and non-Roman generals, except Hamilcar and Hannibal ; but there is much confusion in the accounts transmitted to us, and it is difficult to assign the anecdotes of him recorded by Polyaenus to their proper place in his history. The chronology of

2187-561: The Old Iranian *Dātama- or *Dātāma- , either from Dātamiθra ("Gift of Mithra ") or *Data-ama ("to whom force is given"). The name is attested in Aramaic as Tadanmu . Datames was born in c.  407 BC . He was a son of Camisares , an Iranian satrap who governed Cilicia under the Achaemenid king Artaxerxes II ( r.  404–358 BC ). Camisares was most likely from

2268-620: The Peace of Antalcidas concluded the Corinthian War in 387 BCE, Artaxerxes II had given control of the Greek cities of Anatolia to his satraps, while guaranteeing the independence of the Greek off the coast of Anatolia. King Agesilaus II of Sparta was deputised to enforce this peace among the Greeks. The Athenians subsequently formed what is called the Second Athenian League (in contrast to

2349-551: The ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek ( c.  1400–1200 BC ), Dark Ages ( c.  1200–800 BC ), the Archaic or Epic period ( c.  800–500 BC ), and the Classical period ( c.  500–300 BC ). Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers . It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been

2430-501: The present , future , and imperfect are imperfective in aspect; the aorist , present perfect , pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Also, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice. The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least)

2511-509: The war against the Cadusii , was appointed to succeed his father (who had fallen in that war) in the government of his province. Here he distinguished himself both by his military abilities and his zeal in the service of the king; and reduced to subjection two officials who had revolted from Artaxerxes, Thyus , governor of Paphlagonia , and Aspis of Cataonia . "Datames" is the Hellenized form of

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2592-1031: The 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot be reconstructed with certainty, but Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists as to the general nature of the sounds that the letters represent. /oː/ raised to [uː] , probably by the 4th century BC. Greek, like all of the older Indo-European languages , is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In ancient Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases ( nominative , genitive , dative , accusative , and vocative ), three genders ( masculine , feminine , and neuter ), and three numbers (singular, dual , and plural ). Verbs have four moods ( indicative , imperative , subjunctive , and optative ) and three voices (active, middle, and passive ), as well as three persons (first, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and aspect (generally simply called "tenses"):

2673-490: The Archaic period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more details): Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή· ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς. The beginning of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from

2754-599: The Classical period of ancient Greek. (The second line is the IPA , the third is transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme .) Ὅτι [hóti Hóti μὲν men mèn ὑμεῖς, hyːmêːs hūmeîs,   Datames Datames ( Old Persian : Dātama or Dātāma , Aramaic : Tadanmu , Ancient Greek : Δατάμης , romanized :  Datámēs ; 407 BC – 362 BC), also known as Tarkamuwa ,

2835-460: The Great after the time of Mausolus). As well as cities, Mausolus rebuilt major Carian religious sanctuaries at Amyzon , Labraunda , and Sinuri . All three were located in the Carian mountains, away from major urban centres. Religious activity included annual processions up the mountain to the new monumental temples at these sanctuaries. Investment at Labraunda by both Mausolus and his brother Idrieus

2916-496: The Greeks instead. The entire thing was a sham. No hair was sent anywhere, but Condalos and Mausolus made a lot of money. Not all of Mausolus' subjects accepted his authoritarian rule easily. A series of inscriptions from Iasos and Mylasa record how Mausolus punished nobles who conspired against him. The most dramatic is from 355/4 BCE, late in Mausolus' reign, when he survived an assassination attempt by disaffected subjects during

2997-410: The Hecatomnid sphere of influence. Theopompus of Chios won the prose competition, defeating Isocrates. This may have been Isocrates of Apollonia , rather than the more famous Isocrates of Athens, who would have been very old at the time. Theodectes of Phaselis won the verse competition with a tragic play entitled Mausolus . This coming together of famous and influential Greeks at Halicarnassus on

3078-663: The Hecatomnids sponsored throughout their territories, and which continued in the early Hellenistic Period at sites such as Priene . Many cities and religious centres in and around Caria bear features of the Ionian Renaissance following direct sponsorship by Mausolus and his family. Mausolus is best known by his monumental tomb: the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus . Tradition maintain that it was erected and named for him by order of his wife and sister Artemisia after his death. The tomb

3159-564: The Latmians with a religious procession of women, eunuchs , and musicians, instead of soldiers. Mausolus was not beloved by all his subjects. Mausolus appears as a stereotypical despot or tyrant in the accounts of contemporary Greeks. The Economics attributed to Aristotle tells many stories about the injustice of his rule, in part because he needed to raise funds to pay tribute to the Achaemenid Great King . He supposedly deceived

3240-536: The Levant , and Egypt in revolt, Diodorus said that half of Artaxerxes' revenues were cut off from him. Another participant was King Agesilaus II of Sparta , who was a guest-friend of Mausolus. The most evidence for Mausolus' participation in the Great Satraps' Revolt, however, is on the side of his nominal sovereign. Mausolus, together with Autophradates the satrap of Lydia, led the siege of Adramyttium in 366 BCE at

3321-550: The aorist. Following Homer 's practice, the augment is sometimes not made in poetry , especially epic poetry. The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; see below. Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (A few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are: Irregular duplication can be understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has

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3402-419: The architects Satyrus and Pythis , and the sculptors Scopas of Paros , Leochares , Bryaxis and Timotheus . The tomb of Hecatomnus in the centre of Mylasa has been considered an unfinished 'proto-Mausoleum', having a similar terrace structure but lacking similar above-ground elements. The tomb was famous even in antiquity. Although the Mausoleum ( Ancient Greek : Μαυσωλεῖον ) was named for Mausolus,

3483-419: The augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For example, προσ(-)βάλλω (I attack) goes to προσ έ βαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is not a preposition retain the augment at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐ τομόλησα in

3564-438: The center of Greek scholarship, this division of people and language is quite similar to the results of modern archaeological-linguistic investigation. One standard formulation for the dialects is: West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest division, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Attic-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Attic. Often non-West

3645-563: The dialect of Sparta ), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian ). All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Greece proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, often under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects. After the conquests of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek , but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of

3726-482: The earlier Delian League ) as a counterbalance to Spartan hegemony . Among the Greek communities which founded this alliance in 378 BCE were Rhodes , Chios , and Byzantium . All three rebelled against Athens in 357 BCE, after the Athenians had begun to collect financial contributions ( syntaxeis ) from their allies and established an aggressive colony (a cleruchy ) on Samos in the 360s BCE. Demosthenes described

3807-466: The earlier synoecism of Rhodes , when the three major Greek cities of the island ( Ialysus , Camirus , and Lindus ) came together the found the city of Rhodes as their capital in c.  408 BCE . Rhodes and Halicarnassus had close ties. Both claimed mythic Dorian ancestry (although the people of Halicarnassus spoke Ionian Greek ) and both cities were allied within the Doric Hexapolis in

3888-449: The fortified town of Latmus ; later, he pretended to return the Latmian hostages which Idrieus had captured, and after winning the trust of the townspeople, ambushing the city at night after all the inhabitants had left its walls to watch his military procession. Separately, the same author writes how Mausolus' sister and wife Artemisia captured the same town by a similar deception, distracting

3969-422: The generals that remained faithful to the king, advanced against him from Pisidia , but was entirely defeated. The great reputation that Datames had acquired induced Artaxerxes to direct his utmost exertions to effect his subjection, but Autophradates , who was sent against him with a large army, was obliged to retreat with heavy loss. Datames, however, though constantly victorious against open foes, ultimately fell

4050-556: The historical Dorians . The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves as descendants of the population displaced by or contending with the Dorians. The Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from

4131-472: The historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form. Scholars assume that major Ancient Greek period dialect groups developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions —and that their first appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to

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4212-419: The machinations of his enemies at the Persian court, and the risks to which he was in consequence exposed, induced him to change his plan, and throw off his allegiance to the king (c.370 BC). He withdrew with the troops under his command into Cappadocia , and made common cause with the other satraps who had revolted from Persia (the " Satraps' Revolt "). Artabazos , the satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia , one of

4293-482: The north of Lycia. How Mausolus and Artemisia governed Lycia is not clear. The Pseudo-Aristotelian Economics records that Mausolus had a hyparch (ὕπαρχος, 'deputy') active in Lycia, although this account is far from trustworthy. A later trilingual inscription shows that their brother Pixodarus had garrison-commanders in Lycia ( Ancient Greek : ἐπιμελητής ), which may have been true in Mausolus' time as well. Mausolus and Artemisia made an alliance with Phaselis ,

4374-411: The occasion of Mausolus' death, overseen by Artemisia, may be why she became so renowned for her grief in later tradition. Mausolus and Artemisia had no children. After he died, his sister-wife Artemisia ruled alone for a short period before she herself died (353–351 BCE). She was then succeeded by her brother and sister Idrieus and Ada , who were themselves married. There is no evidence that Artemisia

4455-499: The older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language , which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek . By about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek . Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European language of West and Central Anatolia , which

4536-468: The other Greek cities on the coast of Caria, such as Iasos , Miletus , and Cnidus . Part of this control had diplomatic elements. For example, the astronomer Eudoxus of Cnidus , who developed a cosmic model of concentric spheres , lived at the court of Mausolus and may have helped steer the politics of Cnidus as the satrap wished. Mausolus' rule was enforced by violence, though. Polyaenus reports that Mausolus had deputised his brother Idrieus to capture

4617-523: The other being Mithrapata. By rejecting Persian rule in the 370s and 360s BCE, Pericles was participating in the Revolt of the Satraps. Pericles' domination of an independent Lycia was ended by the Autophradates , the satrap of Lydia , at the end of the great revolt c.  362 BCE . Autophradates ruled Lycia himself for as 'king' and/or 'satrap' (TL 61: 𐊚𐊏𐊚 𐊜𐊑𐊗𐊀𐊇𐊀𐊗𐊀 𐊇𐊀𐊗𐊀𐊓𐊕𐊅𐊅𐊀𐊗𐊁𐊛𐊁, ẽnẽ xñtawata Wataprddatehe , "while Autophradates

4698-577: The outbreak of the Social War is his speech On the Liberty of the Rhodians : "We were charged by the Chians, Byzantines and Rhodians with plotting against them, and that was why they concerted the last war against us; but ... Mausolus [was] the prime mover and instigator in the business". In this speech, our main source for Carian involvement in the Social War, Demosthenes makes clear that Mausolus and Artemisia supported

4779-623: The people of Mylasa by telling them that Artaxerxes II Memnon was about to attack the unwalled city; after the local elites gave much money to Mausolus so that he could build walls for Mylasa, he told them that omens prevented him from providing anything. The city was not attacked and Mausolus kept his citizens' funds. Polyaenus tells a similar story about how he lied to his subjects that Artaxerxes threatened to take dominion; he showed them his treasures, which he would sell to keep it, and so his subjects willingly gave him an immense amount of goods, ignorant of his deception. Mausolus' hyparch Condalos

4860-487: The perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) because it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening. Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root's initial consonant followed by i . A nasal stop appears after the reduplication in some verbs. The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing ( c.  1450 BC ) are in

4941-546: The philosopher Diogenes the Cynic , conversing in the afterlife . Although Mausolus ruled widely as satrap, was rich in his lifetime, and left behind a magnificent tomb in Halicarnassus, Diogenes taunts him, as they both have nothing after their deaths. Ancient Greek language Ancient Greek ( Ἑλληνῐκή , Hellēnikḗ ; [hellɛːnikɛ́ː] ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and

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5022-476: The rebels in naval warfare against Athens. Although the precise causes of the Social War are obscure, it may be the case that Mausolus himself incited it in order to expand his sphere of influence into the neighbouring Greek islands of the Dodecanese . The Social War ended quickly in 355 BCE. The Athenians were already weakened after Philip II of Macedon captured Amphipolis ; they suffered several naval defeats to

5103-521: The rebels, such as at the Battle of Ecbatana ; and the city was nearly bankrupt. The intervention of Artaxerxes III set the terms of the peace. Either during or shortly after the Social War, the Carian satraps controlled the Greek islands of Rhodes, Cos, and Chios, in part because they had undermined Athenian authority in the region. Rhodes, which had previously been governed by a democracy aligned with Athens, came to be ruled instead by an oligarchy backed by

5184-702: The request of Artaxerxes. Ariobarzanes had taken refuge there after Autophradates had driven him out of Assos . According to Xenophon , Mausolus was allegedly persuaded to abandon the siege by Agesilaus, whom Mausolus and Tachos of Egypt provided an escort to escape safely. This may be a sign that Mausolus only defied his overlord covertly, as there is no evidence that he actually made war against Artaxerxes. Diodorus also tells us that Mausolus and Autophradates, who secretly did not pursue Ariobarzanes, assisted Orontes of Mysia in his later rebellion in 362 BCE. Unlike Tachos or Agesilaus, however, Mausolus and Artemisia are mostly absent from narratives of Orontes' revolt, and there

5265-568: The royal procession at the yearly festival at Labraunda . A similar plot had been thwarted in Mylasa over a decade earlier (367/6 BCE). Alongside these attempts on Mausolus' life, he also punished a group of brothers who conspired to desecrate a statue of his father Hekatomnos in Mylasa (361/0 BCE). These same brothers were celebrated in Iasos, where the city granted them proxeny around this time, perhaps in defiance of Mausolus. Nonetheless, Iasos still punished

5346-509: The rule of Caria in the early 370s BCE, though, shortly before the death of Hecatomnus. Their close relationship is illustrated in the family scenes from the sarcophagus of the tomb of Hecatomnus and Aba . They were also depicted alongside one another in a statue group from Caunos . Whether Mausolus held any real or ceremonial office before the period of his reign proper, however, is speculative. Mausolus became satrap when his father Hecatomnus died in 377/6 BCE. He ruled alongside his wife, who

5427-418: The side of Artaxerxes, although Greek sources say that he also briefly rebelled against him. Diodorus Siculus includes Mausolus in his list of satraps who rebelled against Artaxerxes II. Also in this list were Tachos of Egypt , Ariobarzanes of Hellespontine Phrygia , Orontes of Mysia , Autophradates of Lydia , and miscellaneous populations of Anatolia and Phoenicia . With the majority of Anatolia,

5508-622: The southeast of Caria to their satrapy. Lycia had first been conquered by the Achaemenids at the same time as Ionia and Caria, by Harpagus , a general under Cyrus the Great . After the time of Harpagus, however, Achaemenid presence in Lycia was minimal and contested by the Delian League . The country came to be ruled by a series of minor dynasts, such as Kuprlli and Kheriga of Xanthos , Erbbina of Telmessos , and Arppakhu of Phellos . Pericles ( Lycian : 𐊓𐊁𐊕𐊆𐊋𐊍𐊁, Perikle ) of Limyra ,

5589-517: The syllabic script Linear B . Beginning in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the classic period. Modern editions of ancient Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks , interword spacing , modern punctuation , and sometimes mixed case , but these were all introduced later. The beginning of Homer 's Iliad exemplifies

5670-638: The term mausoleum has come to be used generically for any grand above-ground tomb. This was true in antiquity; Martial used the term in reference to the Mausoleum of Augustus (died AD 14). Antipater of Sidon listed the Mausoleum as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The site of the Mausoleum and a few remains can still be seen in the Turkish town of Bodrum (ancient Halicarnassus ). The majority of surviving sculptural elements are now kept in

5751-589: The two were still alive. Mausolus participated in the Revolt of the Satraps , a long and complex affair in which many satraps in the west of the Achaemenid Empire rebelled against Artaxerxes II Memnon , mostly during the 360s BCE. The Revolt of the Satraps, also called the Great Revolt, was not a coordinated affair, but consisted of multiple separate rebellions throughout Anatolia. Mausolus primarily participated on

5832-475: Was Aeolic. For example, fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos are in Aeolian. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric ), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian ,

5913-661: Was also authoritarian, according to the Economics . While collecting money for Mausolus, Condalos noted that the people of Lycia wore their hair long, unlike the Carians . He told his Lycian subjects that Artaxerxes demanded hair to make wigs (προκομία) for his horses . Mausolus therefore demanded that the Lycians shave their heads and send him their hair. If the Lycians did not want to shave their heads, they could pay their Carian governors in money instead of hair, and Mausolus could buy hair from

5994-408: Was also his sister , Artemisia (known as Artemisia II to avoid confusion with the earlier Artemisia I Lygdamis ). Because the two had no children, and incest of this type was not otherwise known in Caria, it is thought that their unusual marriage was entirely symbolic. Although only Mausolus was ever referred to as satrap, it is clear that Artemisia had some political authority as joint dynast while

6075-471: Was an Iranian military leader, who served as the governor ( satrap ) of the Achaemenid satrapy of Cappadocia (or Cilicia ; the evidence is contradictory ) from the 380s BC to 362 BC. A Carian by birth, he was the son of Camissares by a Paphlagonian mother. His father being satrap of Cilicia under Artaxerxes II , and high in the favour of that monarch, Datames became one of the king's bodyguards; and having in this capacity distinguished himself in

6156-450: Was enlarged through a process of synoecism : residents of Carian villages nearby were relocated to the new capital city. Pliny the Elder , who incorrectly attributed the synoecism to Alexander the Great , lists the villages assimilated into Halicarnassus as Theangela , Sibde, Medmasa, Euralium, Pedasus , and Telmissus . The city of Halicarnassus, newly rebuilt by Mausolus and Artemisia, had

6237-432: Was especially intensive; the annual procession to Labraunda from Mylasa became a centrepiece of the Hecatomnid royal cult. Mausolus embraced Hellenic culture to an extent. It is debated whether Caria underwent "Hellenisation", "Carianisation", or a complex combination of the two (e.g. creolisation ), under his watch. All the original construction at Halicarnassus was distinctive of the so-called Ionian Renaissance, which

6318-469: Was ever formally a satrap of the Achaemenid Empire, rather than just a local dynast. Only the men of the Hekatomnid family were ever referred to as satraps, as far as we know. So, although Artemisia succeeded Mausolus in real terms, his successor to the office of satrap was probably his brother Idrieus. Centuries after the death of Mausolus, Lucian of Samosata wrote a dialogue between the deceased satrap and

6399-763: Was king"; TL 40d : 𐊜𐊖𐊖𐊀𐊅𐊕𐊀𐊓𐊀 𐊓𐊀[𐊕𐊈]𐊀, xssadrapa Pa[rz]a , "Persian satrap"). Lycia had returned to the Achaemenid control. Autophradates ruled for only a short period, though, and rule of Lycia was transferred to Mausolus sometime in the period c.  362  – c.  353 BCE. Mausolus ruled Lycia as satrap in the later part of his reign. From this time onwards, independent Lycian coins were no longer struck, and instead coins of Mausolus and his successors circulated in Lycia. Although he did not conquer Lycia, he may have been militarily active there, as Stephanus of Byzantium tells us that he campaigned in Milyas to

6480-484: Was known to have participated in the Social War (357–355 BCE) , but had died by the time Demosthenes wrote his speech On the Liberty of the Rhodians (351 BCE). Pliny the Elder incorrectly claimed that Mausolus died in 351 BCE, which is when his sister and wife Artemisia passed away. It is unknown what he died of. When Mausolus died, his remains were interred in the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus , which he and Artemisia had been building while they were still alive. It

6561-548: Was only finished after her death. It is likely that construction began while Mausolus was still alive, and that he oversaw it alongside Artemisia. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was emblematic of the Ionian Renaissance, combining Greek architectural styles with those of Anatolian structures such as the Nereid Monument at Xanthos in Lycia . The leading craftsmen who designed and built the Mausoleum included famous Greeks and Carians:

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