Misplaced Pages

#563436

79-466: Caria is a region of western Anatolia between the ancient regions of Lycia and Lydia , a name possibly first mentioned in Hittite sources. Carian is closely related to Lycian and Milyan (Lycian B), and both are closely related to, though not direct descendants of, Luwian . Whether the correspondences between Luwian, Carian, and Lycian are due to direct descent (i.e. a language family as represented by

158-1061: A geminated pronunciation. By the first millennium, the lenis consonants seem to have been spirantized in Lydian, Lycian, and Carian. The Proto-Anatolian laryngeal consonant *H patterned with the stops in fortition and lenition and appears as geminated -ḫḫ- or plain -ḫ- in cuneiform. Reflexes of *H in Hittite are interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives and those in Luwian as uvular fricatives based on loans in Ugaritic and Egyptian, as well as vowel-coloring effects. The laryngeals were lost in Lydian but became Lycian 𐊐 ( χ ) and Carian 𐊼 ( k ), both pronounced [k], as well as labiovelars —Lycian 𐊌 ( q ), Carian 𐊴 ( q )—when labialized. Suggestions for their realization in Proto-Anatolian include pharyngeal fricatives , uvular fricatives, or uvular stops . Anatolian morphology

237-654: A satrapy (province) in 545 BC. The most important town was Halicarnassus , from where its sovereigns, the tyrants of the Lygdamid dynasty (c.520-450 BC), reigned. Other major towns were Latmus, refounded as Heracleia under Latmus , Antiochia , Myndus , Laodicea , Alinda and Alabanda . Caria participated in the Ionian Revolt (499–493 BC) against the Persian rule. During the Second Persian invasion of Greece (480-479 BC),

316-465: A split-ergative system based on gender, with inanimate nouns being marked in the ergative case when the subject of a transitive verb. This may be an areal influence from nearby non-IE ergative languages like Hurrian. The basic word order in Anatolian is subject-object-verb except for Lycian, where verbs typically precede objects. Clause-initial particles are a striking feature of Anatolian syntax; in

395-558: A Dorian Greek city, was planted there among six Carian towns: Theangela , Sibde , Medmasa , Euranium , Pedasa or Pedasum, and Telmissus . These with Myndus and Syangela (or Syagela or Souagela) constitute the eight Lelege towns. Also on the north coast of the Ceramicus Sinus is Ceramus and Bargasus. On the south of the Ceramicus Sinus is the Carian Chersonnese, or Triopium Promontory ( Cape Krio ), also called Doris after

474-464: A derivational suffix * -h 2 , attested for abstract nouns and collectives in Anatolian. The appurtenance suffix * -ih 2 is scarce in Anatolian but fully productive as a feminine marker in Tocharian . This suggests the Anatolian gender system is the original for IE, while the feminine-masculine-neuter classification of Tocharian + Core IE languages may have arisen following a sex-based split within

553-549: A given sentence, a connective or the first accented word usually hosts a chain of clitics in Wackernagel's position . Enclitic pronouns, discourse markers, conjunctions, and local or modal particles appear in rigidly ordered slots. Words fronted before the particle chain are topicalized. The list below gives the Anatolian languages in a relatively flat arrangement, following a summary of the Anatolian family tree by Robert Beekes (2010). This model recognizes only one clear subgroup,

632-524: A gradual rise to power of the Anatolian language speakers over the native Hattians , until at last the kingship became an Anatolian privilege. From then on, little is heard of the Hattians, but the Hittites kept the name. The records include rituals, medical writings, letters, laws and other public documents, making possible an in-depth knowledge of many aspects of the civilization. Most of the records are dated to

711-509: A non-trivial evolution in Carian from * -onto into -n, -ñ (and possibly -ne ?). Virtually nothing is known of Carian syntax. This is chiefly due to two factors: first, uncertainty as to which words are verbs; second, the longer Carian inscriptions hardly show word dividers. Both factors seriously hamper the analysis of longer Carian texts. The only texts for which the structure is well understood, are funeral inscriptions from Egypt. Their nucleus

790-575: A separate feminine agreement class from PIE. The two-gender system has been described as a merger of masculine and feminine genders following the phonetic merger of PIE a-stems with o-stems. However the discovery of a group of inherited nouns with suffix * -eh 2 in Lycian and therefore Proto-Anatolian raised doubts about the existence of a feminine gender in PIE. The feminine gender typically marked with -ā in non-Anatolian Indo-European languages may be connected to

869-497: A similar sound. A few candidates have been proposed: ýbt , 'he offered', not , 'he brings / brought', ait , 'they made', but these are not well established. In a Carian-Greek bilingual from Kaunos the first two words in Carian are kbidn uiomλn , corresponding to Greek ἔδοξε Καυνίοις, 'Kaunos decided' (literally: 'it seemed right to the Kaunians'). The first word, kbidn , is Carian for 'Kaunos' (or, 'the Kaunians'), so one would expect

SECTION 10

#1732845105564

948-505: A tree-model), or are due to the effects of a sprachbund , is disputed. Carian is known from these sources: Text in Carian: Kaunusa tiñ árdajós martaša arpandab tarśñpi mašina xrá́m za Prior to the late 20th century the language remained a total mystery even though many characters of the script seemed to be from the Greek alphabet . Using Greek phonetic values of letters investigators of

1027-568: Is Harpasa (Arpaz). At the confluence of the Maeander and the Orsinus, Corsymus or Corsynus is Antioch on the Maeander and on the Orsinus in the mountains a border town with Phrygia , Gordiutichos ("Gordius' Fort") near Geyre . Founded by the Leleges and called Ninoe it became Megalopolis ("Big City") and Aphrodisias , sometime capital of Caria. Other towns on the Orsinus are Timeles and Plarasa. Tabae

1106-516: Is Hittite , which is considered the earliest-attested Indo-European language. Undiscovered until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, they are often believed to be the earliest branch to have split from the Proto Indo-European family. Once discovered, the presence of laryngeal consonants ḫ and ḫḫ in Hittite and Luwian provided support for the laryngeal theory of Proto-Indo-European linguistics. While Hittite attestation ends after

1185-655: Is attested in two different scripts, cuneiform and Anatolian hieroglyphs , over more than a millennium. While the earlier scholarship tended to treat these two corpora as separate linguistic entities, the current tendency is to separate genuine dialectal distinctions within Luwian from orthographic differences. Accordingly, one now frequently speaks of Kizzuwatna Luwian (attested in cuneiform transmission), Empire Luwian (cuneiform and hieroglyphic transmission), and Iron Age Luwian / Late Luwian (hieroglyphic transmission), as well as several more Luwian dialects, which are more scarcely attested. The cuneiform corpus (Melchert's CLuwian)

1264-538: Is based entirely on ancient sources. The multiple names of towns and geomorphic features, such as bays and headlands, reveal an ethnic layering consistent with the known colonization. Coastal Caria begins with Didyma south of Miletus , but Miletus had been placed in the pre-Ion Caria. South of it is the Iassicus Sinus ( Güllük Körfezi) and the towns of Iassus and Bargylia , giving an alternative name of Bargyleticus Sinus to Güllük Körfezi, and nearby Cindye, which

1343-431: Is considerably simpler than other early Indo-European (IE) languages. The verbal system distinguishes only two tenses (present-future and preterite), two voices (active and mediopassive ), and two moods ( indicative and imperative ), lacking the subjunctive and optative moods found in other old IE languages like Tocharian , Sanskrit , and Ancient Greek. Anatolian verbs are also typically divided into two conjugations:

1422-629: Is recorded in glosses and short passages in Hittite texts, mainly from Boğazkale. About 200 tablet fragments of the approximately 30,000 contain CLuwian passages. Most of the tablets reflect the Middle and New Script, although some Old Script fragments have also been attested. Benjamin Fortson hypothesizes that "Luvian was employed in rituals adopted by the Hittites." A large proportion of tablets containing Luwian passages reflect rituals emanating from Kizzuwatna . On

1501-625: Is the Calbis River ( Dalyan River). On the other side is Caunus (near Dalyan), with Pisilis or Pilisis and Pyrnos between. Then follow some cities that some assign to Lycia and some to Caria: Calynda on the Indus River, Crya and Alina in the Gulf of Glaucus (Katranci Bay or the Gulf of Makri ), the Glaucus River being the border. Other Carian towns in the gulf are Clydae or Lydae and Aenus. At

1580-403: Is the name of the deceased. Personal names in Carian were usually written as "A, [son] of B" (where B is in the genitive, formally recognizable from its genitival ending -ś). For example: In funeral inscriptions the father's name is often accompanied by the relative pronoun k̂i , "who, who is": The formula may then be extended by a substantive like 'grave', ' stele ', 'monument'; by the name of

1659-532: Is the same. The reason for this might be that the Carians originally developed an alphabet consisting of consonants only (like the Phoenician and Hieroglyphic alphabets before them), and later added the vowel signs, borrowed from a Greek alphabet . The Carian alphabet consisted of about 34 characters: In Caria inscriptions are usually written from left to right, but most texts from Egypt are written right-to-left; in

SECTION 20

#1732845105564

1738-404: Is the tomb of Tur..." [Ἀ]ριστοκλε̂ς ἐπ[οίε̄] Greek: Aristokles epoie — "Made by Aristocles." The word 𐊰𐊠𐊵 san is equivalent to τόδε and evidences the Anatolian language assibilation , parallel to Luwian za-, "this". If 𐊸𐋅𐊠𐊰 śjas is not exactly the same as Σε̂μα Sēma it is roughly equivalent. The Achaean Greeks arriving in small numbers on the coasts of Anatolia in

1817-645: The Bronze Age , hieroglyphic Luwian survived until the conquest of the Neo-Hittite kingdoms by the Semitic Assyrian Empire , and alphabetic inscriptions in Anatolian languages are fragmentarily attested until the early first millennium AD, eventually succumbing to the Hellenization of Anatolia as a result of Greek colonisation . The Anatolian branch is often considered the earliest to have split from

1896-593: The Dorian colony of Cnidus . At the base of the peninsula ( Datça Peninsula ) is Bybassus or Bybastus from which an earlier names, the Bybassia Chersonnese, had been derived. It was now Acanthus and Doulopolis ("slave city"). South of the Carian Chersonnese is Doridis Sinus, the "Gulf of Doris" (Gulf of Symi ), the locale of the Dorian Confederacy. There are three bays in it: Bubassius, Thymnias and Schoenus,

1975-626: The Late Bronze Age found them occupied by a population that did not speak Greek and were generally involved in political relationships with the Hittite Empire . After the fall of the latter the region became the target of heavy immigration by Ionian and Dorian Greeks who enhanced Greek settlements and founded or refounded major cities. They assumed for purposes of collaboration new regional names based on their previous locations: Ionia , Doris . The writers born in these new cities reported that

2054-938: The Proto-Indo-European language , from a stage referred to either as Indo-Hittite or "Archaic PIE"; typically a date in the mid-4th millennium BC is assumed. Under the Kurgan hypothesis , there are two possibilities for how the early Anatolian speakers could have reached Anatolia: from the north via the Caucasus , or from the west, via the Balkans ; the latter is considered somewhat more likely by Mallory (1989), Steiner (1990), and Anthony (2007). Statistical research by Quentin Atkinson and others using Bayesian inference and glottochronological markers favors an Indo-European origin in Anatolia , though

2133-583: The Roman Empire the name of Caria was still used for the geographic region. The territory administratively belonged to the province of Asia . During the administrative reforms of the 4th century this province was abolished and divided into smaller units. Caria became a separate province as part of the Diocese of Asia. Christianity was on the whole slow to take hold in Caria. The region was not visited by St. Paul , and

2212-666: The Xanthos trilingual inscription . The Carians were incorporated into the Macedonian Empire following the conquests of Alexander the Great and the Siege of Halicarnassus in 334 BC. Halicarnassus was the location of the famed Mausoleum dedicated to Mausolus , a satrap of Caria between 377–353 BC, by his wife, Artemisia II of Caria . The monument became one of the Seven Wonders of

2291-455: The mi conjugation and ḫi conjugation, named for their first-person singular present indicative suffix in Hittite. While the mi conjugation has clear cognates outside of Anatolia, the ḫi conjugation is distinctive and appears to be derived from a reduplicated or intensive form in PIE. The Anatolian gender system is based on two classes: animate and inanimate (also termed common and neuter). Proto-Anatolian almost certainly did not inherit

2370-530: The 13th century BC (Late Bronze Age). They are written in cuneiform script borrowing heavily from the Mesopotamian system of writing. The script is a syllabary . This fact, combined with frequent use of Akkadian and Sumerian words, as well as logograms , or signs representing whole words, to represent lexical items, often introduces considerable uncertainty as to the form of the original. However, phonetic syllable signs are present also, representing syllables of

2449-492: The 19th and 20th centuries were unable to make headway and erroneously classified the language as non- Indo-European . A breakthrough was reached in the 1980s, using bilingual funerary inscriptions (Carian-Egyptian) from Egypt ( Memphis and Sais ). By matching personal names in Carian characters with their counterparts in Egyptian hieroglyphs, John D. Ray , Diether Schürr , and Ignacio J. Adiego were able to unambiguously derive

Carian language - Misplaced Pages Continue

2528-459: The 19th century BC Kültepe texts, the Akkadian language records of the kârum kaneš , or "port of Kanes," an Assyrian enclave of merchants within the city of kaneš (Kültepe). This collection records Hittite names and words loaned into Akkadian from Hittite. The Hittite name for the city was Neša , from which the Hittite endonym for the language, Nešili , was derived. The fact that the enclave

2607-566: The Anatolian language group as a whole, or languages identified as Luvian by the Hittite texts. The name comes from Hittite luwili ( 𒇻𒌑𒄿𒇷 ). The earlier use of Luvic fell into disuse in favor of Luvian . Meanwhile, most of the languages now termed Luvian, or Luvic, were not known to be so until the latter 20th century. Even more fragmentary attestations might be discovered in the future. Luvian and Luvic have other meanings in English, so currently Luwian and Luwic are preferred. Before

2686-506: The Anatolian languages preserves distinctions lost in its sister branches of Indo-European. Famously, the Anatolian languages retain the PIE laryngeals in words such as Hittite ḫāran- (cf. Ancient Greek ὄρνῑς , Lithuanian eręlis , Old Norse ǫrn , PIE * h₃éron- ) and Lycian 𐊜𐊒𐊄𐊀 χuga (cf. Latin avus , Old Prussian awis , Archaic Irish ᚐᚃᚔ (avi), PIE * h₂éwh₂s ). The three dorsal consonant series of PIE also remained distinct in Proto-Anatolian and have different reflexes in

2765-592: The Ancient World , and from which the Romans named any grand tomb a mausoleum. Caria was conquered by Alexander III of Macedon in 334 BC with the help of the former queen of the land Ada of Caria who had been dethroned by the Persian Empire and actively helped Alexander in his conquest of Caria on condition of being reinstated as queen. After their capture of Caria, she declared Alexander as her heir. As part of

2844-562: The Carians called Andanus . After Bargylia is Caryanda or Caryinda, and then on the Bodrum Peninsula Myndus (Mentecha or Muntecha), 56 miles (90 km) from Miletus. In the vicinity is Naziandus, exact location unknown. On the tip of the Bodrum Peninsula (Cape Termerium) is Termera (Telmera, Termerea), and on the other side Ceramicus Sinus ( Gökova Körfezi ). It "was formerly crowded with numerous towns." Halicarnassus ,

2923-525: The Greek equivalent in parentheses. An epenthetic schwa to break up clusters may have been unwritten. Carian nouns are inflected for at least three cases: nominative, accusative, and genitive. The dative case is assumed to be present also, based on related Anatolian languages and the frequency of dedicatory inscriptions, but its form is quite unclear. All Anatolian languages also distinguish between animate and inanimate noun genders. Features that help identify

3002-516: The Greeks, some of whom attempted to give etymologies in words they said were Carian. For the most part they still remain a mystery. Writing disappeared in the Greek Dark Ages but no earlier Carian writing has survived. When inscriptions, some bilingual, began to appear in the 7th century BCE it was already some hundreds of years after the city-naming phase. The earlier Carian may not have been exactly

3081-548: The Luwic languages, e.g. Luwian where * kʷ > ku- , * k > k- , and * ḱ > z-. The three-way distinction in Proto-Indo-European stops (i.e. *p, *b, *bʰ ) collapsed into a fortis-lenis distinction in Proto-Anatolian, conventionally written as / p / vs. / b /. In Hittite and Luwian cuneiform, the lenis stops were written as single voiceless consonants while the fortis stops were written as doubled voiceless, indicating

3160-427: The Luwic languages. Modifications and updates of the branching order continue, however. A second version opposes Hittite to Western Anatolian, and divides the latter node into Lydian, Palaic, and a Luwian group (instead of Luwic). Hittite ( nešili ) was the language of the Hittite Empire , dated approximately 1650–1200 BC, which ruled over nearly all of Anatolia during that time. The earliest sources of Hittite are

3239-434: The base of the east end of Latmus near Euromus , and near Milas where the current village Selimiye is, was the district of Euromus or Eurome, possibly Europus, formerly Idrieus and Chrysaoris ( Stratonicea ). The name Chrysaoris once applied to all of Caria; moreover, Euromus was originally settled from Lycia . Its towns are Tauropolis, Plarasa and Chrysaoris. These were all incorporated later into Mylasa . Connected to

Carian language - Misplaced Pages Continue

3318-414: The battles, but if they were bound down by too strong a compulsion to be able to make revolt, when the battles begin, to be purposely slack. Plutarch in his work, The Parallel Lives, at The Life of Themistocles wrote that: "Phanias ( Greek : Φαινίας ), writes that the mother of Themistocles was not a Thracian , but a Carian woman and her name was Euterpe ( Eυτέρπη ), and Neanthes ( Νεάνθης ) adds that she

3397-552: The cities of Caria were allies of Xerxes I and they fought at the Battle of Artemisium and the Battle of Salamis , where the Queen of Halicarnassus Artemisia commanded the contingent of 70 Carian ships. Themistocles , before the battles of Artemisium and Salamis, tried to split the Ionians and Carians from the Persian coalition. He told them to come and be on his side or not to participate at

3476-553: The class of topical nouns to provide more precise reference tracking for male and female humans. Proto-Anatolian retained the nominal case system of Proto-Indo-European, including the vocative, nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, genitive, and locative cases, and innovated an additional allative case . Nouns distinguish singular and plural numbers, as well as a collective plural for inanimates in Old Hittite and remnant dual forms for natural pairs. The Anatolian branch also has

3555-746: The form V, CV, VC, CVC, where V is "vowel" and C is "consonant". Hittite is divided into Old, Middle, and New (or Neo-). The dates are somewhat variable. They are based on an approximate coincidence of historical periods and variants of the writing system: the Old Kingdom and the Old Script, the Middle Kingdom and the Middle Script, and the New Kingdom and the New Script. Fortson gives the dates, which come from

3634-481: The grandfather ("A, [son] of B, [son] of C"); other familial relations ("mother of ..., son of ...", etc.); profession ("astrologer, interpreter"); or ethnicity or city of origin. Example: The Athenian Bilingual Inscription Σε̂μα τόδε : Τυρ[ Greek: Sema tode Tyr — "This is the tomb of Tur...," Καρὸς τô Σκύλ[ακος] Greek: Karos to Skylakos — "the Carian, the son of Scylax" () 𐊸𐋅𐊠𐊰 : 𐊰𐊠𐊵 𐊭𐊲𐊥[ Carian: Śjas: san Tur[ "This

3713-506: The islands. Most chose to leave in 1919, before the population exchange . In July 2021, archaeologists led by Abuzer Kızıl have announced the discovery of two 2,500-year-old marble statues and an inscription during excavations at the Temple of Zeus Lepsynos in Euromus . According to Abuzer Kızıl, one of the statues was naked while other was wearing armor made of leather and a short skirt. Both of

3792-525: The language as Anatolian include the asigmatic nominative (without the Indo-European nominative ending *-s) but -s for a genitive ending: 𐊿𐊸𐊫𐊦 wśoλ , 𐊿𐊸𐊫𐊦𐊰 wśoλ-s . The similarity of the basic vocabulary to other Anatolian languages also confirms this e.g. 𐊭𐊺𐊢 ted "father"; 𐊺𐊵 en "mother". A variety of dative singular endings have been proposed, including zero-marked and -i/-e suffixation. No inanimate stem has been securely identified but

3871-680: The last enclosing the town of Hyda. In the gulf somewhere are Euthene or Eutane, Pitaeum, and an island: Elaeus or Elaeussa near Loryma . On the south shore is the Cynossema, or Onugnathos Promontory, opposite Symi . South of there is the Rhodian Peraea , a section of the coast under Rhodes . It includes Loryma or Larymna in Oedimus Bay, Gelos, Tisanusa, the headland of Paridion, Panydon or Pandion (Cape Marmorice) with Physicus, Amos , Physca or Physcus, also called Cressa ( Marmaris ). Beyond Cressa

3950-459: The latter by a sacred way are Labraunda and Sinuri . Around Stratonicea is also Lagina as well as Panamara , Tendeba and Astragon . Further inland towards Aydın is Alabanda , noted for its marble and its scorpions , Orthosia , Coscinia or Coscinus on the upper Maeander and Alinda . To the east is the religious centre Hyllarima . At the confluence of the Maeander and the Harpasus

4029-840: The latter case each character is written mirrorwise. Some, mostly short, inscriptions have word dividers: vertical strokes, dots, spaces or linefeeds. In the chart below, the Carian letter is given, followed by the transcription. Where the transcription differs from IPA, the phonetic value is given in brackets. Many Carian phonemes were represented by multiple letter forms in various locations. The Egypto-Carian dialect seems to have preserved semivowels w, j, and ý lost or left unwritten in other varieties . Two Carian letters have unknown phonetic values: 𐊱 and 𐋆. The letter 𐊶 τ 2 may have been equivalent to 𐋇 τ. 𐊳 ñ [n̩, n̚] 𐊰 s 𐊶 τ 2 [t͡ʃ]? 𐊦, 𐊣 λ [l:, ld] 𐋃, 𐋉 ĺ [l]? Phonemes attested in Egypto-Carian only. Across

SECTION 50

#1732845105564

4108-671: The method's validity and accuracy are subject to debate. It has been theorized that Cernavodă culture , together with the Sredny Stog culture , was the source of Anatolian languages and introduced them to Anatolia through the Balkans after Anatolian split from the Proto-Indo-Anatolian language, which some linguists and archaeologists place in the area of the Sredny Stog culture. Petra Goedegebuure suggests Anatolian separated from PIE in

4187-524: The name of their king. He reports the Carians themselves maintained that they were Anatolian mainlanders intensely engaged in seafaring and were akin to the Mysians and the Lydians . The Carians spoke Carian , a native Anatolian language closely related to Luwian . Also closely associated with the Carians were the Leleges , which could be an earlier name for Carians. Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns

4266-454: The nominative and accusative are probably attested: The relative pronoun k̂j, k̂i , originally 'who, that, which', has in Carian usually developed into a particle introducing complements. Example: No undisputable verbal forms have yet been discovered in Carian. If verbal conjugation in Carian resembles the other Anatolian languages, one would expect 3rd person singular or plural forms, in both present and preterite , to end in -t or -d , or

4345-546: The north by 4500 BC and had arrived in Anatolia by about 2500 BC, via a migration route through the Caucasus. Melchert (2012) has proposed the following classification: Kloekhorst (2022) has proposed a more detailed classification, with estimated dating for some of the reconstructed stages: In addition, the Kalašma language is believed to be a Luwic language, though further analysis has yet to be published. The phonology of

4424-404: The only early churches seem to be those of Laodicea and Colossae ( Chonae ) on the extreme inland fringe of the country, which itself pursued its pagan customs. It appears that it was not until Christianity was officially adopted in Constantinople that the new religion made any real headway in Caria. In the 7th century, Byzantine provinces were abolished and the new military theme system

4503-416: The other Anatolian languages like Lycian , Milyan , or Lydian . A striking feature of Carian is the presence of large consonant clusters, due to a tendency to not write short vowels. Examples: The sound values of the Carian alphabetic signs are very different from those in the usual Greek alphabets. Only four vowels signs are the same as in Greek (A = α, H = η, O = ο, Y = υ/ου), but not a single consonant

4582-484: The other hand, many Luwian glosses (foreign words) in Hittite texts appear to reflect a different dialect, namely Empire Luwian. The Hittite language of the respective tablets sometimes displays interference features, which suggests that they were recorded by Luwian native speakers. The hieroglyphic corpus (Melchert's HLuwian) is recorded in Anatolian hieroglyphs , reflecting Empire Luwian and its descendant Iron Age Luwian. Some HLuwian texts were found at Boğazkale, so it

4661-451: The people among whom they had settled were called Carians and spoke a language that was "barbarian", "barbaric" or "barbarian-sounding" (i.e. not Greek). No clue has survived from these writings as to what exactly the Greeks might mean by "barbarian". The reportedly Carian names of the Carian cities did not and do not appear to be Greek. Such names as Andanus, Myndus, Bybassia, Larymna, Chysaoris, Alabanda, Plarasa and Iassus were puzzling to

4740-519: The phonetic value of most Carian signs. It turned out that not a single Carian consonant sign has the same phonetic value as signs of similar shape in the Greek alphabet. By 1993 the so-called "Ray-Schürr-Adiego System" was generally accepted, and its basic correctness was confirmed in 1996 when in Kaunos (Caria) a new Greek-Carian bilingual was discovered, where the Carian names nicely matched their Greek counterparts. The language turned out to be Indo-European, its vocabulary and grammar closely related to

4819-418: The pirates mentioned in classical texts. The Carians who fought for Troy (if they did) were not classical Carians any more than the Greeks there were classical Greeks. Being penetrated by larger numbers of Greeks and under the domination from time to time of the Ionian League , Caria eventually Hellenized and Carian became a dead language . The interludes under the Persian Empire perhaps served only to delay

SECTION 60

#1732845105564

4898-491: The process. Hellenization would lead to the extinction of the Carian language in the 1st century BCE or early in the Common Era . Caria Caria ( / ˈ k ɛər i ə / ; from Greek : Καρία, Karia ; Turkish : Karya ) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid- Ionia ( Mycale ) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia . The Carians were described by Herodotus as being Anatolian mainlanders and they called themselves Caria because of

4977-434: The region as a whole, a large Muslim (practically exclusively Turkish) majority reaching as high as 99% and a non-Muslim minority (practically exclusively Carian supplemented with a small Jewish community in Milas) as low as one per cent. One of the first acts of the Ottomans after their takeover was to transfer the administrative center of the region from its millenary seat in Milas to the then much smaller Muğla , which

5056-437: The reigns of the relevant kings, as 1570–1450 BC, 1450–1380 BC, and 1350–1200 BC respectively. These are not glottochronologic . All cuneiform Hittite came to an end at 1200 BC with the destruction of Hattusas and the end of the empire. Palaic , spoken in the north-central Anatolian region of Palā (later Paphlagonia ), extinct around the 13th century BC, is known only from fragments of quoted prayers in Old Hittite texts. It

5135-441: The same. The local development of Carian excludes some other theories as well: it was not widespread in the Aegean, is not related to Etruscan , was not written in any ancient Aegean scripts, and was not a substrate Aegean language. Its occurrence in various places of Classical Greece is due only to the travel habits of Carians, who apparently became co-travellers of the Ionians . The Carian cemetery of Delos probably represents

5214-424: The second word, uiomλn , to be the verbal form, 'they decided'. Several more words ending in a nasal are suspected to be verbal forms, for example mδane , mlane , mλn (cf. uio-mλn ), 'they vowed, offered (?)', pisñ , 'they gave (?)'. However, to make such nasal endings fit in with the usual Anatolian verb paradigm (with 3rd person plural preterite endings in -(n)t/-(n)d , from * -onto ), one would have to assume

5293-731: The statues were depicted with a lion in their hands. 37°30′N 28°00′E  /  37.5°N 28.0°E  / 37.5; 28.0 Anatolian languages Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European The Anatolian languages are an extinct branch of Indo-European languages that were spoken in Anatolia . The best known Anatolian language

5372-421: The suffix -n may be reconstructed based on the inherited pattern. Alternatively, a zero ending may be derived from the historical * -od . The ablative (or locative?) case is suspected in one phrase (𐊠𐊣𐊫𐊰𐊾 𐊴𐊠𐊥𐊵𐊫𐊰𐊾 alosδ k̂arnosδ "from/in Halicarnassus (?)"), perhaps originally a clitic derived from the preverb δ "in, into" < PIE *endo . Of the demonstrative pronouns s(a)- and a- , 'this',

5451-470: The term Luwic was proposed for Luwian and its closest relatives, scholars used the term Luwian in the sense of 'Luwic languages'. For example, Silvia Luraghi's Luwian branch begins with a root language she terms the "Luwian group", which logically is in the place of Common Luwian or Proto-Luwian. Its three offsprings, according to her are Milyan, Proto-Luwian, and Lycian, while Proto-Luwian branches into Cuneiform and Hieroglyphic Luwian. The Luwian language

5530-419: The various sites where inscriptions have been found, the two lateral phonemes /l/ and /λ/ contrast but may be represented by different letters of the Carian script 𐊣/𐋎, 𐊦, and 𐋃/𐋉 depending on the location. The letter 𐋉 (formerly transcribed <ŕ>) is now seen as an Egyptian variant of 𐋃 <ĺ>. In the chart below, the Carian letter for each vowel is followed by the conventional transcription with

5609-464: Was Assyrian, rather than Hittite, and that the city name became the language name, suggest that the Hittites were already in a position of influence, perhaps dominance, in central Anatolia . The main cache of Hittite texts is the approximately 30,000 clay tablet fragments, of which only some have been studied, from the records of the royal city of Hattuša , located on a ridge near what is now Boğazkale, Turkey (formerly named Boğazköy). The records show

5688-504: Was at various times attributed to Phrygia, Lydia and Caria and seems to have been occupied by mixed nationals. Caria also comprises the headwaters of the Indus and Eriya or Eriyus and Thabusion on the border with the small state of Cibyra . Caria is often identified with the Bronze Age region of Karkiya (or Karkisa ) known from Hittite texts, though this identification is uncertain. Caria

5767-573: Was confirmed when the Athenians discovered the graves of the dead from Delos . Half of it were identified as Carians based on the characteristics of the weapons they were buried with. The expansionism of Lydia under Croesus (560-546 BC) incorporated Caria briefly into Lydia before it fell before the Achaemenid advance. Caria was then incorporated into the Persian Achaemenid Empire as

5846-461: Was extinguished by the replacement of the culture, if not the population, as a result of an invasion by the Kaskas , which the Hittites could not prevent. The term Luwic was proposed by Craig Melchert as the node of a branch to include several languages that seem more closely related than the other Anatolian languages. This is not a neologism, as Luvic had been used in the early 20th century to mean

5925-515: Was formerly thought to have been a "Hieroglyphic Hittite". The contexts in which CLuwian and HLuwian have been found are essentially distinct. Annick Payne asserts: "With the exception of digraphic seals, the two scripts were never used together." HLuwian texts are found on clay, shell, potsherds, pottery, metal, natural rock surfaces, building stone and sculpture, mainly carved lions. The images are in relief or counter-relief that can be carved or painted. There are also seals and sealings. A sealing

6004-469: Was from Halicarnassus in Caria.". After the unsuccessful Persian invasion of Greece in 479 BC, the cities of Caria became members of the Athenian-led Delian League , but then returned to Achaemenid rule for about one century, from around 428 BC. Under Achaemenid rule, the Carian dynast Mausolus took control of neighbouring Lycia , a territory which was still held by Pixodarus as shown by

6083-557: Was introduced. The region corresponding to ancient Caria was captured by the Turks under the Menteşe Dynasty in the early 13th century. There are only indirect clues regarding the population structure under the Menteşe and the parts played in it by Turkish migration from inland regions and by local conversions. The first Ottoman Empire census records indicate, in a situation not atypical for

6162-454: Was nevertheless better suited for controlling the southern fringes of the province. Still named Menteşe until the early decades of the 20th century, the kazas corresponding to ancient Caria are recorded by sources such as G. Sotiriadis (1918) and S. Anagiostopoulou (1997) as having a Greek population averaging at around ten per cent of the total, ranging somewhere between twelve and eighteen thousand, many of them reportedly recent immigrants from

6241-506: Was settled by Greek immigrants in the Early Iron Age . Their presence is attested by protogeometric pottery which appears in the area around 1100 BC, along with other markers of Greek material culture. The coast of Caria was part of the Doric hexapolis ("six-cities"). An account also cited that Aristotle claimed Caria, as a naval empire, occupied Epidaurus and Hermione and that this

#563436