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57-655: Many Greek authors link the Leleges to the Carians of south-west Anatolia. Homer names the Leleges among the Trojan allies alongside the Carians, Pelasgians, Paeonians and Gaucones . It is thought that the name Leleges is an exonym , in a long-extinct language, rather than an endonym (or autonym). That is, during the Bronze Age the word lulahi apparently meaning "strangers" was used in

114-647: A list in Dares of Phrygia 's epitome of the Trojan War . Classical Greeks would often claim that part of Caria to the north was originally colonized by Ionian Greeks before the Dorians . The Greek goddess Hecate possibly originated among the Carians. Indeed, most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, the father of Mausolus , are attested in Caria. The Carians were often linked by Greek writers to

171-503: A maritime people before being gradually pushed inland. Plutarch mentions the Carians as being referred to as " cocks " by the Persians on account of their wearing crests on their helmets; the epithet was expressed in the form of a Persian privilege when a Carian soldier responsible for killing Cyrus the Younger was rewarded by Artaxerxes II (r. 405/404–359/358 BC) with the honor of leading

228-595: A natural death. Prosopographical investigation, however, has shown the possibility of identifying several guests with real persons from other sources; the Ulpian in the dialog has also been linked to the renowned jurist's father. The work is invaluable for providing fictionalized information about the Hellenistic literary world of the leisured class during the Roman Empire . To the majority of modern readers, even more useful

285-479: A satirical edge, rehashing the cultural clichés of the urbane literati of its day. The first critical edition in accordance to the principles of classical philology was published by German scholar Georg Kaibel in 1887–1890 in the Bibliotheca Teubneriana ; this three-volume set remained the authoritative text for about 120 years and the only complete critical text. Charles Burton Gulick translated

342-460: A series of banquets held by the protagonist Publius Livius Larensis  [ de ] for an assembly of grammarians , lexicographers , jurists , musicians, and hangers-on. The Greek title Deipnosophistaí ( Δειπνοσοφισταί ) is a compound of deîpnon ( δεῖπνον ' dinner ' ) and sophistḗs ( σοφιστής ' expert ' ). It and its English derivative deipnosophists thus describe people who are skilled at dining, particularly

399-509: A whole, Hittite records seem to point at a Luwian ancestry for the Carians and, as such, they would have lost their literacy through the Dark Age of Anatolia . The relationship between the Bronze Age "Karkiya" or "Karkisa" and the Iron Age Caria and the Carians is complicated, despite having western Anatolia as common ground, by the uncertainties regarding the exact location of the former on

456-608: Is interesting to hear in Deipnosophistae that Philippus of Theangela (a 4th-century BC historian) referred to Leleges still surviving as serfs of the "true Carians", and even later Strabo attributes to the Leleges a distinctive group of deserted forts and tombs in Caria that were still known in his day as "Lelegean forts"; the Encyclopædia Britannica 1911 identified these as ruins that could still be traced ranging from

513-510: Is probably incorrect to claim that they are linear descendants of Luwian. It is possible that the speakers of Proto-Carian, or the common ancestor of Carian and Lycian, supplied the elites of the Bronze Age kingdom of Arzawa , the population of which partly consisted of Lydians . An important evidence of the Carians' own belief in their blood ties and cultural affinity with the Lydians and Mysians

570-526: Is the admittance, apart from theirs, exclusively of Lydians and Mysians to the temple of the "Carian Zeus " in their first capital that was Mylasa . One of the Carian ritual centers was Mylasa , where they worshipped their supreme god, called "the Carian Zeus" by Herodotus. Unlike Zeus , this was a warrior god. It is possible that the goddess Hecate , the patron of pathways and crossroads, originated among

627-458: Is the result of some early migration; perhaps it is also the cause of these Lelegian theories; perhaps there was a widespread pre-Indo-European culture that loosely linked these regions, a possibility on which much modern hypothesis has been constructed. Germanic theorists of the 19th century who inspired modern heirs: Carians The Carians ( / ˈ k ɛər i ə n z / ; Ancient Greek : Κᾶρες , Kares , plural of Κάρ , Kar ) were

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684-486: Is the wealth of information provided in the Deipnosophistae about earlier Greek literature. In the course of discussing classic authors, the participants make quotations, long and short, from the works of about 700 earlier Greek authors and 2,500 separate writings, many of them otherwise unrecorded (such as the swallow song of Rhodes ). Food and wine, luxury, music, sexual mores, literary gossip and philology are among

741-530: The Leleges the coast land of Caria, from Ephesus to Phocaea , with the islands of Samos and Chios , placing the true Carians farther south from Ephesus to Miletus . Pausanias was reminded that the temple of the goddess at Ephesus predated the Ionian colony there, when it was rededicated to the goddess as Artemis . He states with certainty that it antedated the Ionic immigration by many years, being older even than

798-530: The Leleges , but the exact nature of the relationship between Carians and Leleges remains mysterious. The two groups seem to have been distinct, but later intermingled with each other. Strabo wrote that they were so intermingled that they were often confounded with each other. However, Athenaeus stated that the Leleges stood in relation to the Carians as the Helots stood to the Lacedaemonians . This confusion of

855-538: The Luwian language and in other Anatolian languages . For example, in a Hittite cuneiform inscription, priests and temple servants are directed to avoid conversing with lulahi and foreign merchants. According to the suggestion of Vitaly Shevoroshkin , an attempt to transliterate lulahi into Greek might result in leleges . Late traditions reported in Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheke , and by Pausanias , derive

912-552: The Troad was counted as Lelegian. Alcaeus (7th or 6th century BCE) calls Antandrus in the Troad "Lelegian", but later Herodotus substitutes the epithet " Pelasgian ", so perhaps the two designations were broadly synonymous for the Greeks. According to Homer , the Leleges were a distinct Anatolian tribe. However, Herodotus states that Leleges had been an early name for the Carians . Pherecydes of Athens ( ca 480 BC) attributed to

969-539: The "t", may be Cretans ). They are also named as mercenaries in inscriptions found in ancient Egypt and Nubia , dated to the reigns of Psammetichus I and II . They are sometimes referred to as the "Cari" or "Khari". Carian remnants have been found in the ancient city of Persepolis or modern Takht-e-Jamshid in Iran . The Greek historian Herodotus recorded that Carians themselves believed to be aborigines of Caria but they were also, by general consensus of ancient sources,

1026-500: The 4th century BCE does any other writer place Leleges anywhere west of the Aegean. But the confusion of the Leleges with the Carians (immigrant conquerors akin to Lydians and Mysians ) which first appears in a Cretan legend (quoted by Herodotus, but repudiated, as he says, by the Carians themselves) and is repeated by Callisthenes , Apollodorus and other later writers, led easily to the suggestion of Callisthenes, that Leleges joined

1083-627: The Carians in Asia Minor. A single passage in the fragmentary Hesiodic Catalogue of Women places "Leleges" in Deucalion 's mythicized and archaic time in Locris in central Greece, identified as the rocks turned human that repopulated the earth after the great deluge. Locris is also the refuge of some of the Pelasgian inhabitants forced from Boeotia by Cadmus and his Phoenician adventurers. But not until

1140-473: The Carians in their (half legendary) raids on the coasts of Greece. Herodotus (1.171) says that the Leleges were a people who in old times dwelt in the islands of the Aegean and were subject to Minos of Crete (one of the historic references that led Sir Arthur Evans to name the pre-Hellenic Cretan culture " Minoan "); and that they were driven from their homes by the Dorians and Ionians, after which they took refuge in Caria and were named Carians. Herodotus

1197-474: The Carians. Herodotus calls her Athena and says that her priestess would grow a beard when disaster pended. On Mount Latmos near Miletus , the Carians worshipped Endymion , who was the lover of the Moon and fathered fifty children. Endymion slept eternally, in the sanctuary devoted to him, which lasted into Roman times. There is at least one named priestess known to us from this region, Carminia Ammia who

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1254-475: The Classical scholar Isaac Casaubon . Browne was also the author of a Latin essay on Athenaeus . By the nineteenth century however, the poet James Russell Lowell in 1867 characterized the Deipnosophistae and its author thus: Modern readers question whether the Deipnosophistae genuinely evokes a literary symposium of learned disquisitions on a range of subjects suitable for such an occasion, or whether it has

1311-795: The Eleatic, Philadelphus of Ptolemais, Plutarch of Alexandria, Pontian of Nicomedia, Rufinus of Nicaea, Ulpian of Tyre, Varus, and Zoilus . The Deipnosophistae is an important source of recipes in classical Greek. It quotes the original text of one recipe from the lost cookbook by Mithaecus , the oldest in Greek and the oldest recipe by a named author in any language. Other authors quoted for their recipes include Glaucus of Locri , Dionysius , Epaenetus, Hegesippus of Tarentum , Erasistratus , Diocles of Carystus , Timachidas of Rhodes , Philistion of Locri , Euthydemus of Athens , Chrysippus of Tyana , Paxamus and Harpocration of Mende . It also describes in detail

1368-476: The Greeks, "This was particularly the case with the Carians, for, although the other peoples were not yet having very much intercourse with the Greeks nor even trying to live in Hellenic fashion or to learn our language ... yet the Carians roamed throughout the whole of Greece serving on expeditions for pay. ... and when they were driven thence [from the islands] into Asia, even here they were unable to live apart from

1425-549: The Greeks, I mean when the Ionians and Dorians later crossed over to Asia." (Strabo 14.2.28) Indeed, the term barbarian was coined by Homer in reference to the Carians speaking an unintelligible language. According to Herodotus, the Carians were named after an eponymous Car , a legendary early king and a brother of Lydus and Mysus , also eponymous founders respectively of Lydians and Mysians and all sons of Atys . Homer records that Miletus (later an Ionian city), together with

1482-529: The Hellenic sea and ruling over the Cyclades. In doing so, Minos expelled the Carians, many of which had turned to piracy as a way of life. During the Athenian purification of Delos , all graves were exhumed and it was found that more than half were Carians (identified by the style of arms and the method of interment). According to Strabo, Carians, of all the "barbarians", had a particular tendency to intermingle with

1539-483: The Learned , Philosophers at Dinner , or The Gastronomers . The Deipnosophistae professes to be an account, given by Athenaeus to his friend Timocrates, of a series of banquets held at the house of Larensius, a scholar and wealthy patron of the arts. It is thus a dialogue within a dialogue, after the manner of Plato , although each conversation is so long that, realistically, it would occupy several days. Among

1596-554: The Pelasgians. However, in Lacedaemon and in Leucas they were believed to be aboriginal and Dionysius of Halicarnassus mentions that Leleges is the old name for the later Locrians . These European Leleges must be interpreted in connection with the recurrence of place names like Pedasus , Physcus , Larymna and Abae , both in Caria, and in these "Lelegian" parts of Greece. Perhaps this

1653-579: The Persian army with a golden cock on the point of his spear. According to Thucydides , it was largely the Carians who settled the Cyclades prior to the Minoans. The Middle Bronze Age (MMI–MMII) expansion of the Minoans into this region seems to have come at their expense. Intending to secure revenue in the Cyclades, Minos of Knossos established a navy with which he established his first colonies by taking control of

1710-653: The Submycenean remains at Asarlik and the Mycenaean remains at Miletus and near Mylasa . Archaeologically, there was nothing distinguishing about the Carians since the material evidence so far only indicated that their culture was merely a reflection of Greek culture. During the 1970s, further archaeological excavations in Caria revealed Mycenean buildings at Iasus (with two " Minoan " levels underneath them), as well as Protogeometric and Geometric material remains (i.e. cemeteries and pottery). Archaeologists also confirmed

1767-652: The ancient inhabitants of Caria in southwest Anatolia , who spoke the Carian language . It is not clear when the Carians enter into history. The definition is dependent on corresponding Caria and the Carians to the "Karkiya" or "Karkisa" mentioned in the Hittite records. Bronze Age Karkisa are first mentioned as having aided the Assuwa League against the Hittite King Tudhaliya I . Later in 1323 BC, King Arnuwandas II

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1824-583: The brother of Amphimachus and son of Nomion, reflects the reputation of Carian wealth that may have preceded the Greek Dark Ages and thus recalled in oral tradition. In some translations of Biblical texts , the Carians are mentioned in 2 Kings 11 :4 and 19 ( /kɑˈɽi/ ; כָּרִי, in Hebrew , literally "like fat sheep/goat", contextually "noble" or "honored"), and perhaps alluded to in 2 Samuel 8:18, 15:18, and 20:23 ( /kɽɛˈti/ ; כְּרֵתִי, probably unrelated due to

1881-441: The coastal and interior regions of Caria were virtually unoccupied throughout prehistoric times. As for the assumption that the Carians descended from Neolithic settlers, this is contradicted by the fact that Neolithic Caria was essentially desolate. Though a very small Neolithic population may have existed in Caria, the people known as "Carians" may in fact have been of Aegean origin that settled in southwestern Anatolia during

1938-579: The entire text into English for the Loeb Classical Library . In 2001, a team of Italian classical scholars led by Luciano Canfora (then Professor of Classical Philology, now Emeritus, University of Bari ) published the first complete Italian translation of the Deipnosophistae , in a luxury edition with extensive introduction and commentary. A digital edition of Kaibel's text, with search tools and cross-references between Kaibel's and Casaubon's texts and digitalized indexes and Dialogi Personae ,

1995-422: The form of the cult in historic times, centering on a many-breasted icon of the "Lady of Ephesus" whom Greeks called Artemis. Other cult aspects, being in all essentials non-Hellenic, suggest the indigenous cult was taken over by the Greek settlers. Often historians assume, as a general rule, that autochthonous inhabitants survive an invasion as an under-class where they do not retreat to mountain districts, so it

2052-728: The formal catalogue of allies in Book II of the Iliad, and their homeland is not specified. They are distinguished from the Carians , with whom some later writers confused them; they have a king, Altes, and a city Pedasus which was sacked by Achilles . The topographical name "Pedasus" occurs in several ancient places: near Cyzicus , in the Troad on the Satniois River, in Caria , as well as in Messenia , according to Encyclopædia Britannica 1911. Gargara in

2109-457: The late Enzo Degani (formerly Professor of Greek in the University of Bologna); Burzacchini himself translated and commented Book 5 in more recent years. In 2006, American classical philologist S. D. Olson renewed Loeb text thanks to a new collation of the manuscripts and the progression of critical studies on Athenaeus and newly translated and commented the whole work; in 2019, the same started

2166-533: The major topics of discussion, and the stories behind many artworks such as the Venus Kallipygos are also transmitted in its pages. In addition to the narrator Athenaeus , the Deipnosophistae includes several characters. This includes Aemilian of Mauretania, Alcides of Alexandria, Amoebeus, Arrian, Cynulcus, Daphnus of Ephesus, Democritus of Nicomedia, Dionysocles, Galen of Pergamum, Larensius, Leonides of Elis, Magnus, Masurius, Myrtilus of Thessaly, Palamedes

2223-613: The map within Hittite geography. Yet, the supposition is suitable from a linguistic point-of-view given that the Phoenicians were calling them "KRK" in their abjad script and they were referred to as krka in Old Persian . The Carians next appear in records of the early centuries of the first millennium BC; Homer 's writing about the golden armour or ornaments of the Carian captain Nastes,

2280-505: The meal and festivities at the wedding feast of Caranos . In expounding on earlier works, Athenaeus wrote that Aeschylus "very improperly" introduces the Greeks to be "so drunk as to break their vessels about one another's heads": This is the man who threw so well The vessel with an evil smell And miss'd me not, but dash'd to shivers The pot too full of steaming rivers Against my head, which now, alas! sir, Gives other smells besides macassar . In addition to its main focuses,

2337-555: The mountain of Phthries, the river Maeander and the crests of Mount Mycale were held by the Carians at the time of the Trojan War and that the Carians, qualified by the poet as being of incomprehensible speech, joined the Trojans against the Achaeans under the leadership of Nastes, brother of Amphimachos ("he who fights both ways") and son of Nomion. These figures appear only in the Iliad and in

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2394-491: The name from an eponymous king Lelex ; a comparable etymology, memorializing a legendary founder, is provided by Greek mythographers for virtually every tribe of Hellenes: "Lelex and the Leleges, whatever their historical significance, have acted as a blank sheet on which to draw Lakonia and all it means," observes Ken Dowden . In Homer 's Iliad , the Leleges are allies of the Trojans (10.429), though they do not appear in

2451-447: The neighborhood of Theangela and Halicarnassus as far north as Miletus, the southern limit of the "true Carians" of Pherecydes. Plutarch also implies the historic existence of Lelegian serfs at Tralles (now Aydın ) in the interior. The fourth-century BC historian Philippus of Theangela suggested that the Leleges maintained connections to Messenia , Laconia , Locris and other regions in mainland Greece, after they were overcome by

2508-538: The numerous guests, Masurius , Zoilus , Democritus , Galen , Ulpian and Plutarch are named, but most are probably to be taken as fictitious personages, and the majority take little or no part in the conversation. If Ulpian is identical with the famous jurist, the Deipnosophistae must have been written after his death in 223; but the jurist was murdered by the Praetorian Guard , whereas Ulpian in Athenaeus dies

2565-424: The oracular shrine at Dodona . He says that the pre-Ionic inhabitants of the city were Leleges and Lydians (with a predominance of the latter) and that, although Androclus drove out of the land all those whom he found in the upper city, he did not interfere with those who dwelt about the sanctuary. By giving and receiving pledges he put these on a footing of neutrality. These remarks of Pausanias find confirmation in

2622-406: The philosopher Heraclides of Pontus . Athenaeus described what may be considered the first patents (i.e. exclusive right granted by a government to an inventor to practice his/her invention in exchange for disclosure of the invention). He mentions that several centuries BC, in the Greek city of Sybaris (located in what is now southern Italy), there were annual culinary competitions. The victor

2679-548: The presence of Carians in Sardis , Rhodes , and in Egypt where they served as mercenaries of the Pharaoh . In Rhodes, specifically, a type of Carian chamber-tomb known as a Ptolemaion may be attributed to a period of Carian hegemony on the island. Despite this period of increased archaeological activity, the Carians still appear not to have been an autochthonous group of Anatolia since both

2736-559: The refined conversation expected to accompany Greek symposia . However, the term is shaded by the harsh treatment accorded to professional teachers in Plato 's Socratic dialogues , which made the English term sophist into a pejorative . In English, Athenaeus's work usually known by its Latin form Deipnosophistae but is also variously translated as The Deipnosophists , Sophists at Dinner , The Learned Banqueters , The Banquet of

2793-547: The second millennium BC. Deipnosophistae The Deipnosophistae ( Ancient Greek : Δειπνοσοφισταί , Deipnosophistaí , lit.   ' The Dinner Sophists ' , where sophists may be translated more loosely as ' sages, philosophers, experts ' ) is a work written c.  200 AD in Ancient Greek by Athenaeus of Naucratis. It is a long work of literary , historical , and antiquarian references set in Rome at

2850-508: The text offers an unusually clear portrait of homosexuality in late Hellenism. Books XII-XIII holds a wealth of information for studies of homosexuality in Roman Greece . It is subject to a broader discussion that includes Alcibiades , Charmides , Autolycus , Pausanias and Sophocles . Furthermore, numerous books and now lost plays on the subject are mentioned, including the dramatists Diphilus , Cratinus , Aeschylus , and Sophocles and

2907-554: The two peoples is found also in Herodotus, who wrote that the Carians, when they were allegedly living amid the Cyclades, were known as Leleges . The Carian language belongs to the Luwic group of the Anatolian family of languages . Other Luwic languages besides Luwian proper are Lycian and Milyan (Lycian B). Although the ancestors of Carian and Lycian must have been very close to Luwian, it

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2964-424: Was priestess of Thea Maeter Adrastos and of Aphrodite. Throughout the 1950s, J.M. Cook and G.E. Bean conducted exhaustive archaeological surveys in Caria. Cook ultimately concluded that Caria was virtually devoid of any prehistoric remains. According to his reports, third millennium finds were mostly confined to a few areas on or near the Aegean coast. No finds from the second millennium were known aside from

3021-508: Was a Dorian Greek born in Caria himself. Meanwhile, other writers from the 4th century onwards claimed to discover them in Boeotia , west Acarnania ( Leucas ), and later again in Thessaly , Euboea , Megara , Lacedaemon and Messenia . In Messenia, they were reputed to have been immigrant founders of Pylos , and were connected with the seafaring Taphians and Teleboans , and distinguished from

3078-689: Was able to write to Karkiya for them to provide asylum for the deposed Manapa-Tarhunta of "the land of the Seha River ", one of the principalities within the Luwian Arzawa complex in western Anatolia . This they did, allowing Manapa-Tarhunta to take back his kingdom. In 1274 BC, Karkisa are also mentioned among those who fought on the Hittite Empire side against the Egyptians in the Battle of Kadesh . Taken as

3135-421: Was given the exclusive right to prepare his dish for one year. Such a thing would have been unusual at the time because Greek society at large did not recognize exclusivity in inventions or ideas. The Deipnosophistae was originally in fifteen books. The work survives in one manuscript from which the whole of books 1 and 2, and some other pages too, disappeared long ago. An Epitome or abridgment (to about 60%)

3192-452: Was made in medieval times, and survives complete: from this it is possible to read the missing sections, though in a disjointed form. The English polymath Sir Thomas Browne noted in his encyclopaedia Pseudodoxia Epidemica : Browne's interest in Athenaeus reflects a revived interest in the Banquet of the Learned amongst scholars following the publication of the Deipnosophistae in 1612 by

3249-466: Was put online by Italian philologist Monica Berti and her team, currently working at the Alexander von Humboldt University . In 2001, Eleonora Cavallini (Professor of Greek, University of Bologna ) published a translation and commentary on Book 13. In 2010, Gabriele Burzacchini (Professor of Greek, University of Parma ) published a translation and commentary of Book 1 found among the unpublished studies of

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