151-676: The Royal Commission on the Economic Union and Development Prospects for Canada , also known as the Macdonald Commission , was a historic landmark in Canadian economy policy. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau appointed the Royal Commission in 1982, and it presented its recommendations to Prime Minister Brian Mulroney in 1984. The commission's recommendations reflect three broad themes mainly derived from neoconservative ideology. Firstly,
302-502: A surprise election in 1976 that resulted in René Lévesque and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois (PQ) winning a majority government. The PQ had chiefly campaigned on a "good government" platform, but promised a referendum on independence to be held within their first mandate. Trudeau and Lévesque had been personal rivals, with Trudeau's intellectualism contrasting with Lévesque's more working-class image. While Trudeau claimed to welcome
453-420: A " Multiculturalism Policy" on October 8, 1971. It was the first of its kind in the world, subsequently being emulated by several provinces such as Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba; even other countries, most notably Australia, which has had a similar history and immigration pattern, emulated the policy. Beyond the specifics of the policy itself, this action signalled an openness to the world and coincided with
604-459: A Franco-Manitoban. Following their advice, he chose a career in politics and a degree in law at the Université de Montréal . In his obituary, The Economist described Trudeau as "parochial as a young man", who "dismissed the second world war as a squabble between the big powers, although he later regretted 'missing one of the major events of the century'." In his 1993 Memoir, Trudeau wrote that
755-511: A French Canadian Catholic living outside the province of Quebec for the first time, felt like an outsider. As his sense of isolation deepened, he decided in 1947 to continue his work on his Harvard dissertation in Paris , where he studied at the Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris (Sciences Po). The Harvard dissertation remained unfinished when Trudeau briefly entered a doctoral program to study under
906-583: A Pacific outlet. The colony had an extremely large debt that would have to be assumed should it join Confederation. Negotiations were conducted in 1870, principally during Macdonald's illness and recuperation, with Cartier leading the Canadian delegation. Cartier offered British Columbia a railway linking it to the eastern provinces within ten years. The British Columbians, who privately had been prepared to accept far less generous terms, quickly agreed and joined Confederation in 1871. The Canadian Parliament ratified
1057-574: A blow to the head by a servant charged with taking care of the boys. After Hugh's store failed, the family moved to Hay Bay (south of Napanee, Ontario ), west of Kingston, where Hugh unsuccessfully ran another shop. In 1829, his father was appointed as a magistrate for the Midland District . John Macdonald's mother was a lifelong influence on her son, helping him in his difficult first marriage and remaining influential in his life until her 1862 death. Macdonald initially attended local schools. When he
1208-842: A civil servant in Ottawa in 1949. Until 1951 he worked in the Privy Council Office of the Liberal Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent as an economic policy advisor. He wrote in his memoirs that he found this period very useful when he entered politics later on, and that senior civil servant Norman Robertson tried unsuccessfully to persuade him to stay on. Trudeau's progressive values and his close ties with Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) intellectuals (including F. R. Scott , Eugene Forsey , Michael Kelway Oliver and Charles Taylor ) led to his support of and membership in that federal democratic socialist party throughout
1359-631: A confederation if the details could be successfully negotiated. In October 1864, delegates for Confederation met in Quebec City for the Quebec Conference , where they agreed to the Seventy-Two Resolutions , the basis of Canada's government. The Great Coalition was endangered by Taché's 1865 death; Lord Monck asked Macdonald to become premier, but Brown felt that he had as good a claim on the position as his coalition partner. The disagreement
1510-577: A conference called by British Columbia Premier W. A. C. Bennett to attempt to finally patriate the Canadian constitution . Negotiations between the provinces and Justice Minister John Turner created a draft agreement, known as the Victoria Charter , that entrenched a charter of rights, bilingualism, and a guarantee of a veto of constitutional amendments for Ontario and Quebec, as well as regional vetoes for Western Canada and Atlantic Canada , within
1661-415: A deal in exchange for James Cross' life, although they eventually returned to Canada years later, where they served time in prison. Although this response is still controversial and was opposed at the time as excessive by parliamentarians like Tommy Douglas and David Lewis , it was met with only limited objections from the public. After consultations with the provincial premiers, Trudeau agreed to attend
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#17328474599771812-545: A deficit of $ 667 million, while the 1969 budget produced a surplus of $ 140 million. However, the 1970 budget (which produced a deficit of over $ 1 billion) marked the start of consecutive budget deficits run by the Trudeau government; the budget would not be balanced until 1997 . By the time Trudeau's first tenure ended in 1979, the deficit grew to $ 12 billion. In 1971, Trudeau's government greatly expanded unemployment insurance , making coverage nearly universal as coverage for
1963-451: A down payment for the acquisition of an owner-occupied dwelling or to buy furnitures for the dwelling (or the spouse's dwelling). Individuals who already owned a home (either owner-occupied or rented to another person) could not deduct RHOSP contributions. In 1976, Trudeau's government allowed for transfers of funds between the RHOSP (for instance to select a plan with better returns). In 1977,
2114-490: A final and bloody conflict, armed rioters fired on the troops, and the soldiers returned fire. At least five men were killed by gunfire and there were over 150 casualties and $ 300,000 in damage. In 1939, it was Lapointe who helped draft the Liberals' policy against conscription for service overseas. Lapointe was aware that a new conscription crisis would destroy the national unity that Mackenzie King had been trying to build since
2265-759: A fourth election victory shortly afterwards, in 1980 , and eventually retired from politics shortly before the 1984 election . Trudeau is the most recent prime minister to win four elections (having won three majority governments and one minority government ) and to serve two non-consecutive terms. His tenure of 15 years and 164 days makes him Canada's third-longest-serving prime minister, behind John A. Macdonald and William Lyon Mackenzie King . Despite his personal motto, "Reason before passion", Trudeau's personality and policy decisions aroused polarizing reactions throughout Canada during his time in office . While critics accused him of arrogance, of economic mismanagement, and of unduly centralizing Canadian decision-making to
2416-522: A lawyer, hoping to gain his former employer's clients. Macdonald's parents and sisters also returned to Kingston. Soon after Macdonald was called to the Bar in February 1836, he arranged to take in two students; both became, like Macdonald, Fathers of Confederation . Oliver Mowat became premier of Ontario, and Alexander Campbell a federal cabinet minister and Lieutenant Governor of Ontario . One early client
2567-531: A leading figure opposing Duplessis's rule. Trudeau actively supported the workers in the Asbestos Strike who opposed Duplessis in 1949. Trudeau was the co-founder and editor of Cité Libre , a dissident journal that helped provide the intellectual basis for the Quiet Revolution. In 1956, he edited an important book on the subject, La grève de l'amiante , which argued that the asbestos miners' strike of 1949
2718-553: A literary career. Macdonald's parents decided he should become a lawyer after leaving school. As Donald Creighton (who penned a two-volume biography of Macdonald in the 1950s) wrote, "law was a broad, well-trodden path to comfort, influence, even to power". It was also "the obvious choice for a boy who seemed as attracted to study as he was uninterested in trade." Macdonald needed to start earning money immediately to support his family because his father's businesses were failing. "I had no boyhood," he complained many years later. "From
2869-519: A media sensation, inspiring " Trudeaumania ", and helped him to win the leadership of the Liberal Party in 1968 , when he succeeded Pearson and became prime minister of Canada. From the late 1960s until the mid-1980s, Trudeau's personality dominated the political scene to an extent never before seen in Canadian political life. After his appointment as prime minister, he won the 1968 , 1972 , and 1974 elections, before narrowly losing in 1979 . He won
3020-505: A more open immigration policy that Pearson had brought in. The policy recognized that while Canada was a country of two official languages, it recognized a plurality of cultures – "a multicultural policy within a bilingual framework". This annoyed public opinion in Quebec, which believed that it challenged Quebec's claim of Canada being a country of two nations. Following the Vietnam War,
3171-412: A new position without needing to face a by-election; Macdonald and his ministers accepted new positions, then completed what was dubbed the " Double Shuffle " by returning to their old posts. In an effort to give the appearance of fairness, Head insisted that Cartier be the titular premier, with Macdonald as his deputy. In the late 1850s and early 1860s, Canada enjoyed a period of great prosperity, while
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#17328474599773322-623: A parliamentary committee on confederation among the British North American colonies, which had reported back just before the Taché-Macdonald government fell. Brown was more interested in representation by population; Macdonald's priority was a federation that the other colonies could join. The two compromised and agreed that the new government would support the "federative principle" – a conveniently elastic phrase. The discussions were not public knowledge and Macdonald stunned
3473-560: A practice especially effective in the era when votes were publicly declared. Macdonald and the Conservatives saw their majority reduced from 35 to 8. The Liberals (as the Grits were coming to be known) did better than the Conservatives in Ontario, forcing the government to rely on the votes of Western and Maritime MPs who did not fully support the party. Macdonald had hoped to award the charter for
3624-509: A prominent young lawyer who was a well-regarded member of Kingston's rising Scottish community. Mackenzie practised corporate law, a lucrative speciality that Macdonald himself would later pursue. Macdonald was a promising student, and in the summer of 1833, managed the Mackenzie office when his employer went on a business trip to Montreal and Quebec in Lower Canada (today the southern portion of
3775-460: A proportion of units toward social housing initiatives. In order to ensure that loans contributed to the provision of low income housing, the CMHC was restricted to giving loans amounting to $ 7500 or less per unit. The Registered home ownership savings plan (RHOSP) was introduced in the government's November 1974 budget . Similar to RRSPs , proceeds from the RHOSP could be received tax-free for either
3926-623: A refugee crisis was caused by the flight of the " boat people " from Vietnam, as thousands of people, mostly ethnic Chinese, fled the country in makeshift boats across the South China Sea , usually to the British colony of Hong Kong. The Trudeau government was generous in granting asylum to the refugees. By 1980, Canada had accepted about 44,000 of the "boat people", making it one of the top destinations for them. In 1969, Trudeau, along with his then- Minister of Indian Affairs Jean Chrétien , proposed
4077-639: A rise in the polls after the rejection of the Victoria Charter, the Quebec Liberals had taken a more confrontational approach with the federal government on the constitution, French language laws , and the language of air traffic control in Quebec. Trudeau responded with increasing anger at what he saw as nationalist provocations against Ottawa's bilingualism and constitutional initiatives, at times expressing his personal contempt for Bourassa. Partially in an attempt to shore up his support, Bourassa called
4228-529: A rise in what many called " Western alienation ". In other domestic policy, Trudeau pioneered official bilingualism and multiculturalism , fostering a pan-Canadian identity. Trudeau's foreign policy included making Canada more independent; he patriated the Constitution and established the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms , actions that achieved full Canadian sovereignty . He distanced Canada from
4379-582: A scandal in which his party took bribes from businessmen seeking the contract to build the Canadian Pacific Railway . He was reelected in 1878 . His greatest achievements were building and guiding a successful national government for the new Dominion, using patronage to forge a strong Conservative Party , promoting the protective tariff of the National Policy , and completing the railway. He fought to block provincial efforts to take power back from
4530-587: A three-year term as the seat of government before the Assembly moved to the permanent capital. He privately asked the Colonial Office to ensure she would not respond for at least ten months, or until after the general election. In February 1858, her choice was announced to the dismay of many legislators from both parts of the province: the isolated Canada West town of Ottawa became the capital. On 28 July 1858, an opposition Canada East member proposed an address to
4681-596: Is ranked highly among scholars in rankings of Canadian prime ministers , though he remains a divisive figure in Canadian politics and is viewed less favourably in Western Canada and Quebec. His eldest son, Justin Trudeau , became the 23rd and current prime minister, following the 2015 Canadian federal election ; Justin Trudeau is the first prime minister of Canada to be a descendant of a former prime minister. The Trudeau family can be traced to Marcillac-Lanville in France in
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4832-488: Is regarded as the signature recommendation of the commission. Pierre Trudeau Joseph Philippe Pierre Yves Elliott Trudeau (October 18, 1919 – September 28, 2000) was a Canadian lawyer and politician who served as the 15th prime minister of Canada from 1968 to 1979 and from 1980 to 1984. Between his non-consecutive terms as prime minister, he served as the leader of the Opposition from 1979 to 1980. Trudeau
4983-564: The National Housing Act to provide financial assistance for new home buying , loans for co-operative housing , and low interest loans for municipal and private non-profit housing. The amendments saw the introduction the Rental Rehabilitation Assistance Program, which established that homeowners and occupants in low income neighborhoods could qualify for small grants to be used for home repair. Also introduced
5134-481: The 1968 election with a strong majority government ; this was the Liberals' first majority since 1953 . Trudeau's first major legislative push was implementing the majority of recommendations from Pearson's Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism via the Official Languages Act , which made French and English the co-equal official languages of the federal government. More controversial than
5285-638: The 1969 White Paper (officially entitled "Statement of the Government of Canada on Indian policy"). The Paper proposed the general assimilation of First Nations into the Canadian body politic through the elimination of the Indian Act and Indian status, the parcelling of reserve land to private owners, and the elimination of the Department of Indian and Northern Affairs . The White Paper was widely seen as racist and an attack on Canada's indigenous peoples, and prompted
5436-409: The 1971 budget . Also implemented in 1972 was the child care expense deduction which allowed for a deduction of up to $ 500 per child. As Benson had now become a political liability, Trudeau replaced him with John Turner (who was seen as a " Business Liberal ") in 1972. John A. Macdonald Provincial Provincial Sir John Alexander Macdonald (10 or 11 January 1815 – 6 June 1891)
5587-542: The Battle of the Windmill near Prescott, Upper Canada . Public opinion was inflamed against the prisoners, as they were accused of mutilating the body of a dead Canadian lieutenant. Macdonald could not represent the prisoners, as they were tried by court-martial and civilian counsel had no standing. At the request of Kingston relatives of Daniel George, paymaster of the ill-fated invasion, Macdonald agreed to advise George, who, like
5738-662: The British North America Act and the establishment of Canada as a nation on 1 July 1867. Macdonald was the first prime minister of the new nation, and served 19 years; only William Lyon Mackenzie King has served longer. In his first term, he established the North-West Mounted Police and expanded Canada by annexing the North-Western Territory , Rupert's Land , British Columbia , and Prince Edward Island . In 1873, he resigned from office over
5889-500: The Canadian Pacific Railway in early 1872, but negotiations dragged on between the government and the financiers. Macdonald's government awarded the Allan group the charter in late 1872. In 1873, when Parliament opened, Liberal MP Lucius Seth Huntington charged that government ministers had been bribed with large, undisclosed political contributions to award the charter. Documents soon came to light which substantiated what came to be known as
6040-512: The Liberal Party in 1965. That year , he was elected to the House of Commons , quickly being appointed as Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson 's parliamentary secretary . In 1967, he was appointed as minister of justice and attorney general . As minister, Trudeau liberalized divorce and abortion laws and decriminalized homosexuality. Trudeau's outgoing personality and charismatic nature caused
6191-527: The London Conference , winning acclaim for his handling of the discussions, and courted and married his second wife, Agnes Bernard . Bernard was the sister of Macdonald's private secretary, Hewitt Bernard ; the couple first met in Quebec in 1860, but Macdonald had seen and admired her as early as 1856. In January 1867, while still in London, he was seriously burned in his hotel room when his candle set fire to
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6342-836: The North-West Rebellion that resulted in Riel's execution, and the development of the residential school system designed to assimilate Indigenous children. He remains respected by others for his key role in Confederation. Historical rankings of Prime Ministers of Canada have consistently made him one of the highest-rated in Canadian history . John Alexander Macdonald was born in Ramshorn parish in Glasgow , Scotland, on 10 January (official record) or 11 (father's journal) 1815. His father Hugh, an unsuccessful merchant, had married John's mother, Helen Shaw, on 21 October 1811. John Alexander Macdonald
6493-570: The October Crisis of 1970, when a Marxist-influenced Quebec separatist group, the Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), kidnapped British Trade Consul James Cross at his residence on October 5. Five days later, the group also kidnapped Quebec Labour Minister Pierre Laporte . Trudeau, with the acquiescence of Quebec Premier Robert Bourassa , responded by invoking the War Measures Act , which gave
6644-596: The Pacific Scandal . The Allan-led financiers, who were secretly backed by the United States's Northern Pacific Railway , had donated $ 179,000 to the Tory election funds, they had received the charter, and Opposition newspapers began to publish telegrams signed by government ministers requesting large sums from the railway interest at the time the charter was under consideration. Macdonald had taken $ 45,000 in contributions from
6795-473: The Treaty of Washington against a political firestorm. In the run-up to the 1872 election , Macdonald had yet to formulate a railway policy, or to devise the loan guarantees that would be needed to secure the construction. During the previous year, Macdonald had met with potential railway financiers such as Hugh Allan and considerable financial discussion took place. The greatest political problem Macdonald faced
6946-581: The mayor of Montreal ) in Outremont . Trudeau described a speech he heard in Montreal by Ernest Lapointe , minister of justice and Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King 's Quebec lieutenant . Lapointe had been a Liberal MP during the 1917 Conscription Crisis , in which the Canadian government had deployed up to 1,200 soldiers to suppress the anti-conscription Easter Riots in Quebec City in March and April 1918. In
7097-465: The province of Quebec ). Later that year, Macdonald was sent to manage the law office of a Mackenzie cousin who had fallen ill. In August 1834, George Mackenzie died of cholera . With his supervising lawyer dead, Macdonald remained at the cousin's law office in Hallowell (today Picton, Ontario ). In 1835, Macdonald returned to Kingston, and even though not yet of age nor qualified, began his practice as
7248-564: The "clarity" provided by the PQ victory, the unexpected rise of the Quebec sovereignty movement became, in his view, his biggest challenge. As the PQ began to take power, Trudeau faced the prolonged breakdown of his marriage, which the English-language press covered in lurid detail on a day-by-day basis. Trudeau's reserve was seen as dignified by contemporaries, and his poll numbers actually rose during
7399-465: The "historic importance" of the war and that he had "missed one of the major events of the century in which [he] was living. Harvard had become a major intellectual centre, as fascism in Europe led to a great migration of intellectuals to the United States. Trudeau's Harvard dissertation was on the topic of communism and Christianity. At Harvard, an American and predominantly Protestant university, Trudeau,
7550-456: The 16th century and to a Robert Truteau (1544–1589). In 1659, the first Trudeau to arrive in Canada was Étienne Trudeau or Truteau (1641–1712), a carpenter and home builder from La Rochelle . Pierre Trudeau was born at home in Outremont, Montreal , Quebec , on October 18, 1919, to Charles-Émile "Charley" Trudeau (1887–1935), a French-Canadian businessman and lawyer, and Grace Elliott, who
7701-495: The 1851 election but were soon divided by a parliamentary scandal. In September, the government resigned, and a coalition government uniting parties from both parts of the province under Allan MacNab took power. Macdonald did much of the work of putting the government together and served as attorney general . The coalition, which came to power in 1854, became known as the Liberal-Conservatives (referred to, for short, as
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#17328474599777852-546: The 1950s. An associate professor of law at the Université de Montréal from 1961 to 1965, Trudeau's views evolved towards a liberal position in favour of individual rights counter to the state and made him an opponent of Quebec nationalism. He admired the labour unions, which were tied to the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), and tried to infuse his Liberal Party with some of their reformist zeal. By
8003-419: The Assembly by accepting their positions, and had to face by-elections . This gave Macdonald a majority pending the by-elections, and he promptly defeated the government. Head refused Brown's request for a dissolution of the Assembly, and Brown and his ministers resigned. Head then asked Macdonald to form a government. The law allowed anyone who had held a ministerial position within the last thirty days to accept
8154-512: The Assembly by announcing that the dissolution was being postponed because of progress in negotiations with Brown – the two men were not only political rivals, but were known to hate each other. The parties resolved their differences, joining in the Great Coalition , with only the Parti rouge of Canada East, led by Jean-Baptiste-Éric Dorion , remaining apart. A conference, called by
8305-481: The Assembly. The two sections each elected 65 legislators, even though Canada West had a larger population. One of Brown's major demands was representation by population, which would lead to Canada West having more seats; this was bitterly opposed by Canada East. The American Civil War led to fears in Canada and in Britain that once the U.S. had concluded its internal warfare, they would invade Canada again. Canada
8456-616: The B&;A gas station chain (now defunct), some "profitable mines, the Belmont amusement park in Montreal and the Montreal Royals , the city's minor-league baseball team", by the time Trudeau was fifteen. When his father died in Orlando, Florida , on April 10, 1935, Trudeau and each of his siblings inherited $ 5,000 (equivalent to $ 110,000 in 2023), a considerable sum at that time, which meant that he
8607-672: The CMHC). The amendments saw the passage of the Rent Supplement Act , which enabled the CMHC to partner with private landlords, cooperatives, and not-for-profit associations to provide affordable housing; in addition, the act saw the CMHC agree to fund the difference between market rental prices and rent prices geared to the specific occupant's income. Lastly, the Canada Rental Supply Program was introduced to provide interest-free loans for 15 years to developers who agreed to allocate
8758-556: The Canadian labour force jumped to 96 percent from 75 percent. The system was sometimes called the 8/42, because one had to work for eight weeks (with at least 20 hours per week), and wait two weeks, to get benefits for the other 42 weeks of the year. This expansion also opened the UI program up to maternity, sickness, and retirement benefits, covered seasonal workers for the first time, and allowed mothers to receive up to 15 weeks of benefits if they had 20 or more insurable weeks. The reforms increased
8909-681: The Colonial Office, was scheduled for 1 September 1864, in Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island; the Maritimes were to consider a union . The Canadians obtained permission to send a delegation – led by Macdonald, Cartier, and Brown – to what became known as the Charlottetown Conference . At its conclusion, the Maritime delegations expressed a willingness to join
9060-488: The Conservatives). In 1855, George-Étienne Cartier of Canada East (today Quebec) joined the Cabinet. Until Cartier's 1873 death, he would be Macdonald's political partner. In 1856, MacNab was eased out as premier by Macdonald, who became the leader of the Canada West Conservatives. Macdonald remained as attorney general when Étienne-Paschal Taché became premier. In July 1857, Macdonald departed for Britain to promote Canadian government projects. On his return to Canada, he
9211-406: The Macdonald house in Ottawa, together with Bernard's widowed mother. In May 1870, John Macdonald fell ill with gallstones; coupled with his frequent drinking, he may have developed a severe case of acute pancreatitis . In July, he moved to Prince Edward Island to convalesce, most likely conducting discussions aimed at drawing the island into Confederation at a time when some there supported joining
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#17328474599779362-424: The Maritimes and bind them closer to the rest of Canada, was not yet built. Anglo-American relations were in a poor state, and Canadian foreign relations were matters handled from London. The withdrawal of the Americans in 1866 from the Reciprocity Treaty had increased tariffs on Canadian goods in US markets. American and British opinion largely believed that the experiment of Confederation would quickly unravel, and
9513-406: The Queen informing her that Ottawa was an unsuitable place for a national capital. Macdonald's Canada East party members crossed the floor to vote for the address, and the government was defeated. Macdonald resigned, and the Governor General, Sir Edmund Walker Head , invited opposition leader George Brown to form a government. Under the law at that time, Brown and his ministers lost their seats in
9664-477: The United States and rather formed close ties with the Soviet Union, China, and Cuban leader Fidel Castro , putting him at odds with other capitalist Western nations. In his retirement, Trudeau practised law at the Montreal law firm of Heenan Blaikie . He also successfully campaigned against the Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords (which proposed granting Quebec certain concessions), arguing they would strengthen Quebec nationalism . Trudeau died in 2000. He
9815-550: The United States. The island joined Confederation in 1873. Macdonald had once been tepid on the question of westward expansion of the Canadian provinces; as prime minister, he became a strong supporter of a bicoastal Canada. Immediately upon Confederation, he sent commissioners to London who in due course successfully negotiated the transfer of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to Canada. The Hudson's Bay Company received £300,000 ( CA$ 1,500,000 ) in compensation, and retained some trading posts as well as one-twentieth of
9966-405: The United States. Macdonald was appointed a British commissioner, a post he was reluctant to accept as he realised Canadian interests might be sacrificed for the mother country. This proved to be the case; Canada received no compensation for the raids and no significant trade advantages in the settlement, which required Canada to open her waters to American fishermen. Macdonald returned home to defend
10117-419: The Université de Montréal while in the COTC from 1940 until his graduation in 1943. Following his graduation, he articled for a year and, in the fall of 1944, began his Masters in political economy at Harvard University 's Graduate School of Public Administration (now the John F. Kennedy School of Government ). In his Memoir , he admitted that it was at Harvard's "super-informed environment" that he realized
10268-405: The accession of Newfoundland, whose voters rejected a Confederation platform in a general election in October 1869. In 1869, John and Agnes Macdonald had a daughter, Mary. It soon became apparent that Mary had ongoing developmental issues; she was never able to walk, nor did she ever fully develop mentally. Hewitt Bernard, Deputy Minister of Justice and Macdonald's former secretary, also lived in
10419-459: The age of 15, I began to earn my own living." Macdonald travelled by steamboat to Toronto (known until 1834 as York ), where he passed an examination set by The Law Society of Upper Canada . British North America had no law schools in 1830; students were examined when beginning and ending their tutelage. Between the two examinations, they were apprenticed, or articled to established lawyers. Macdonald began his apprenticeship with George Mackenzie,
10570-432: The annual Saint-Jean-Baptiste Day parade in Montreal, rioting Quebec sovereigntists threw rocks and bottles at the grandstand where Trudeau was seated, chanting "Trudeau au poteau!" ("Trudeau to the stake!"). Rejecting the pleas of aides that he take cover, Trudeau stayed in his seat, facing the rioters, without any sign of fear. The image of the defiant Prime Minister impressed the public. The next day, Trudeau handily won
10721-461: The anti-establishment manifesto Refus global , the publication of Les insolences du Frère Untel , the 1949 Asbestos Strike , and the 1955 Richard Riot . Artists and intellectuals in Quebec signed the Refus global on August 9, 1948 in opposition to the repressive rule of Quebec Premier Maurice Duplessis and the decadent "social establishment" in Quebec, including the Catholic Church. When he returned to Montreal in 1949, Trudeau quickly became
10872-615: The best farmland. Prior to the date of acquisition, the Canadian government faced unrest in the Red River Colony (today southeastern Manitoba , centred on Winnipeg ). The local people, including the Métis , were fearful that rule would be imposed on them which did not take into account their interests, and rose in the Red River Rebellion led by Louis Riel . Unwilling to pay for a territory in insurrection, Macdonald had troops put down
11023-496: The bill. The government fell over the bill, and the Grits took over under the leadership of John Sandfield Macdonald (no relation to John A. Macdonald). The parties held an almost equal number of seats, with a handful of independents able to destroy any government. The new government fell in May 1863, but Head allowed a new election, which did little to change party standings. In December 1863, Canada West MP Albert Norton Richards accepted
11174-427: The border. With Canadians fearing invasion from the U.S., the British asked that Canadians pay a part of the expense of defence, and a Militia Bill was introduced in the Assembly in 1862. The opposition objected to the expense, and Canada East representatives feared that French-Canadians would have to fight in a war they wanted no part in. Macdonald was drinking heavily and failed to provide much leadership on behalf of
11325-441: The card game loo and winning substantially. Sometime during his two months in Britain, he met his first cousin, Isabella Clark . As Macdonald did not mention her in his letters home, the circumstances of their meeting are not known. In late 1842, Isabella journeyed to Kingston to visit with a sister. The visit stretched for nearly a year before John and Isabella Macdonald married on 1 September 1843. On 29 March 1843, Macdonald
11476-497: The chair he had fallen asleep in, but Macdonald refused to miss any sessions of the conference. In February, he married Agnes at St George's, Hanover Square . On 8 March, the British North America Act, 1867 , which would thereafter serve as the major part of Canada's constitution, passed the House of Commons (it had previously passed the House of Lords). Queen Victoria gave the bill Royal Assent on 29 March 1867. Macdonald had favoured
11627-474: The commission recommended the adoption of an elected Senate in order to better represent Canada's diverse regions. Most notably, the commission’s recommendations affected trade policy directly by giving greater legitimacy and momentum to the debate surrounding free trade with the United States. Mulroney began trade negotiations with the American administration shortly after the report was released. Indeed, free trade
11778-520: The convention, prominent Cabinet Minister Judy LaMarsh was caught on television profanely stating that Trudeau was not a Liberal. Nevertheless, at the April 1968 Liberal leadership convention , Trudeau was elected leader on the fourth ballot, with the support of 51 percent of the delegates. He defeated several prominent and long-serving Liberals, including Paul Martin Sr. , Robert Winters and Paul Hellyer . As
11929-664: The court of public opinion. And, while there, he was learning the arts of argument and of persuasion that would serve him all his political life. All male Upper Canadians between 18 and 60 years of age were members of the Sedentary Militia, which was called into active duty during the Rebellions of 1837 . Macdonald served as a Private in Captain George Well's Company of the Commercial Bank Guard. Macdonald and
12080-606: The declaration (which was backed by the NDP and, with some opposition in caucus, the PCs) was the implementation of the Act's principles: between 1966 and 1976, the francophone proportion of the civil service and military doubled, causing alarm in some sections of anglophone Canada who felt they were being disadvantaged. Trudeau's Cabinet fulfilled Part IV of the Royal Commission's report by announcing
12231-537: The defendants in the one trial to take place in Kingston. All the Kingston defendants were acquitted, and a local paper described Macdonald as "one of the youngest barristers in the Province [who] is rapidly rising in his profession". In late 1838, Macdonald agreed to advise one of a group of American raiders who had crossed the border to overthrow British rule in Canada. The raiders had been captured by government forces after
12382-485: The detriment of the culture of Quebec and the economy of the Prairies , admirers praised what they considered to be the force of his intellect and his political acumen that maintained national unity over the Quebec sovereignty movement . Trudeau suppressed the 1970 Quebec terrorist crisis by controversially invoking the War Measures Act . In addition, Quebec's proposal to negotiate a sovereignty-association agreement with
12533-431: The election concluded on 15 October 1844. Macdonald was never an orator, and especially disliked the bombastic addresses of the time. Instead, he found a niche in becoming an expert on election law and parliamentary procedure. In 1844, Isabella fell ill. She recovered, but the illness recurred the following year, and she became an invalid. John took his wife to Savannah, Georgia , in the United States in 1845, hoping that
12684-590: The election, Nova Scotia 's premier, Charles Tupper , pushed a pro-Confederation resolution through that colony's legislature. A final conference, to be held in London, was needed before the British Parliament could formalise the union. Maritime delegates left for London in July 1866, but Macdonald, who was drinking heavily again, did not leave until November, angering the Maritimers. In December 1866, Macdonald both led
12835-420: The end of Canada's centennial year in 1967, Pearson announced his intention to step down, and Trudeau entered the race to succeed him as party leader and Prime Minister. His energetic campaign attracted widespread media attention and mobilized many young people, who saw Trudeau as a symbol of generational change. However, many Liberals still had reservations, given that he had only joined the party in 1965. During
12986-525: The end of the First World War. Trudeau believed Lapointe had lied and broken his promise. His criticisms of King's wartime policies, such as "suspension of habeas corpus," the "farce of bilingualism and French-Canadian advancement in the army," and the "forced 'voluntary' enrolment", was scathing. As a university student, Trudeau joined the Canadian Officers' Training Corps (COTC), which trained at
13137-537: The federal government was overwhelmingly rejected in the 1980 Quebec referendum . In economic policy, Trudeau expanded social programs, introduced the capital gains tax , and oversaw major increases in deficit spending . In a bid to move the Liberal Party towards economic nationalism , Trudeau's government oversaw the creation of Petro-Canada and launched the National Energy Program , both of which generated uproar in oil -rich Western Canada , leading to
13288-634: The financial program Established Programs Financing to help finance the provincially -run healthcare and post-secondary education system, through transfer payments , by cash and tax points . This system lasted until 1995. In 1979, Trudeau's government restructured family allowances by increasing the role of the tax system in child support and decreasing the role of family allowances. The government established an annual Refundable Child Tax Credit of $ 200 for families with incomes of $ 18,000 or less. As incomes increased above this level, benefits would be taxed away to disappear completely at $ 26,000. Since
13439-466: The first major national mobilization of indigenous activists against the federal government's proposal, leading Trudeau to set aside the legislation. On July 14, 1976, after a long and emotional debate, Bill C-84 was passed by the House of Commons by a vote of 130 to 124, abolishing the death penalty completely and instituting a life sentence without parole for 25 years for first-degree murder. Trudeau's first serious test as Prime Minister came during
13590-730: The government subsequently won an actual confidence motion, but the incident made it clear that the minority government Trudeau had inherited would not realistically last the full parliamentary term, and that he would soon need to call an early election in order to win a parliamentary majority. Trudeau eventually called this election for June 25, 1968. Trudeau's campaign benefited from an unprecedented wave of personal popularity called " Trudeaumania ", which saw him mobbed by throngs of youths. His main national opponents were PC leader Robert Stanfield and NDP leader Tommy Douglas , both popular figures who had respectively been premiers of Nova Scotia and Saskatchewan (albeit in Trudeau's native Quebec,
13741-491: The government sweeping powers of arrest and detention without trial. Trudeau presented a determined public stance during the crisis; when questioned by CBC Television journalist Tim Ralfe regarding how far he would go to stop the violence, Trudeau answered, " Just watch me ". Laporte was found dead on October 17 in the trunk of a car. The cause of his death is still debated. Five of the FLQ members were flown to Cuba in 1970 as part of
13892-410: The government tightened the rules of the RHOSP (the reforms removed the purchase of furnitures from the list of usage allowed for tax-free use of RHOSP proceeds starting in 1978; disallowed deductible contributions for a taxpayer whose spouse owned a home; suspended tax-free rollover of RHSOP funds to an RRSP; and capped the lifetime of the RHOSP at 20 years). In 1977, Trudeau's government established
14043-633: The height of coverage, but aides felt the personal tensions left him uncharacteristically emotional and prone to outbursts. Trudeau's first government implemented many procedural reforms to make Parliament and the Liberal caucus meetings run more efficiently, significantly expanded the size and role of the Prime Minister's office, and substantially expanded social-welfare programs. Trudeau's government ran large budget deficits throughout its time in office. The government's first budget in 1968 produced
14194-581: The infant. Although he was often absent due to his wife's illness, Macdonald was able to gain professional and political advancement. In 1846, he was made a Queen's Counsel . The same year, he was offered the non-cabinet post of solicitor general , but declined it. In 1847, Macdonald became receiver general . Accepting the government post required Macdonald to give up his law firm income and spend most of his time in Montreal, away from Isabella. When elections were held in December 1848 and January 1849, Macdonald
14345-471: The late 1950s Trudeau began to reject social democratic and labour parties, arguing that they should put their narrow goals aside and join forces with Liberals to fight for democracy first. In economic theory he was influenced by professors Joseph Schumpeter and John Kenneth Galbraith while he was at Harvard. In 1963, Trudeau criticized the Liberal Party of Lester Pearson when it supported arming Bomarc missiles in Canada with nuclear warheads . Trudeau
14496-475: The legislature of the Province of Canada . By 1857, he had become premier under the colony's unstable political system. In 1864, when no party proved capable of governing for long, he agreed to a proposal from his political rival, George Brown , that the parties unite in a Great Coalition to seek federation and political reform. He was a leading figure in the subsequent discussions and conferences which resulted in
14647-609: The local armoury in Montreal during the school term and undertook further training at Camp Farnham each summer. Although the National Resources Mobilization Act , enacted in 1940, originally provided that conscripts could not be required to serve outside of Canada, in 1942 Parliament amended the act and removed that restriction. The Conscription Crisis of 1944 arose in response to the invasion of Normandy in June 1944. Trudeau continued his full-time studies in law at
14798-510: The main competition to the Liberals was from the Ralliement créditiste , led by Réal Caouette ). As a candidate, Trudeau espoused participatory democracy as a means of making Canada a " Just Society ". He vigorously defended the newly implemented universal health care and regional development programmes, as well as the recent reforms found in the Omnibus bill. On the eve of the election, during
14949-580: The maximum benefit period to 50 weeks, though the benefit duration was calculated using a complex formula depending on labour force participation and the regional and national unemployment rates. In 1977, the government simplified the benefit duration formula but introduced a variable entrance requirement dependent on the unemployment rate in the applicant's region; the changes also mandated that workers in areas with low unemployment regions work twice as long to be eligible for benefits as workers in high unemployment regions. In 1973, Trudeau's government amended
15100-427: The median income for families during this time was $ 19,500, the majority of families received some benefit from the new program. In 1969, Trudeau's first finance minister , Edgar Benson , introduced a white paper on tax reform which included tax deductions for child care and advocated shifting the tax burden from the poor to the wealthy. Measures to fulfill the latter proposal included a capital gains tax , which
15251-412: The militia marched to Toronto to confront the rebels, and Sir Joseph Pope , Macdonald's private secretary, recalled Macdonald's account of his experience during the march: "I carried my musket in '37", he was wont to say in after years. One day he gave me an account of a long march his company made, I forget from what place, but Toronto was the objective point: "The day was hot, my feet were blistered – I
15402-461: The nascent nation absorbed by the United States. In August 1867, the new nation's first general election was held; Macdonald's party won easily, with strong support in both large provinces, and a majority from New Brunswick. By 1869, Nova Scotia had agreed to remain part of Canada after a promise of better financial terms – the first of many provinces to negotiate concessions from Ottawa. Pressure from London and Ottawa failed to gain
15553-505: The national government in Ottawa . He approved the execution of Métis leader Louis Riel for treason in 1885 which alienated many francophones from his Conservative Party. He sat until his death in 1891 and remains the oldest Canadian prime minister. Macdonald came under criticism for his role in the Chinese head tax and federal policies toward Indigenous peoples , including his actions during
15704-500: The new Commercial Bank of the Midland District. Throughout the 1840s, Macdonald invested heavily in real estate, including commercial properties in downtown Toronto. Meanwhile, he was suffering from some illness, and in 1841, his father died. Sick and grieving, he decided to take a lengthy holiday in Britain in early 1842. He left for the journey well supplied with money, as he spent the last three days before his departure gambling at
15855-454: The new constitution. The agreement was acceptable to the nine predominantly-English speaking provinces, but Quebec's premier Robert Bourassa requested two weeks to consult with his cabinet. After a strong backlash of popular opinion against the agreement in Quebec, Bourassa stated Quebec would not accept it. Trudeau faced increasing challenges in Quebec, starting with bitter relations with Bourassa and his Quebec Liberal government. Following
16006-536: The new leader of the governing Liberals, Trudeau was sworn in as prime minister on April 20. Though the term of the Parliament was not due to expire until November 1970, Pearson's government had almost fallen before the leadership contest could even take place after a tax bill was voted down in Parliament, leading to much confusion over whether this counted as a matter of confidence in the government. Governor General Roland Michener ultimately ruled that it did not, and
16157-475: The new province; Upper Canada and Lower Canada became known as Canada West and Canada East. In March 1844, Macdonald was asked by local businessmen to stand as Conservative candidate for Kingston in the upcoming legislative election . Macdonald followed the contemporary custom of supplying the voters with large quantities of alcohol. Votes were publicly declared in this election, and Macdonald defeated his opponent, Anthony Manahan , by 275 "shouts" to 42 when
16308-410: The other prisoners, had to conduct his own defence. George was convicted and hanged. According to Macdonald biographer Donald Swainson, "By 1838, Macdonald's position was secure. He was a public figure, a popular young man, and a senior lawyer." Macdonald continued to expand his practice while being appointed director of many companies, mainly in Kingston. He became both a director of and a lawyer for
16459-623: The outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939 and his father's death were the two "great bombshells" that marked his teenage years. In his first year at university, the prime topics of conversation were the Battle of France , the Battle of Britain , and the London blitz . He wrote that in the early 1940s, when he was in his early twenties, he thought, "So there was a war? Tough. It wouldn't stop me from concentrating on my studies so long as that
16610-547: The party leadership tended toward a " deux nations " approach he could not support. Upon arrival in Ottawa, Trudeau was appointed as parliamentary secretary to Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson , and spent much of the next year travelling abroad, representing Canada at international meetings and bodies, including the United Nations . In 1967, he was appointed to Pearson's Cabinet as Minister of Justice and Attorney General . As Justice Minister and Attorney General, Trudeau
16761-546: The position, serving briefly as a Private in the regiment, patrolling the area around Kingston. The town saw no real action during 1838 and Macdonald was not called upon to fire on the enemy. The Frontenac Militia regiments stayed on active duty in Kingston while the Battle of the Windmill occurred. Although most of the trials resulting from the Upper Canada Rebellion took place in Toronto, Macdonald represented one of
16912-446: The post of solicitor general, and so had to face a by-election. John A. Macdonald campaigned against Richards personally, and Richards was defeated by a Conservative. The switch in seats cost the Grits their majority, and they resigned in March. John A. Macdonald returned to office with Taché as titular premier. The Taché-Macdonald government was defeated in June. The parties were deadlocked to such an extent that, according to Swainson, "It
17063-447: The railroad and telegraph improved communications. According to Macdonald biographer Richard Gwyn, "In short, Canadians began to become a single community." At the same time, the provincial government became increasingly difficult to manage. An act affecting both Canada East and Canada West required a "double majority" – a majority of legislators from each of the two sections of the province. This led to increasing deadlock in
17214-461: The report suggested for Canada to foster a more flexible economy, which would be capable of adjusting to international and technological change, and it recommended greater reliance on the market mechanisms and a free trade agreement with the United States . Secondly, the commission recommended various reforms to the welfare state model and emphasized social equity and economic efficiency. Thirdly,
17365-453: The sea air and warmth would cure her ailments. John returned to Canada after six months and Isabella remained in the United States for three years. He visited her again in New York at the end of 1846 and returned several months later when she informed him she was pregnant. In August 1847 their son John Alexander Macdonald Jr. was born in New York, but as Isabella remained ill, relatives cared for
17516-474: The seat of government permanently to Quebec City. Macdonald opposed this and used his power to force the Assembly to reconsider in 1857. He proposed that Queen Victoria decide which city should be Canada's capital. Opponents, especially from Canada East, argued that she would not make the decision in isolation and was bound to receive informal advice from her Canadian ministers. His scheme was adopted, with Canada East support assured by allowing Quebec City to serve
17667-591: The segment of the bill decriminalizing homosexual acts by telling reporters that "there's no place for the state in the bedrooms of the nation", adding that "what's done in private between adults doesn't concern the Criminal Code". Trudeau paraphrased the term from Martin O'Malley's editorial piece in The Globe and Mail on December 12, 1967. Trudeau also liberalized divorce laws, and clashed with Quebec Premier Daniel Johnson, Sr. during constitutional negotiations. At
17818-653: The socialist economist Harold Laski at the London School of Economics (LSE). This cemented Trudeau's belief that Keynesian economics and social sciences were essential to the creation of the "good life" in a democratic society. Over a five-week period he attended many lectures and became a follower of personalism after being influenced most notably by Emmanuel Mounier . He also was influenced by Nikolai Berdyaev , particularly his book Slavery and Freedom . Max and Monique Nemni argue that Berdyaev's book influenced Trudeau's rejection of nationalism and separatism. In
17969-711: The summer of 1948, Trudeau embarked on world travels to find a sense of purpose. At the age of twenty-eight, he travelled to Poland where he visited Auschwitz , then Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia , Bulgaria, and the Middle East , including Turkey, Jordan and southern Iraq. Although he was wealthy, Trudeau travelled with a back pack in "self-imposed hardship". He used his British passport instead of his Canadian passport in his travels through Pakistan, India, China, and Japan, often wearing local clothing to blend in. According to The Economist , when Trudeau returned to Canada in 1949 after an absence of five months, his mind
18120-592: The terms after a debate over the high cost that cabinet member Alexander Morris described as the worst fight the Conservatives had had since Confederation. There were continuing disputes with the Americans over deep-sea fishing rights, and in early 1871, an Anglo-American commission was appointed to settle outstanding matters between the British, the Canadians and the Americans. Canada was hoping to secure compensation for damage done by Fenians raiding Canada from bases in
18271-443: The union coming into force on 15 July, fearing that the preparations would not be completed any earlier. The British favoured an earlier date and, on 22 May, it was announced that Canada would come into existence on 1 July. Lord Monck appointed Macdonald as the new nation's first prime minister. With the birth of the new nation, Canada East and Canada West became separate provinces, known as Quebec and Ontario, respectively. Macdonald
18422-536: The uprising before the formal transfer; as a result of the unrest, the Red River Colony joined Confederation as the province of Manitoba, while the rest of the purchased lands became the North-West Territories . Macdonald also wished to secure the colony of British Columbia. There was interest in the United States in bringing about the colony's annexation, and Macdonald wished to ensure his new nation had
18573-454: Was "directly involved in managing a large inheritance." From the age of six until twelve, Trudeau attended the primary school, Académie Querbes, in Outremont , where he became immersed in the Catholic religion. The school, which was for both English and French Catholics, was an exclusive school with very small classes and he excelled in mathematics and religion. From his earliest years, Trudeau
18724-516: Was "seemingly broadened" from his studies at Harvard, Sciences Po, and the LSE, as well as his travels. He was "appalled at the narrow nationalism in his native French-speaking Quebec, and the authoritarianism of the province's government". Beginning while Trudeau was travelling overseas, several events took place in Quebec that were precursors to the Quiet Revolution . These included the 1948 release of
18875-420: Was Eliza Grimason, an Irish immigrant then aged sixteen, who sought advice concerning a shop she and her husband wanted to buy. Grimason would become one of Macdonald's richest and most loyal supporters, and may have also become his lover. Macdonald joined many local organisations, seeking to become well known in the town. He also sought out high-profile cases, representing accused child rapist William Brass. Brass
19026-460: Was a seminal event in Quebec's history, marking the beginning of resistance to the conservative, Francophone clerical establishment and Anglophone business class that had long ruled the province. Because of Trudeau's labour union activities in Asbestos, Duplessis blacklisted him, and he was unable to teach law at the Université de Montréal. He surprised his closest friends in Quebec when he became
19177-431: Was aged 10, his family gathered enough money to send him to Midland District Grammar School in Kingston. Macdonald's formal schooling ended at 15, a common school-leaving age at a time when only children from the most prosperous families were able to attend university. Macdonald later regretted leaving school when he did, remarking to his secretary Joseph Pope that if he had attended university, he might have embarked on
19328-608: Was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) on that first observance of what came to be known as Dominion Day, later called Canada Day , on 1 July 1867. Macdonald and his government faced immediate problems upon the formation of the new country. Much work remained to do in creating a federal government. Nova Scotia was already threatening to withdraw from the union; the Intercolonial Railway, which would both conciliate
19479-560: Was appointed premier in place of the retiring Taché, just in time to lead the Conservatives in a general election. Macdonald was elected in Kingston by 1,189 votes to 9 for John Shaw; other Conservatives did poorly in Canada West and only French-Canadian support kept Macdonald in power. On 28 December, Isabella Macdonald died, leaving John a widower with a seven-year-old son. Hugh John Macdonald would be principally raised by his paternal aunt and her husband. The Assembly had voted to move
19630-448: Was born and raised in Outremont , Quebec , a Montreal suburb, and studied politics and law. In the 1950s, he rose to prominence as a labour activist in Quebec politics by opposing the conservative Union Nationale government. Trudeau was then an associate professor of law at the Université de Montréal . He was originally part of the social democratic New Democratic Party , though felt they could not achieve power, and instead joined
19781-540: Was but a weary boy – and I thought I should have dropped under the weight of the old flint musket which galled my shoulder. But I managed to keep up with my companion, a grim old soldier who seemed impervious to fatigue." The Bank Guard served on active duty in Toronto guarding the Commercial Bank of the Midland District on King Street . The company was present at the Battle of Montgomery's Tavern and Macdonald recalled in an 1887 letter to Sir James Gowan that: "I
19932-472: Was clear to everybody that the constitution of the Province of Canada was dead". As his government had fallen again, Macdonald approached the new governor general, Lord Monck , to dissolve the legislature . Before Macdonald could act on this, Brown approached him through intermediaries; the Grit leader believed that the crisis gave the parties the opportunity to join together for constitutional reform. Brown had led
20083-673: Was easily reelected for Kingston, but the Conservatives lost seats and were forced to resign when the legislature reconvened in March 1848. Macdonald returned to Kingston when the legislature was not sitting, and Isabella joined him there in June. In August, their child died suddenly. In March 1850, Isabella Macdonald gave birth to another boy, Hugh John Macdonald , and his father wrote, "We have got Johnny back again, almost his image." Macdonald began to drink heavily around this time, both in public and in private, which Patricia Phenix, who studied Macdonald's private life, attributes to his family troubles. The Liberals, or Grits , maintained power in
20234-407: Was elected as alderman in Kingston's Fourth Ward, with 156 votes against 43 for his opponent, Colonel Jackson. He also suffered what he termed his first downfall, as his supporters, carrying the victorious candidate, accidentally dropped him onto a slushy street. The British Parliament had merged Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada in 1841. Kingston became the initial capital of
20385-549: Was elected in the safe Liberal riding of Mount Royal in Montreal. He would hold this seat until his retirement from politics in 1984, winning each election with large majorities. His decision to join the Liberals rather than the CCF's successor, the New Democratic Party (NDP), was partly based on his belief that the federal NDP could not achieve power. He also doubted the feasibility of the NDP's centralizing policies, and felt that
20536-492: Was financially secure and independent. His mother, Grace, "doted on Pierre" and he remained close to her throughout her long life. After her husband died, she left the management of her inheritance to others and spent a lot of her time working for the Roman Catholic Church and various charities, travelling frequently to New York, Florida, Europe, and Maine, sometimes with her children. Already in his late teens, Trudeau
20687-730: Was fluently bilingual, which would later prove to be a "big asset for a politician in bilingual Canada." As a teenager, he attended the Jesuit French-language Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf , a prestigious secondary school known for educating elite francophone families in Quebec. In his seventh and final academic year, 1939–1940, Trudeau focused on winning a Rhodes Scholarship . In his application he wrote that he had prepared for public office by studying public speaking and publishing many articles in Brébeuf . His letters of recommendations praised him highly. Father Boulin, who
20838-407: Was hanged for his crime, but Macdonald attracted positive press comments for the quality of his defence. According to one of his biographers, Richard Gwyn : As a criminal lawyer who took on dramatic cases, Macdonald got himself noticed well beyond the narrow confines of the Kingston business community. He was operating now in the arena where he would spend by far the greatest part of his life –
20989-515: Was in the Second or Third Company behind the cannon that opened out on Montgomery’s House. During the week of the rebellion I was [in] the Commercial Bank Guard in the house on King Street, afterward the habitat of George Brown’s ' Globe '." The Bank Guard was taken off active service on 17 December 1837, and returned to Kingston. On 15 February 1838, Macdonald was appointed an Ensign in the 3rd (East) Regiment of Frontenac Militia but did not take up
21140-421: Was of mixed Scottish and French-Canadian descent. He had an older sister named Suzette and a younger brother named Charles Jr. Trudeau remained close to both siblings for his entire life. Trudeau attended the prestigious Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf (a private French Jesuit school), where he supported Quebec nationalism . Trudeau's paternal grandparents were French-speaking Quebec farmers. His father had acquired
21291-420: Was offered a position at Queen's University teaching political science by James Corry , who later became principal of Queen's, but turned it down because he preferred to teach in Quebec. In 1965, Trudeau joined the Liberal Party, along with his friends Gérard Pelletier and Jean Marchand . Dubbed the "three wise men" by the media, they ran successfully for the Liberals in the 1965 election . Trudeau himself
21442-491: Was possible...[I]f you were a French Canadian in Montreal [at that time], you did not automatically believe that this was a just war. In Montreal in the early 1940s, we still knew nothing about the Holocaust and we tended to think of this war as a settling of scores among the superpowers." Young Trudeau opposed conscription for overseas service, and in 1942 he campaigned for the anti-conscription candidate Jean Drapeau (later
21593-543: Was resolved by appointing another compromise candidate to serve as titular premier, Narcisse-Fortunat Belleau . In 1865, after lengthy debates, Canada's legislative assembly approved Confederation by 91 votes to 33. None of the Maritimes approved the plan. In 1866, Macdonald and his colleagues financed pro-Confederation candidates in the New Brunswick general election , resulting in a pro-Confederation assembly. Shortly after
21744-410: Was responsible for introducing the landmark Criminal Law Amendment Act , an omnibus bill whose provisions included, among other things, the decriminalization of homosexual acts between consenting adults, new gun ownership restrictions and the legalization of contraception, abortion and lotteries, as well as the authorization of breathalyzer tests on suspected drunk drivers. Trudeau famously defended
21895-411: Was severely criticized by corporate Canada and the business community (notably Israel Asper ). The bill was debated in Parliament for over a year, with its more radical proposals being removed in parliamentary committee. The reforms managed to be passed through the use of closure , with the capital gains tax (that had an inclusion rate of 50 percent) coming into effect on January 1, 1972, as prescribed by
22046-601: Was sometimes a safe haven for Confederate Secret Service operations against the U.S.; many Canadian citizens and politicians were sympathetic to the Confederacy. This led to events such as the Chesapeake Affair , the St. Albans Raid , and a failed attempt to burn down New York City . As attorney general of Canada West, Macdonald refused to prosecute Confederate operatives who were using Canada to launch attacks on U.S. soil across
22197-535: Was the Assisted Home Ownership Program which allowed the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) to start providing grants and subsidized interest rates to low income families (though in 1978 an amendment discontinued the provision of grant money to these families, which led to a high incidence of defaults, and in turn, necessitated that the federal government provide financial assistance to
22348-585: Was the Washington treaty, which had not yet been debated in Parliament. In early 1872, Macdonald submitted the treaty for ratification, and it passed the Commons with a majority of 66. The general election was held through late August and early September. Redistribution had given Ontario increased representation in the House; Macdonald spent much time campaigning in the province, for the most part outside Kingston. Widespread bribery of voters took place throughout Canada,
22499-561: Was the first prime minister of Canada , serving from 1867 to 1873 and from 1878 until his death in 1891. He was the dominant figure of Canadian Confederation , and had a political career that spanned almost half a century. Macdonald was born in Scotland ; when he was a boy his family immigrated to Kingston in the Province of Upper Canada (today in eastern Ontario ). As a lawyer, he was involved in several high-profile cases and quickly became prominent in Kingston, which elected him in 1844 to
22650-518: Was the head of the college, said that during Trudeau's seven years at the college (1933–1940), he had won a "hundred prizes and honourable mentions" and "performed with distinction in all fields". Trudeau graduated from Collège Jean-de-Brébeuf in 1940 at the age of twenty-one. Trudeau did not win the Rhodes Scholarship. He consulted several people on his options, including Henri Bourassa , the economist Edmond Montpetit, and Father Robert Bernier,
22801-468: Was the third of five children. After Hugh's business ventures left him in debt, the family immigrated to Kingston , in Upper Canada (today the southern and eastern portions of Ontario), in 1820, as the family had several relatives and connections there. The family initially lived together, then resided over a store which Hugh Macdonald ran. Soon after their arrival, John's younger brother James died from
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