Inconclusive
113-426: [REDACTED] Habsburg monarchy [REDACTED] Grand Duchy of Tuscany [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire Mediterranean The Long Turkish War ( German : Langer Türkenkrieg ), Long War ( Hungarian : Hosszú háború ; Croatian : Dugi turski rat , Serbian : Дуги рат ), or Thirteen Years' War was an indecisive land war between the Habsburg monarchy and the Ottoman Empire , primarily over
226-464: A war of religion , sometimes also known as a holy war ( Latin : sanctum bellum ), is a war and conflict which is primarily caused or justified by differences in religion and beliefs. In the modern period , there are frequent debates over the extent to which religious, economic , ethnic or other aspects of a conflict are predominant in a given war. The degree to which a war may be considered religious depends on many underlying questions, such as
339-543: A war of succession . Nolan (2006) named religion as one of several significant causes, summarising the Hussites' motives as "doctrinal as well as 'nationalistic' and constitutional", and providing a series of issues that led to war: the trial and execution of Jan Hus (1415) "provoked the conflict", the Defenestration of Prague (30 July 1419) "began the conflict", while "fighting began after King Wenceslaus died, shortly after
452-540: A "holy war" or "Commanded War" ( Hebrew : מלחמת מצווה Milkhemet Mitzvah ) in the eyes of Rabbinic Judaism at the time. He asserted that this concept may have re-emerged in modern times within some factions of the Zionist movement , particularly Revisionist Zionism . In 2016, however, Firestone made a distinction between what he regarded as the Hebrew Bible's concept and the 'Western' concept of holy war: "Holy war"
565-453: A belligerent's legitimisation of the war to the public. Repgen therefore concluded: ...wars should only be termed [religious wars], in so far as at least one of the belligerents lays claim to 'religion', a religious law, in order to justify his warfare and to substantiate publicly why his use of military force against a political authority should be a bellum iustum . Philip Benedict (2006) argued that Repgen's definition of 'religious war'
678-469: A complex set of socio-economic and political factors allowed this enthusiasm to manifest itself." The Crusades against Muslim expansion in the 11th century were recognized as a "holy war" or a bellum sacrum by later writers in the 17th century. The early modern wars against the Ottoman Empire were seen as a seamless continuation of this conflict by contemporaries. Jim Bradbury (2004) noted that
791-544: A concept of holy war ( bellum sacrum ), whereby fighting itself might be considered a penitential and spiritually meritorious act. During the ninth and tenth centuries, multiple invasions occurred which led some regions to make their own armies to defend themselves and this slowly lead to the emergence of the Crusades, the concept of "holy war", and terminology such as "enemies of God" in the 11th century. In early Christianity, St. Augustine's concept of just war ( bellum iustum )
904-490: A cover for the underlying secular power, ethnic, social, political, and economic reasons for conflict. Other scholars have argued that what is termed "religious wars" is a largely "Western dichotomy" and a modern invention from the past few centuries, arguing that all wars that are classed as "religious" have secular (economic or political) ramifications. In several conflicts including the Israeli–Palestinian conflict ,
1017-692: A historical reality for the Jews of antiquity. Among at least some of the Jewish groups of the late Second Temple period until the middle of the second century, C.E., holy war was an operative institution. That is, Jews engaged in what is defined here as holy war." He mentioned the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) as three examples of
1130-649: A holy cause, and are required to cleanse themselves afterwards to restore their ritual purity. The Israelite campaign against Midian was blessed by the Israelite god Yahweh , and could therefore be considered a holy war. Olson (2012), who believed the war narrative to be a fictional story with a theological purpose, noted that the Israelite soldiers' actions in Numbers 31 closely followed the holy war regulations set out in Deuteronomy 20:14, although Moses ' commandment to also kill
1243-554: A king over all German tribes, and of universal Christianity in all of his kingdom, it changed into a mission from heaven." Similarly, a successful Carolingian campaign against the Pannonian Avars in the 790s led to their forced conversion to Christianity. The earlier Merovingian conquests of Thuringia, Allemannia and Bavaria had also resulted in their Christianisation by 555, although the Frisians resisted with similar determinacy as
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#17328522395091356-520: A number of noble men in order to fill up the court's exhausted treasury, Bocskay, an educated strategist, resisted. He collected desperate Hungarians together with disappointed members of the nobility to start an uprising against the Habsburg ruler. The troops marched westwards, supported by the Hajduk of Hungary, won some victories and regained the territories that had been lost to the Habsburg army until Bocskay
1469-517: A religious leader and fought by pious soldiers, a religious war does not, he reasoned. His definition of 'war of religion' thus became: a war legitimised by religion and/or for religious ends (but possibly fought by secular leaders and soldiers). Some commentators have questioned the applicability of religion to war, in part because the word "religion" itself is difficult to define, particularly posing challenges when one tries to apply it to non-Western cultures. Secondly, it has been argued that religion
1582-718: A series of military campaigns against the Muslim Conquests that were waged from the end of the 11th century through the 13th century. Originally, the goal of the Crusaders was the recapture of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims , and the provision of support to the besieged Christian Byzantine Empire which was waging a war against Muslim Seljuq expansion into Asia Minor and Europe proper. Later, Crusades were launched against other targets, either for religious reasons, such as
1695-404: A similar union between "imperial law" and universal or "Buddha law", but these later became independent sources of power. According to McGarry & O'Leary (1995), it is evident that religion as one aspect of a people's cultural heritage may serve as a cultural marker or ideological rationalization for a conflict that has deeper ethnic and cultural differences. They argued this specifically in
1808-630: A single god of the ruling elite (as Marduk in the Babylonian empire , Assur in the Assyrian empire , etc.), or more directly by deifying the ruler in an imperial cult , the concept of "holy war" enters a new phase with the development of monotheism . During classical antiquity , the Greco-Roman world had a pantheon with particular attributes and interest areas. Ares personified war. While he received occasional sacrifice from armies going to war, there
1921-505: A specific and limited geography. Several scholars regard war narratives in the Hebrew Bible , such as the war against the Midianites in Numbers 31 , to be a holy war, with Niditch (1995) asserting the presence of a "priestly ideology of war in Numbers 31". Hamilton (2005) argued that the two major concerns of Number 31 are the idea that war is a defiling activity, but Israelite soldiers need to be ritually pure, so they may only fight wars for
2034-616: A strong influence on how many wars may be properly labelled 'religious wars', and thus how prevalent religious wars have been as opposed to other wars. According to Kalevi Holsti (1991, p. 308, Table 12.2), who catalogued and categorised wars from 1648 to 1989 into 24 categories of 'issues that generated wars', 'protect[ion of] religious confrères ' (co-religionists) was (one of) the primary cause(s) of 14% of all wars during 1648–1714, 11% during 1715–1814, 10% during 1815–1914, and 0% during 1918–1941 and 1945–1989. Additionally, he found 'ethnic/religious unification/ irredenta ' to be (one of)
2147-407: Is a Western concept referring to war that is fought for religion, against adherents of other religions, often in order to promote religion through conversion, and with no specific geographic limitation. This concept does not occur in the Hebrew Bible, whose wars are not fought for religion or in order to promote it but, rather, in order to preserve religion and a religiously unique people in relation to
2260-675: Is difficult to isolate as a factor, and is often just one of many factors driving a war. For example, many armed conflicts may be simultaneously wars of succession as well as wars of religion when two rival claimants to a throne also represent opposing religions. Examples include the War of the Three Henrys and the Succession of Henry IV of France during the French Wars of Religion , the Hessian War and
2373-456: Is incorrect to label any violent event as "religious". Theologian William T. Cavanaugh in his Myth of Religious Violence (2009) argues that the very concept of "religion" is a modern Western concept that was invented recently in history. As such, he argues that the concept of "religious violence" or "religious wars" are incorrectly used to anachronistically label people and conflicts as participants in religious ideologies that never existed in
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#17328522395092486-563: Is no precise equivalent of "religion" in Hebrew, and there is no clear definition of jewishness, it could be defined by religion, roots of national origin and ethnic. Jewishness could have been multi-racial. In the Quran, the Arabic word deen is often translated as "religion" in modern translations, but up to the mid-17th century, translators expressed deen as "law". It was in the 19th century that
2599-465: Is slightly adjusted compared to the 121 that is indeed found in the Encyclopedia of Wars itself. The Encyclopedia of War , edited by Gordon Martel, using the criteria that the armed conflict must involve some overt religious action, concludes that 6% of the wars listed in their encyclopedia can be labelled religious wars. While early empires could be described as henotheistic , i.e. dominated by
2712-550: Is truly All-Powerful, Almighty. This happened many times throughout history, beginning with Muhammad's battles against the polytheist Arabs including the Battle of Badr (624), and battles in Uhud (625), Khandaq (627), Mecca (630) and Hunayn (630). Reuven Firestone (2012) stated "that holy war is a common theme in the Hebrew Bible. Divinely legitimized through the authority of biblical scripture and its interpretation, holy war became
2825-426: Is truly Most Capable of helping them ˹prevail˺. ˹They are˺ those who have been expelled from their homes for no reason other than proclaiming: "Our Lord is Allah." Had Allah not repelled ˹the aggression of˺ some people by means of others, destruction would have surely claimed monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which Allah's Name is often mentioned. Allah will certainly help those who stand up for Him. Allah
2938-746: The Erblande , from before 1526; the Lands of the Bohemian Crown ; the formerly Spanish Austrian Netherlands from 1714 until 1794; and some fiefs in Imperial Italy . Outside the empire, they encompassed all the Kingdom of Hungary as well as conquests made at the expense of the Ottoman Empire . The dynastic capital was Vienna , except from 1583 to 1611, when it was in Prague . The first Habsburg who can be reliably traced
3051-708: The Albigensian Crusade , the Northern Crusades , or because of political conflicts, such as the Aragonese Crusade . In 1095, at the Council of Clermont , Pope Urban II raised the level of the war from a bellum iustum (a "just war"), to a bellum sacrum (a "holy war"). This does not refer to religious conflict. Dharma-yuddha in Hindu texts , refers to the protocol to be followed by both parties at war. It sets
3164-655: The Archduchy proper, Inner Austria that included Styria and Carniola , and Further Austria with Tyrol and the Swabian lands. The territorial possessions of the monarchy were thus united only by virtue of a common monarch. The Habsburg realms were unified in 1804 with the formation of the Austrian Empire and later split in two with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 . The monarchy began to fracture in
3277-698: The Battle of Guruslău , Giorgio Basta and Michael the Brave defeated the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Báthory in Transylvania, who accepted Ottoman and Polish protection. After the assassination of Michael the Brave by mercenary soldiers under Basta's orders, the Transylvanian nobility, led by Mózes Székely , was again defeated at the Battle of Braşov in 1603 by the Habsburg Empire and Wallachian troops led by
3390-611: The Brothers' Quarrel . Habsburg monarchy The Habsburg monarchy , also known as Habsburg Empire , or Habsburg Realm , was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities that were ruled by the House of Habsburg . From the 18th century it is also referred to as the Austrian monarchy ( Latin : Monarchia Austriaca ) or the Danubian monarchy . The history of
3503-673: The Burgundian Netherlands into the Habsburg possessions. Their son, Philip the Handsome , married Joanna the Mad of Spain (daughter of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile ). Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor , the son of Philip and Joanna, inherited the Habsburg Netherlands in 1506, Habsburg Spain and its territories in 1516, and Habsburg Austria in 1519. At this point, the Habsburg possessions were so vast that Charles V
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3616-565: The Diet of Augsburg (1282), thus establishing the " Austrian hereditary lands ". From that moment, the Habsburg dynasty was also known as the House of Austria . Between 1438 and 1806, with few exceptions, the Habsburg Archduke of Austria was elected as Holy Roman Emperor . The Habsburgs grew to European prominence as a result of the dynastic policy pursued by Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor . Maximilian married Mary of Burgundy , thus bringing
3729-738: The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza between 1814 and 1847. Also, the Second Mexican Empire , from 1863 to 1867, was headed by Maximilian I of Mexico , the brother of Emperor Franz Josef of Austria . The so-called "Habsburg monarchs" or "Habsburg emperors" held many different titles and ruled each kingdom separately through a personal union . The decline of the Habsburg Empire is given in Stefan Zweig's The World of Yesterday . Stefan Zweig, l'autore del più famoso libro sull'Impero asburgico, Die Welt von Gestern Holy war A religious war or
3842-452: The Grand Duchy of Tuscany between 1765 and 1801, and again from 1814 to 1859. While exiled from Tuscany, this line ruled at Salzburg from 1803 to 1805, and in Grand Duchy of Würzburg from 1805 to 1814. The House of Austria-Este ruled the Duchy of Modena from 1814 to 1859, while Empress Marie Louise , Napoleon 's second wife and the daughter of Austrian Emperor Francis I , ruled over
3955-499: The Holy Roman Empire , Hungary, Bohemia and various other lands) was itself split into different branches in 1564 but reunited 101 years later. It became extinct in the male line in 1740, but continued through the female line as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine . The Habsburg monarchy was a union of crowns, with only partial shared laws and institutions other than the Habsburg court itself; the provinces were divided in three groups:
4068-677: The Netherlands under Karl von Mansfeld , commander-in-chief of the Spanish Army of Flanders , who took command of the operations in Hungary. The Ottomans' objective in the war was to seize Vienna , while the Habsburg monarchy wanted to recapture the central territories of the Kingdom of Hungary controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Control of the Danube line and possession of the fortresses located there
4181-600: The Ottoman Empire . Ferrara , Tuscany , Mantua , and the Papal State were also involved to a lesser extent. The Türkenkriege rallied larger than usual support behind the Holy Roman Emperor. The Reichstag convened in 1594 and voted a substantial tax grant, renewing this four years later and again in 1603. Some 20 million florins were promised and at least four-fifths actually reached the imperial treasury. A further 7 to 8 million florins were paid when Rudolf appealed to
4294-638: The Saxons under Widukind were described by Jim Bradbury (2004) as "in essence a frontier struggle and a religious war against pagans – devil-worshippers according to Einhard ." He noted that Charlemagne ordered the destruction of the Irminsul , an object sacred to the Saxons. Per Ullidtz (2014) stated that previous Frankish–Saxon conflicts spanning almost a century "had been mostly a border war", "but under Charles it changed character": because of "Charles' idea of unity, of
4407-644: The Syrian civil war , and the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , religious elements are overtly present, but variously described as fundamentalism or religious extremism —depending upon the observer's sympathies. However, studies on these cases often conclude that ethnic animosities drive much of the conflicts. According to the Encyclopedia of Wars , out of all 1,763 known/recorded historical conflicts, 121, or 6.87%, had religion as their primary cause. Matthew White's The Great Big Book of Horrible Things gives religion as
4520-825: The War of the Jülich Succession during the Reformation in Germany, and the Jacobite risings (including the Williamite –Jacobite wars) during the Reformation in Great Britain and Ireland. John Morreall and Tamara Sonn (2013) have argued that since there is no consensus on definitions of "religion" among scholars and no way to isolate "religion" from the rest of the more likely motivational dimensions (social, political, and economic); it
4633-477: The definition of religion , the definition of 'religious war' (taking religious traditions on violence such as 'holy war' into account), and the applicability of religion to war as opposed to other possible factors. Answers to these questions heavily influence conclusions on how prevalent religious wars have been as opposed to other types of wars. According to scholars such as Jeffrey Burton Russell , conflicts may not be rooted strictly in religion and instead may be
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4746-428: The philologist Max Müller , what is called ancient religion today, would have only been understood as "law" by the people in the ancient world. In Sanskrit word dharma , sometimes translated as "religion", also means law. Throughout the classical Indian subcontinent , the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions . Medieval Japan at first had
4859-540: The "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council". When Bosnia and Herzegovina was annexed (after 30 years of occupation and administration ), it was not incorporated into either half of the monarchy. Instead, it was governed by the joint Ministry of Finance. During the dissolution of Austria-Hungary , the Austrian territories collapsed under the weight of the various ethnic independence movements that came to
4972-571: The 17th century: Following victory in the Battle of White Mountain (1620) over the Bohemian rebels, Ferdinand II promulgated a Renewed Land Ordinance (1627/1628) that established hereditary succession over Bohemia. Following the Battle of Mohács (1687) , in which Leopold I reconquered almost all of Ottoman Hungary from the Turks, the emperor held a diet in Pressburg to establish hereditary succession in
5085-461: The Austrian monarchy changed over the centuries, but the core always consisted of four blocs: Over the course of its history, other lands were, at times, under Austrian Habsburg rule (some of these territories were secundogenitures , i.e. ruled by other lines of Habsburg dynasty): The boundaries of some of these territories varied over the period indicated, and others were ruled by a subordinate (secundogeniture) Habsburg line. The Habsburgs also held
5198-565: The Battle of Al-Uqab (معركة العقاب), was fought on 16 July 1212 and it was an important turning point in both the Reconquista and the medieval history of Spain . The forces of King Alfonso VIII of Castile were joined by the armies of his Christian rivals, Sancho VII of Navarre , Pedro II of Aragon and Afonso II of Portugal in battle against the Berber Muslim Almohad conquerors of
5311-426: The Circle assemblies as well, giving a total of 23 to 28 million florins yielded by the minor German princes. The Habsburg monarchy itself raised around 20 million florins. Another 7.1 million flowed in from Italy, including both Imperial Italy and Papal and Spanish territories outside of the Emperor's formal rule, as well as from Spain itself. Skirmishes along the Habsburg–Ottoman border intensified from 1591. In 1592,
5424-408: The Franks waged wars against other European nations who followed Arian Christianity , which was seen by Catholics as heretical. During his war with the Arian Visigoths, Clovis reportedly said: "I take it very hard that these Arians hold part of the Gauls. Let us go with God's help and conquer them and bring the land under our control." The Saxon Wars (772–804) of Frankish king Charlemagne against
5537-433: The Habsburg empire at its greatest territorial extent. The abdication of Charles V in 1556 led to a division within the dynasty between his son Philip II of Spain and his brother Ferdinand I , who had served as his lieutenant and the elected king of Hungary , Croatia and Bohemia . The Spanish branch (which held all of Iberia , the Netherlands , and lands in Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which ruled
5650-399: The Habsburg monarchy can be traced back to the election of Rudolf I as King of Germany in 1273 and his acquisition of the Duchy of Austria for the Habsburgs in 1282. In 1482, Maximilian I acquired the Netherlands through marriage. Both realms passed to his grandson and successor, Charles V , who also inherited the Spanish throne and its colonial possessions , and thus came to rule
5763-424: The Holy Roman Empire, Hungary and Bohemia) was itself divided between different branches of the family from 1564 until 1665, but thereafter it remained a single personal union . It became extinct in the male line in 1740, but through the marriage of Queen Maria Theresa with Francis of Lorraine , the dynasty continued as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine . Names of some smaller territories: The territories ruled by
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#17328522395095876-410: The Hungarian kingdom. Charles V divided the House in 1556 by ceding Austria along with the Imperial crown to Ferdinand (as decided at the Imperial election, 1531 ), and the Spanish Empire to his son Philip . The Spanish branch (which also held the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Portugal between 1580 and 1640, and the Mezzogiorno of Italy) became extinct in 1700. The Austrian branch (which also ruled
5989-406: The Hussites as a "movement which developed from a religious denomination to a nationalist faction, opposed to German and Papal influence; in the bloody Hussite Wars (1419–1438), they managed to resist." It did not mention the succession of Wenceslaus by Sigismund, but noted elsewhere that it was Sigismund's policy of Catholic Church unity which prompted him to urge Antipope John XXIII to convene
6102-476: The Ottoman Empire, taking the forts of Nicopolis , Ribnice , and Chilia, and even reaching as far as Adrianople . At one point his forces were only 24 kilometres (15 mi) from the Ottoman capital, Constantinople . He was however forced to fall back across the Danube, and the Ottomans in turn led a massive counter-offensive (100,000 strong) which aimed to not only take back their recently captured possessions but also conquer Wallachia once and for all. The push
6215-399: The Ottoman army under Sinan Pasha launched a campaign against the Habsburg monarchy. The first engagement of the war was the Siege of Veszprém ( Turkish : Vesprim ) followed by the Siege of Várpalota ( Turkish : Polata ) in October 1593; Győr ( Turkish : Yanıkkale ) and Komárom ( Turkish : Komaron ) were captured in 1594. In early 1594, the Serbs in Banat rose up against
6328-480: The Ottoman camp. This battle was the first significant military encounter in Central Europe between a large Christian army and the Ottoman Turkish Army after the Battle of Mohács . Nevertheless, Austrians recaptured Győr and Komarom in 1598. In 1599, the Turks and their Tatar allies attacked Prievidza , Topoľčany and other towns in the Nitra river valley in Upper Hungary , in what is now Slovakia, and took thousands of people into slavery . In August 1601, at
6441-448: The Ottomans . The rebels had, in the character of a holy war , carried war flags with the icon of Saint Sava . The war banners were consecrated by Patriarch Jovan Kantul , and the uprising was aided by Serbian Orthodox metropolitans Rufim Njeguš of Cetinje and Visarion of Trebinje . In response, Ottoman Grand Vizier Koca Sinan Pasha demanded that the green flag of the Prophet Muhammed be brought from Damascus to counter
6554-400: The Ottomans by surprise, managing to sweep through the Ottoman defences on three successive battlefields, at Târgoviște (18 October), Bucharest (22 October), and Giurgiu (26 October). The Battle of Giurgiu in particular was devastating for the Ottoman forces, which had to retreat across the Danube in disarray. The war between Wallachia and the Ottomans continued until late 1599, when Michael
6667-440: The Ottomans, by presenting the war as a victory. The treaty stabilized conditions on the Habsburg–Ottoman frontier. Also, Bocskay managed to retain his independence, but he also agreed to give up the title of "King of Hungary". Rudolf portrayed himself as victorious in the Long War, but this did not protect him from the Habsburg family's internal politics. Rudolf, by the end of the war, had massive debts to lenders, border troops and
6780-406: The Saxons during the Frisian–Frankish wars (7th and 8th century), with both tribes killing several Christian missionaries in defence of their Germanic paganism , to the horror of Christian hagiographers . The Crusades are a prime example of wars whose religious elements have been extensively debated for centuries, with some groups of people in some periods emphasising, restoring or overstating
6893-462: The Serb flag and ordered that the sarcophagus containing the relics of Saint Sava be removed from the Mileševa monastery and transferred to Belgrade via military convoy. Along the way, the Ottoman convoy killed all the people in its path as a warning to the rebels. The Ottomans publicly incinerated the relics of Saint Sava on a pyre atop the Vračar plateau on April 27 and had the ashes scattered. In 1595, an alliance of Christian European powers
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#17328522395097006-513: The applicability of the term has been questioned. The reason is that the very notion of a "religious war" as opposed to a "secular war" is the result of the Western concept of the separation of Church and State . No such division has ever existed in the Islamic world, and consequently, there cannot be a real division between wars that are "religious" from such that are "non-religious". Islam does not have any normative tradition of pacifism , and warfare has been integral part of Islamic history both for
7119-446: The aspect of struggle "by the sword". The first forms of military jihad occurred after the migration ( hijra ) of Muhammad and his small group of followers to Medina from Mecca and the conversion of several inhabitants of the city to Islam. The first revelation concerning the struggle against the Meccans was Quran 22:39-40 : Permission ˹to fight back˺ is ˹hereby˺ granted to those being fought, for they have been wronged. And Allah
7232-715: The belligerents in the Reconquista were not all equally motivated by religion, and that a distinction should be made between 'secular rulers' on the one hand, and on the other hand Christian military orders which came from elsewhere (including the three main orders of Knights Templar , Knights Hospitaller and Teutonic Knights ), or were established inside Iberia (such as those of Santiago , Alcántara and Calatrava ). "[The Knights] were more committed to religious war than some of their secular counterparts, were opposed to treating with Muslims and carried out raids and even atrocities, such as decapitating Muslim prisoners." The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa , known in Arab history as
7345-487: The captive male children and non-virgin women was a marked departure from these regulations. He concluded: "Many aspects of this holy war text may be troublesome to a contemporary reader. But understood within the symbolic world of the ancient writers of Numbers, the story of the war against the Midianites is a kind of dress rehearsal that builds confidence and hope in anticipation of the actual conquest of Canaan that lay ahead." Dawn (2016, translating Rad 1958) stated: "From
7458-482: The case of The Troubles in Northern Ireland, often portrayed as a religious conflict of a Catholic vs. a Protestant faction, while the more fundamental cause of the conflict was supposedly ethnic or nationalistic rather than religious in nature. Since the native Irish were mostly Catholic and the later British-sponsored immigrants were mainly Protestant, the terms become shorthand for the two cultures, but McGarry & O'Leary argued that it would be inaccurate to describe
7571-416: The conflict as a religious one. In their 2015 review of violence and peacemaking in world religions, Irfan Omar and Michael Duffey stated: "This book does not ignore violence committed in the name of religion. Analyses of case studies of seeming religious violence often conclude that ethnic animosities strongly drive violence." The definition of 'religious war' and the applicability of religion to war have
7684-501: The defenestration" (that is, after 19 August 1419). Nolan described the wars' goals and character as follows: "The main aim of the Hussites was to prevent the hated Sigismund mounting the throne of Bohemia, but fighting between Bohemian Hussites and Catholics spread into Moravia. (...) cross-class support gave the Hussite Wars a tripartite and even 'national' character unusual for the age, and a religious and social unity of purpose, faith, and hate". Winkler Prins / Encarta (2002) described
7797-410: The defense and the spread of the faith since the time of Muhammad. This was formalised in the juristic definition of war in Islam , which continues to hold normative power in contemporary Islam, inextricably linking political and religious justification of war. This normative concept is known as Jihad , an Arabic word with the meaning "to strive; to struggle" (viz. "in the way of God"), which includes
7910-465: The earliest days of Israel's existence as a people, holy war was a sacred institution, undertaken as a cultic act of a religious community". Other wars known to Judaism include a mandatory war and a voluntary war . In Greek antiquity , four (or five) wars were fought in and around the Panhellenic sanctuary at Delphi (the Pythia (Oracle) residing in the Temple of Apollo ) against persons or states who allegedly committed sacrilegious acts before
8023-570: The early 1860s, the famous Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was arrived at, by which the so-called dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary was set up. In this system, the Kingdom of Hungary ("Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen.") was an equal sovereign with only a personal union and a joint foreign and military policy connecting it to the other Habsburg lands. Although the non-Hungarian Habsburg lands were referred to as "Austria", received their own central parliament (the Reichsrat , or Imperial Council ) and ministries, as their official name –
8136-515: The east and the Ottoman Empire in the west with the onset of the modern period . There were also a number of periods of infighting among Muslims; these are known by the term Fitna and mostly concern the early period of Islam, from the 7th to 11th centuries, i.e. before the collapse of the Caliphate and the emergence of the various later Islamic empires . While technically, the millennium of Muslim conquests could be classified as "religious war",
8249-626: The face of inevitable defeat during the final years of World War I and ultimately disbanded with the proclamation of the Republic of German-Austria and the First Hungarian Republic in late 1918. In historiography , the terms "Austria" or "Austrians" are frequently used as shorthand for the Habsburg monarchy since the 18th century. From 1438 to 1806, the rulers of the House of Habsburg almost continuously reigned as Holy Roman Emperors . However,
8362-648: The field army, made concessions with the Hungarian nobility, and disappointed the princes of the Holy Roman Empire who had subsidized the Habsburg–Ottoman frontier. Once peace was concluded with the Ottomans, the Habsburgs turned on one another. This struggle forced the family to confront the unresolved matter of Rudolf's successor and culminated in the childless Emperor Rudolf being pitted against his brother Matthias in
8475-586: The first place. The concept of "religion" as an abstraction which entails distinct sets of beliefs or doctrines is a recently invented concept in the English language since such usage began with texts from the 17th century due to the splitting of Christendom during the Protestant Reformation and more prevalent colonization or globalization in the age of exploration which involved contact with numerous foreign and indigenous cultures with non-European languages. It
8588-671: The fore with its defeat in World War I. After its dissolution, the new republics of Austria (the German-Austrian territories of the Hereditary lands) and the First Hungarian Republic were created. In the peace settlement that followed, significant territories were ceded to Romania and Italy and the remainder of the monarchy's territory was shared out among the new states of Poland , the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and Czechoslovakia . A junior line ruled over
8701-641: The fort of Bihać fell to the Ottomans following the siege of Bihać . In the spring of 1593, Ottoman forces from the Eyalet of Bosnia laid siege to the city of Sisak in Croatia , starting the Battle of Sisak that eventually ended in a victory for the Christian forces on June 22, 1593. That victory marked the end of the Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War (1493–1593). The Long Turkish War started on July 29, 1593, when
8814-438: The god Apollo . The following are distinguished: Firestone (2012) stated that in the eyes of ancient Rabbinic Judaism , the Maccabean Revolt (167–160 BCE), the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE) were "holy wars" or "Commanded Wars" ( Hebrew : מלחמת מצווה Milkhemet Mitzvah ). "Never was there a war more prolonged nor more cruel than this, nor one that required greater efforts on
8927-558: The key fortress of Buda . The Ottomans launched a siege of Eger ( Turkish : Eğri ), conquering it in 1596. In 1595 in the Balkans, a Spanish fleet of galleys from the Kingdom of Naples and Kingdom of Sicily under Pedro de Toledo, marquis of Villafranca , sacked Patras , on the Rumelia Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire, in retaliation for Turkish raids against the Italian coasts. The raid
9040-551: The kingdom of Hastinapura. Ramayana was fought over the abduction of Rama's wife Sita by Ravana. The two epics are of great importance in Hindu tradition. However, according to Torkel Berkke, the Mahabharata does not provide a clear discussion on who has the authority to initiate a war ( jus ad bellum ), nor on what makes a war just ( bellum justum ). The Muslim conquests were a military expansion on an unprecedented scale, beginning in
9153-444: The lens of religion and that after that time wars were explained through the lens of wars as a way to further sovereign interests. Some commentators have concluded that only 123 wars (7%) out of these 1763 wars were fundamentally originated by religious motivations. Andrew Holt (2018) traced the origin of the "only 123 religious wars" claim back to the 2008 book The Irrational Atheist of far-right activist Vox Day , which he notes
9266-707: The lifetime of Muhammad and spanning the centuries, down to the Ottoman wars in Europe . Until the 13th century, the Muslim conquests were those of a more or less coherent empire , the Caliphate , but after the Mongol invasions , expansion continued on all fronts (other than Iberia which was lost in the Reconquista ) for another half millennium until the final collapse of the Mughal Empire in
9379-493: The mid to late 18th century, but many of these were abandoned following large scale resistance to Joseph's more radical reform attempts, although a more cautious policy of centralization continued during the revolutionary period and the Metternichian period that followed. Another attempt at centralization began in 1849 following the suppression of the various revolutions of 1848 . For the first time, ministers tried to transform
9492-517: The monarchy into a centralized bureaucratic state ruled from Vienna. The Kingdom of Hungary was placed under martial law , being divided into a series of military districts, the centralized neo-absolutism tried to as well to nullify Hungary's constitution and Diet . Following the Habsburg defeats in the Second Italian War of Independence (1859) and Austro-Prussian War (1866), these policies were step by step abandoned. After experimentation in
9605-715: The part of the Frankish people. For the Saxons (...) are by nature fierce, devoted to the worship of demons and hostile to our religion, and they think it no dishonour to confound and transgress the laws of God and man. On both sides of the frontier murder, robbery, and arson were of constant occurrence, so the Franks declared open war against them." – Einhard on the origins of the Saxon Wars in Vita Karoli Magni (c. 820) According to Gregory of Tours ' writings, King Clovis I of
9718-462: The pioneering study of Manfred Weippert, "»Heiliger Krieg« in Israel und Assyrien" (1972), scholars have been comparing the holy war concept in the (monotheistic) Hebrew Bible with other (polytheistic) ancient Near Eastern war traditions, and found "many [striking] similarities in phraseology and ideology". According to historian Edward Peters, before the 11th century, Christians had not developed
9831-494: The primary cause of 11 of the world's 100 deadliest atrocities. Konrad Repgen (1987) pointed out that belligerents may have multiple intentions to wage a war, may have had ulterior motives that historians can no longer discover, and therefore, calling something a 'religious war' (or ' war of succession ') based merely on a motive that a belligerent may have had, does not necessarily make it one. Although ulterior motives may never be known, war proclamations do provide evidence for
9944-448: The primary cause(s) of 0% of all wars during 1648–1714 and 1715–1814, 6% during 1815–1914, 17% during 1918–1941, and 12% during 1945–1989. In their 1997 Encyclopedia of Wars , authors Charles Phillips and Alan Axelrod documented 1763 notable wars in world history, out of which 121 wars were in the "religious wars" category in the index. They note that before the 17th century, much of the "reasons" for conflicts were explained through
10057-554: The principalities of Wallachia , Transylvania , and Moldavia . It was waged from 1593 to 1606, but in Europe, it is sometimes called the Fifteen Years' War ( Hungarian : Tizenöt éves háború ), reckoning from the 1591–1592 Turkish campaign that captured Bihać . In Turkey, it is called the Ottoman–Austrian War of 1593–1606 ( Turkish : 1593–1606 Osmanlı-Avusturya Savaşı ). In the series of Ottoman wars in Europe , it
10170-460: The realms of the Holy Roman Empire were mostly self-governing and are thus not considered to have been part of the Habsburg monarchy. Hence, the Habsburg monarchy (of the Austrian branch) is often called "Austria" by metonymy . Around 1700, the Latin term monarchia austriaca came into use as a term of convenience. Within the empire alone, the vast possessions included the original Hereditary Lands,
10283-439: The religious aspects, and other groups of people in some periods denying, nuancing or downplaying the religious aspects of the Crusades in favour of other factors. Winkler Prins / Encarta (2002) concluded: "The traditional explanation for the Crusades (a religious enthusiasm that found an outlet in a Holy War) has also retained its value in modern historical scholarship, keeping in mind the fact that it has been pointed out that
10396-570: The role of harassing Ottoman ships. On the eastern front of the war, Michael the Brave, prince of Wallachia, started a campaign against the Ottomans in the autumn of 1594, conquering several castles near the Lower Danube , including Giurgiu , Brăila , Hârşova , and Silistra , while his Moldavian allies defeated the Ottoman armies in Iaşi and other parts of Moldova. Michael continued his attacks deep within
10509-602: The rules for both sides to conduct the war fairly ( jus in bello ). It is important in Vedic and epic literature such as the Mahabharata and the Ramayana . The word Dharma may be interpreted variously as righteousness or responsibility or duty based on the context. Neither the Mahabharata nor the Ramayana were religious conflicts. The Mahabharata was fought over the inheritance of
10622-571: The southern half of the Iberian Peninsula . The relative importance of the various factors that caused the Hussite Wars (1419–1434) is debated. Kokkonen & Sundell (2017) claimed that the death of king Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia on 19 August 1419 is the event that sparked the Hussite rebellion against his nominal heir Sigismund (then king of Germany, Hungary and Croatia) , making it essentially
10735-513: The terms "Buddhism", "Hinduism", "Taoism", and "Confucianism" first emerged. Throughout its long history, Japan had no concept of "religion" since there was no corresponding Japanese word, nor anything close to its meaning, but when American warships appeared off the coast of Japan in 1853 and forced the Japanese government to sign treaties demanding, among other things, freedom of religion, the country had to contend with this Western idea. According to
10848-571: The title of Holy Roman Emperor between 1438 and 1740, and again from 1745 to 1806. Within the early modern Habsburg monarchy, each entity was governed according to its own particular customs. Until the mid 17th century, not all of the provinces were even necessarily ruled by the same person—junior members of the family often ruled portions of the Hereditary Lands as private apanages. Serious attempts at centralization began under Maria Theresa and especially her son Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor in
10961-463: The two main empires – the Ottomans won the fortresses of Eger , Esztergom , and Kanisza, but gave the region of Vác (which they had occupied since 1541) to Austria. The treaty confirmed the Ottomans' inability to penetrate further into Habsburg territories. It also demonstrated that Transylvania was beyond Habsburg power. Although Emperor Rudolf had failed in his war objectives, he nonetheless won some prestige thanks to this resistance to
11074-623: The voivode of Wallachia, Radu Şerban . Hence, the Austrian Habsburgs seemed to be able to win a decisive victory. In September 1601, armies of the Holy Roman Empire laid siege to Nagykanizsa . Despite the numerical superiority, coalition armies had to abandon the siege two months later, due to heavy losses. The last phase of the war (from 1604 to 1606) corresponds to the uprising of the Prince of Transylvania Stephen Bocskay . When Rudolf – mostly based on false charges – started prosecutions against
11187-466: Was Radbot of Klettgau , who was born in the late 10th century; the family name originated with Habsburg Castle , in present-day Switzerland , which was built by Radbot. After 1279, the Habsburgs came to rule in the Duchy of Austria , which was part of the elective Kingdom of Germany within the Holy Roman Empire . King Rudolf I of Germany of the Habsburg family assigned the Duchy of Austria to his sons at
11300-620: Was constantly travelling throughout his dominions and therefore needed deputies and regents, such as Isabella of Portugal in Spain and Margaret of Austria in the Low Countries, to govern his various realms. At the Diet of Worms in 1521, Emperor Charles V came to terms with his younger brother Ferdinand . According to the Habsburg compact of Worms (1521), confirmed a year later in Brussels , Ferdinand
11413-540: Was crucial. The war was mainly fought in Royal Hungary (mostly present-day western Hungary and southern Slovakia ), Transdanubia , Royal Croatia and Slavonia , the Ottoman Empire ( Rumelia – present-day Bulgaria and Serbia ), and Wallachia (in present-day southern Romania ). In 1595, the Christians, led by Mansfeld, captured Esztergom and Visegrád , strategic fortresses on the Danube, but they did not lay siege to
11526-532: Was first declared the Prince of Transylvania ( Marosvásárhely , February 21, 1605) and later also of Hungary (Szerencs, April 17, 1605). The Ottoman Empire supported Bocskay with a crown that he refused (being Christian). As Prince of Hungary he accepted negotiations with Rudolf II and concluded the Treaty of Vienna (1606) . The Long War ended with the Peace of Zsitvatorok on November 11, 1606, with meagre territorial gains for
11639-503: Was in the 17th century that the concept of "religion" received its modern shape despite the fact that the Bible, the Quran, and other ancient sacred texts did not have a concept of religion in the original languages and neither did the people or the cultures in which these sacred texts were written. The modern word religion comes from the Latin word religio which, in the ancient and medieval world,
11752-477: Was initially successful, managing to capture not only Giurgiu but also Bucharest and Târgoviște , despite fierce opposition at Călugăreni (23 August 1595). At this point the Ottoman command grew complacent and stopped pursuing the retreating Wallachian army , focusing instead on fortifying Târgoviște and Bucharest and considering their task all but done. Michael had to wait almost two months for aid from his allies to arrive, but when it did his counter-offensive took
11865-597: Was made Archduke , as a regent of Charles V in the Austrian hereditary lands. Following the death of Louis II of Hungary in the Battle of Mohács against the Ottoman Turks , Archduke Ferdinand (who was his brother-in-law by virtue of an adoption treaty signed by Maximilian and Vladislaus II , Louis's father at the First Congress of Vienna ) was also elected the next king of Bohemia and Hungary in 1526. Bohemia and Hungary became hereditary Habsburg domains only in
11978-518: Was only a very limited "cult of Ares". In Sparta , however, each company of youths sacrificed to Enyalios before engaging in ritual fighting at the Phoebaeum. Hans M. Barstad (2008) claimed that this ancient Greek attitude to war and religion differed from that of ancient Israel and Judah : "Quite unlike what we find with the Greeks, holy war permeated ancient Israelite society." Moreover, ever since
12091-534: Was organized by Pope Clement VIII to oppose the Ottoman Empire (the Holy League of Pope Clement VIII ); a treaty of alliance was signed in Prague by the Holy Roman Emperor , Rudolf II and Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania. Aron Vodă of Moldavia and Michael the Brave of Wallachia joined the alliance later that year. The Spanish Habsburgs sent an army of 6,000 experienced infantry and 2,000 cavalry from
12204-456: Was so spectacular that Sultan Murad III discussed exterminating the Christians of Constantinople in revenge. He finally decided to order the expulsion of all unmarried Greeks from the city. In the following years, Spanish fleets continued to raid the Levant waters, but large-scale naval warfare between Christians and Ottomans did not resume. Instead, privateers such as Alonso de Contreras took on
12317-697: Was the major test of force in the time period between the Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–1573) and the Cretan War (1645–1669) . The next of the major Ottoman–Habsburg wars was the Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) . Overall, the conflict consisted in a large number of costly battles and sieges, but with little gain on either side. The major participants of the war were the Habsburg monarchy, the Principality of Transylvania , Wallachia , and Moldavia opposing
12430-483: Was too narrow, because sometimes both legitimisation and motivation can be established. David Onnekink (2013) added that a 'religious war' is not necessarily the same as a 'holy war' ( bellum sacrum ): "After all, it is perfectly acceptable to suggest that a worldly prince, say, a Lutheran prince in Reformation Germany, engages in religious warfare using mercenary armies." While a holy war needs to be authorised by
12543-412: Was unable to continue the war due to poor support from his allies. The turning point of the war was the Battle of Mezőkeresztes , which took place in the territory of Hungary on October 24–26, 1596. The combined Habsburg–Transylvanian force of 45–50,000 troops was defeated by the Ottoman army. The battle turned when Christian soldiers, thinking they had won the battle, stopped fighting in order to plunder
12656-547: Was understood as an individual virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice, or actual source of knowledge. Cavanaugh argued that all wars that are classed as "religious" have secular (economic or political) ramifications. Similar opinions were expressed as early as the 1760s, during the Seven Years' War , widely recognized to be "religious" in motivation, noting that the warring factions were not necessarily split along confessional lines as much as along secular interests. There
12769-516: Was widely accepted, but warfare was not regarded as a virtuous activity and expressions of concern for the salvation of those who killed enemies in battle, regardless of the cause for which they fought, was common. During the era of the Crusades , some of the Crusaders who fought in the name of God were recognized as the Milites Christi , the soldiers or the knights of Christ. The Crusades were
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