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138-554: Li Shouzhen ( 李守貞 ; died 17 August 949) was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period states Later Jin and Later Han , as well as (briefly) the Khitan Liao dynasty . During the reign of Later Han's second emperor Liu Chengyou , he became concerned that he was being targeted by the officials assisting the young emperor, and therefore rebelled. His rebellion

276-431: A water clock ), yet it incorporated an escapement mechanism two hundred years before they were found in the clockworks of Europe and featured the first known endless power-transmitting chain drive . Kaifeng reached its peak importance in the 11th century as a commercial and industrial center at the intersection of four major canals. During this time, the city was surrounded by three rings of city walls and probably had

414-593: A PLA Victory and the collapse of the Nationalist forces which was part of the Shengcai Battle . Kaifeng has a monsoon -influenced humid subtropical climate ( Köppen Cwa ) that borders on a humid continental climate, with four distinct seasons. Winters are cool and mostly dry while summers are hot and humid; spring is warm and sees some, but not much rainfall, while autumn weather is crisp and drier. Precipitation mainly occurs from June to September. Downtown Kaifeng

552-485: A dominant part in forming Henan cuisine . Kaifeng offers a wide range of food specialties such as steamed pie and dumplings. Particularly famous is Kaifeng's five-spice bread ( wǔxiāng shāobǐng ), which, like pita , can be opened and filled. In the evening, Kaifeng's streets turn into restaurants while hundreds open their stands and begin selling their food in the famous night market . People from nearby Zhengzhou often come to Kaifeng to visit family members and to enjoy

690-417: A final assault on the city. In fall 949, the outer city fell, and Li withdrew into the inner city. Guo's subordinates advocated a sustained attack, but Guo decided not to, believing that that may enable Li to make a final counterattack; rather, he had the inner city surrounded. Shortly after, Li, his wife, and a number of other family members, including Li Chongxun, committed suicide by fire. Guo then entered

828-538: A large army that Emperor Taizong personally commanded. The Liao army eventually surrounded the Later Jin army at Zhongdu Bridge (中度橋, in modern Baoding). After Emperor Taizong made the promise to Du to make him emperor if he surrendered, Du and Li Shouzhen surrendered their army. (As part of accepting Du's surrender, Emperor Taizong had Zhao mockingly put an imperial robe on Du.) Emperor Taizong then prepared to advance south. He commissioned Li Shouzhen ' Situ (司徒, one of

966-637: A letter to Zhao, encouraging him to do so, with the officer Zhao Xingshi ( 趙行實 ), who had previously served under Zhao Yanshou, delivering the letter. Zhao Yanshou wrote back (to try to lead Later Jin forces into a trap), stating, "I have long been in a foreign land, and I want to return to China. Please launch a major army to support me, so that I can pull myself out and return with it." Subsequently, under Emperor Taizong's orders, Liao's prefect of Ying Prefecture (瀛州, in modern Cangzhou), Liu Yanzuo ( 劉延祚 ), also offered to defect to Later Jin. Shi thus put Du and Li Shouzhen in command of an army to attack north, with

1104-579: A minor crop. Fruit such as peaches , cherries and oranges , as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China. Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC). The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC) site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan

1242-591: A population of between 600,000 and 700,000. It is believed that Kaifeng was the largest city in the world from 1013 to 1127. This period ended in 1127 when the city fell to Jurchen invaders during the Jingkang Incident . It subsequently came under the rule of the Jurchen Jin dynasty , which had conquered most of North China during the Jin–Song Wars . While it remained an important administrative center, only

1380-561: A state ideology promoted by the emperor and his chancellor Li Si that was introduced at an earlier time by Shang Yang . In legal matters this philosophy emphasised mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments for crime, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade. Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles ( seal script ) and metal currency ( Ban Liang ), all of which were standardized. Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang

1518-497: A successful campaign against the northern Xiongnu peoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops. Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as the Great Wall of China and oversaw the building of a 500 miles (800 km) straight highway between northern and southern China. The emperor also oversaw the construction of his monumental mausoleum , which includes

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1656-604: A travel time of 53 min. Kaifeng railway station is on the east–west Longhai Railway mainline and provides convenient access to many cities around China, including Beijing West , Shanghai , Shanghai Hongqiao , Tianjin , Xi'an, Jinan, Hangzhou . Services to Zhengzhou , Luoyang and Qingdao are also frequent and convenient. Direct long-distance services to Shenzhen , Guangzhou , Chengdu , Chongqing North , Harbin , Ürümqi , Fuzhou , Dalian and Wuhan are also available. The Zhengzhou–Kaifeng intercity railway ( 郑开城际铁路 ) started operation on 28 December 2014, connecting

1794-573: Is about 55 km (34 mi) away from Zhengzhou Xinzheng International Airport ( IATA : CGO , ICAO : ZHCC ), which is the busiest airport in central China in terms of both passenger and cargo traffic (2017 statistics). With the completion of Zhengzhou–Kaifeng intercity railway and Zhengzhou–Xinzheng Airport intercity railway , fast train connections to Zhengzhou Xinzheng International Airport from Kaifeng became available. As of August 2018, there are 12 pairs of intercity trains running between Xinzheng Airport and Songchenglu every day, with

1932-576: Is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language. The culture remembered by the earliest extant literature is that of the Zhou dynasty ( c.  1046  – 256 BC), China's Axial Age , during which the Mandate of Heaven was introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such as Confucianism , Taoism , Legalism , and Wuxing . China

2070-462: Is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the state of Shu , linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings. Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in

2208-561: Is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River,

2346-555: Is known as the Warring States period. Though the Zhou king nominally remained as such until 256   BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power. Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the Zuo Zhuan within the Spring and Autumn Annals (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and

2484-593: Is known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China, the Kaifeng Jews . It also has a significant Muslim enclave and is notable for its many women's mosques ( nǚsì ), including the oldest nǚsì in China: Wangjia Hutong Women's Mosque, which dates to 1820. There are also some active Christian churches, including the Sacred Heart Cathedral ( 开封耶稣圣心主教座堂 ). Kaifeng cuisine plays

2622-511: Is named after the famous Spring and Autumn Annals . The sharply reduced political authority of the royal house left a power vacuum at the center of the Zhou culture sphere. The Zhou kings had delegated local political authority to hundreds of settlement states , some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for hegemony . The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate

2760-574: Is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China . As with Beijing, there have been many reconstructions during its history. In 364 BC during the Warring States period , the State of Wei founded a city called Daliang ( 大梁 ) as its capital in this area. During this period, the first of many canals in the area was constructed linking a local river to the Yellow River . When the State of Qin conquered

2898-587: Is regarded as ordering a mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars under the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the historicity of this event . Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters by Confucianism for social and moral beliefs and the five-element Wuxing ( 五行 ) theories for cosmological thought. The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence. Commoners, who made up over 90% of

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3036-657: Is termed the Eastern Han dynasty . With the capable administrations of Emperors Ming and Zhang , former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated . The diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea , thus reopening the Silk Road , and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with

3174-630: Is the southwestern Yuanmou Man ( 元谋人 ; in Yunnan ), dated to c. 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed bushland -forest environment alongside chalicotheres , deer , the elephant Stegodon , rhinos , cattle, pigs, and the giant short-faced hyena . The better-known Peking Man ( 北京猿人 ; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 BP , was discovered in the Zhoukoudian cave alongside scrapers , choppers , and, dated slightly later, points, burins , and awls. Other Homo erectus fossils have been found widely throughout

3312-504: The Bamboo Annals and Sima Qian 's Shiji ( c.  91 BC ). The Xia is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at Erlitou (1900–1500 BC) in Henan that was excavated in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether

3450-578: The Chinese Athletic Association , the general sport administration of Henan province, Zhengzhou municipal government, and the Kaifeng municipal government. It is the premier international sports competition in Henan province and one of the biggest sports competitions in the Central-West of China. ZK International Marathon is held at the end of March or beginning of April each year. The main part of

3588-566: The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . The Song dynasty made Bian its capital when it overthrew the Later Zhou (Chenqiao incident) in 960. Shortly afterwards, the city underwent further expansion. During the Song, when it was known as Dongjing or Bianjing, Kaifeng, then the largest and most prosperous city in China, was the capital, with a population of over 400,000 living both inside and outside

3726-596: The Late Shang period ( c.  1250–1050 BC ). The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the oracle bones , dating from c.  1250  – c.  1046 BC . A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty. Throughout their reigns, according to

3864-471: The Later Tang emperor Li Siyuan , he made Li his protocol officer. Thereafter, when Shi was moved to several other circuits, Li followed him and continued to serve under him. After Shi Jingtang overthrew then-Later Tang emperor Li Congke (Li Siouan's adoptive son) in 936 and established his state of Later Jin , he made Li Shouzhen his imperial protocol officer (客省使, Keshengshi ). In 940, when Li Jinquan

4002-528: The Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This

4140-565: The Mongol Empire conquered all of China, establishing the Yuan dynasty in 1271. Contact with Europe began to increase during this time. Achievements under the subsequent Ming dynasty (1368–1644) include global exploration , fine porcelain , and many extant public works projects, such as those restoring the Grand Canal and Great Wall . Three of the four Classic Chinese Novels were written during

4278-535: The Qin 's conquest of China in the second century BC. The name literally means "opening the border" and figuratively "hidden" and "vengeance". Its name was originally Qifeng ( Chinese : 啓封 ), but the syllable qi (Baxter-Sagart: /*kʰˤijʔ/) was changed to the essentially synonymous kai (/*Nə-[k]ʰˤəj/, /*[k]ʰˤəj/) to avoid the naming taboo of Liu Qi ( Emperor Jing of Han ). The prefecture-level city of Kaifeng administers five districts and four counties : Kaifeng

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4416-767: The Republic of China . From 1927 to 1949, a costly civil war roiled between the Republican government under Chiang Kai-shek and the Communist-aligned Chinese Red Army , interrupted by the industrialized Empire of Japan invading the divided country until its defeat in the Second World War. After the Communist victory, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, with

4554-446: The Shiji , the capital city was moved six times. The final and most important move was to Yin during the reign of Wu Ding c.  1250 BC . The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty. Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of

4692-470: The Sui dynasty , which soon gave way to the long-lived Tang dynasty (608–907), regarded as another Chinese golden age. The Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence. China's only officially recognized empress, Wu Zetian , reigned during the dynasty's first century. Buddhism was adopted by Tang emperors. "Tang people" is the other common demonym for

4830-525: The Three Excellencies ) as well as continuing to the military governor of Tianping, and had Li Shouzhen and Du accompany him south. With virtually the entire Later Jin army having been given to Du and Li Shouzhen for this northern campaign, Kaifeng was left essentially defenseless, and Shi felt compelled to surrender, ending Later Jin. Emperor Taizong subsequently entered Daliang. Upon entering Kaifeng, Emperor Taizong announced that, in addition to being

4968-630: The Turks , Mongols , and Tibetans . Many had, to some extent, been " sinicized " long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta. In

5106-670: The Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The Erlitou culture in the central plains of China is sometimes identified with the Xia dynasty (3rd millennium BC) of traditional Chinese historiography . The earliest surviving written Chinese dates to roughly 1250 BC, consisting of divinations inscribed on oracle bones . Chinese bronze inscriptions , ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include poetry , divination , and records of official speeches . China

5244-575: The Yellow River valley, which along with the Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere . China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the dynastic cycle : imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into

5382-528: The Yellow River Plain . Kaifeng Air Base is a military airfield in the southern suburb of Kaifeng City. It does not provide civilian aviation service. Kaifeng is twinned with: Kaifeng is also a major city for scientific research, appearing among the world's top 200 cities as tracked by the Nature Index . The city is home to a campus of Henan University , one of the national key universities in

5520-490: The arrival of Buddhism . With extensive connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284. The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific eras of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun , and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by

5658-425: The prefecture level . During the festival, hundreds of chrysanthemums breeds are on show at festival venues, and the flower becomes a common features around the city. Kaifeng has been dubbed the "city of chrysanthemums". The China Zheng-Kai International Marathon   [ Wikidata ] ( 中国郑开国际马拉松赛 , Zheng-Kai stands for " Zhengzhou -Kaifeng", also abbreviated "ZK") is a sporting event hosted jointly by

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5796-513: The Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse. Its final expansion began during the reign of Ying Zheng , ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first emperor —known to history as Qin Shi Huang . Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty ( 秦朝 ) in 221 BC effectively formalised

5934-451: The Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the China proper and to areas far west. Confucianism was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape

6072-660: The Han ethnic group. After the Tang fractured, the Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development. Mechanical printing was introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts are wood-block prints from this era. Song scientific advancement led the world, and the imperial examination system gave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy. Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together in Neo-Confucianism . Eventually,

6210-461: The Han imperial order finally collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally lengthy period of disunity, during which Buddhism began to have a significant impact on Chinese culture, while Calligraphy , art, historiography, and storytelling flourished. Wealthy families in some cases became more powerful than the central government. The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere. A period of unity began in 581 with

6348-425: The Han. Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists and Taoists had become much more tolerant of each other. Kaifeng As of the 2020 census , 4,824,016 people lived in Kaifeng's Prefecture, of whom 1,735,581 lived in

6486-748: The Huai River valley, and southward into the Yangtze River valley. In 771 BC, King You and his forces were defeated in the Battle of Mount Li by rebel states and Quanrong barbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, King Ping , in Luoyang , beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period

6624-685: The Jin prince Sima Rui , based in modern-day Nanjing , became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin. Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the Sixteen Kingdoms , most of which were founded by Xiongnu , Xianbei , Jie , Di and Qiang rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of

6762-537: The Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival since 1983 (renamed China Kaifeng Chrysanthemum Cultural Festival in 1994). The festival has since taken place between 18 October and 18 November of every year. The festival reached another milestone on 18 October 2012, when it celebrated its 30th birthday. The opening ceremony was broadcast live during the evening prime slot on Henan Television (HNTV), which broadcasts to all Chinese cities at or above

6900-644: The Later Han regents with contempt. He also sent secret letters to the Liao court (i.e., to Emperor Taizong's nephew and successor Emperor Shizong ), but his letters were intercepted by the Later Han border guards, allowing the Later Han regents to be on alert. He was also encouraged by the Buddhist monk Zonglun ( 總倫 ), who predicted that he would be emperor one day. Another fortuneteller also predicted that his daughter-in-law Lady Fu (the wife of his son Li Chongxun ( 李崇訓 ) and

7038-631: The Liao army fiercely, causing the Liao army to panic and flee. After his return from this campaign, Li's military governorship was moved to Guide Circuit (歸德, headquartered in modern Shangqiu , Henan ). In late 945, Shi stationed Li Shouzhen and his army at Chan Prefecture (澶州, in modern Puyang , Henan ), to defend against another potential Liao attack. Meanwhile, still resentful of Sang, Li Shouzhen, along with Shi's close associates Feng Yu (the brother of Shi's wife Empress Feng ) and Li Yantao ( 李彥韜 ), falsely accused Sang of plotting to have Shi replaced with Shi Jingtang's son Shi Chongrui ( 石重睿 ). Sang

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7176-405: The Liao army had turned around and was heading for them. They tried to withdraw, but became surrounded near Yangcheng (陽城, in modern Baoding). Du panicked and was reluctant to engage the Liao army, but at Fu Yanqing 's advocacy, Li Shouzhen ordered an attack during a sandstorm (which hid the Later Jin numerical disadvantage); Fu, Zhang Yanze , Yao Yuanfu ( 藥元福 ), and Huangfu Yu ( 皇甫遇 ), attacked

7314-658: The Ming. The Qing dynasty that succeeded the Ming was ruled by ethnic Manchu people. The Qianlong emperor ( r.   1735–1796) commissioned a complete encyclopaedia of imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words. Imperial China reached its greatest territorial extent of during the Qing, but China came into increasing conflict with European powers, culminating in the Opium Wars and subsequent unequal treaties . The 1911 Xinhai Revolution , led by Sun Yat-sen and others, created

7452-545: The ROC retreating to Taiwan. Both governments still claim sole legitimacy of the entire mainland area. The PRC has slowly accumulated the majority of diplomatic recognition, and Taiwan's status remains disputed to this day. From 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution in mainland China helped consolidate Mao's power towards the end of his life. After his death, the government began economic reforms under Deng Xiaoping , and became

7590-425: The Shang and Zhou. Both archaeological evidence like oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest the historical existence of the Shang dynasty ( c.  1600  – c.  1046 BC ). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at Erligang (modern Zhengzhou ). Findings have been found at Yinxu (near modern Anyang , Henan), the site of the final Shang capital during

7728-466: The Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by

7866-579: The Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous sheng and xian ("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China. The state of Qin became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the Shu capital of Jinsha on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving Chu from its place in

8004-452: The State of Wei, Kaifeng was destroyed and abandoned except for a mid-sized market town, which remained in place. During the Han dynasty , the city underwent some reconstruction. Kaifeng became the capital of Liu Wu (son of Han emperor Wen ) when he was enfeoffed as Prince of Liang. Liu Wu restored and constructed many buildings and old city walls. Kaifeng became a center of music, art, a refuge for artists, and of splendid gardens despite

8142-418: The Three Kingdoms dramatizes events of this period. The warlord Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication of Emperor Xian of Han , thus initiating the Wei dynasty. Soon, Wei's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in

8280-428: The Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the Shang . A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, King Wu , defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye . They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region. Several of these states eventually became more powerful than

8418-413: The Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia. In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts. More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by

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8556-415: The Yangtze delta. The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as the Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the Longshan culture (3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained

8694-411: The Zhou kings. The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven ( tian ) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically,

8832-461: The ambitious Emperor Wu brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands. As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society. Imperial Universities were established to support its study. At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened

8970-548: The archaeological site of Xihoudu , Shanxi Province. The circumstances surrounding the evolution of Homo erectus to contemporary H. sapiens is debated; the three main theories include the dominant "Out of Africa" theory (OOA), the regional continuity model and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis. Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in Fuyan Cave of Dao County , Hunan. The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include

9108-408: The area inside the inner city wall of the early Song remained settled and the two outer rings were abandoned. As the imperial capital of the Song, Kaifeng was conveniently situated along the Grand Canal for logistics supply but militarily vulnerable due to its position on the floodplains of the Yellow River . Kaifeng served as the Jurchen "southern capital" from 1157 (other sources say 1161) and

9246-436: The atmosphere. The Ma Yu Ching's Bucket Chicken House ( 马豫兴桶子鸡; ; Mǎ Yùxīng Tǒngzi Jī ), located in Kaifeng, is by some accounts the world's oldest restaurant. The chrysanthemum is the city flower of Kaifeng. The tradition of cultivating varieties of chrysanthemums extends back 1600 years, and the scale of cultivation reached its height during the Song dynasty until its loss to the Jürchens in 1126. The city has held

9384-550: The bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection, dated to 305   BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, base-10 multiplication table. The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period. As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning ), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of commanderies and prefectures . This system had been in use elsewhere since

9522-419: The campaign. He wrote a letter to Liu Chengyou asking that Li Shouzhen be pardoned; Liu ignored the letter.) In spring 949, trying to take advantage of a Later Shu incursion intended to aid Wang Jingchong (who was then under siege by the Later Han general Zhao Hui ( 趙暉 )) (as Guo had to leave Huzhong to try to aid Zhao), Li Shouzhen prepared to have his officer Wang Jixun ( 王繼勳 ) lead an attack to fight out of

9660-399: The capital of Henan Jiangbei Province , which was established in 1277. In the Mongol siege of Kaifeng, the Mongols and Han Chinese (who defected to the Mongols) slaughtered the male members of the Jin Jurchen Wanyan Imperial family and took the royal women including the Jin concubines and princesses to Mongolia as war booty. Mongols looted the city when it fell, but atypical to most sieges in

9798-466: The city wall. Typhus was an acute problem in the city. The historian Jacques Gernet provides a lively picture of life in this period in his Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250-1276, which often draws on Dongjing Meng Hua Lu , a nostalgic memoir of the city of Kaifeng. In 1049, the Youguosi Pagoda ( 佑國寺塔 ) – or Iron Pagoda as it is called today – was constructed measuring 54.7 m (179 ft) in height. It has survived

9936-518: The city was abandoned again. In 1662, during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor in the Qing dynasty , Kaifeng was rebuilt. Another reconstruction in 1843 followed flooding in 1841, shaping Kaifeng as it stands today. From the 8th to 9th century and up to the 19th century, Kaifeng is known for having the oldest extant Jewish community in China , the Kaifeng Jews . As of 2016, there are 20 Jews still left in

10074-511: The city. On 6 June 1938, the city was occupied by the invading Japanese Imperial Army . Kaifeng remained the capital of Henan province until 1954, when it was moved to Zhengzhou . In 1969, the former President of the People's Republic of China , Liu Shaoqi , died from medical neglect while under house arrest in Kaifeng. In 1948, the Battle of Kaifeng occurred between Chinese communist forces and Chinese Nationalist forces but ultimately lead to

10212-502: The daughter of fellow senior general Fu Yanqing ) would be empress one day, further encouraging him. In summer 948, Li Shouzhen rose in rebellion against Later Han at Huguo, claiming the title of Prince of Qin. He also enticed Fengxiang (鳳翔, headquartered in modern Baoji , Shaanxi ) and Yongxing (永興, headquartered in modern Xi'an , Shaanxi ) Circuits to follow him in rebellion (under the leadership of Wang Jingchong and Zhao Siwan , respectively). The Later Han regents initially sent

10350-526: The early 5th century China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song , Southern Qi , Liang and finally Chen . Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from

10488-703: The emperor of the Khitan, he was now also the emperor of the Chinese. He was, however, soon running into Han Chinese resistance as he allowed the Khitan soldiers to pillage the countryside. As part of a countermeasure, he began to send some former-Later Jin military governors, who had gathered at Kaifeng to show allegiance to him and whom he then kept at Kaifeng (thus causing their circuits' rebellions to go unchecked) back to their circuits—including Li Shouzhen and Du Chongwei (i.e., Du Wei, whose name had been changed as part of naming taboo for Shi Chonggui, but who now changed back to Chongwei with Later Jin's having fallen). (During

10626-526: The emperor.) Meanwhile, with Li Shouzhen's troops having to often go through Guangjin (廣晉, in modern Handan , Hebei ), Du, who was then the military governor of Tianxiong Circuit (天雄, headquartered at Guangjin), frequently got the chance to welcome him and often gifted him with gold, silk, armors, and elite soldiers, causing them to become good friends. Whenever Shi held feasts for Li Shouzhen and praised him for battlefield accomplishments, Li Shouzhen would thus praise Du for his contributions and suggest that, in

10764-432: The empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang . In AD 9 the usurper Wang Mang claimed that

10902-406: The empire was a centralized bureaucratic monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China. In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36 commanderies ( 郡 ; jun ), made up of counties ( 县 ; xian ) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader. Many aspects of society were informed by Legalism ,

11040-560: The encirclement of the city, Li made several attempts to break the siege, each time failing. He attempted to send emissaries to seek aid from Southern Tang , Later Shu , and Liao, but his emissaries were all intercepted. When he questioned Zonglun about Zonglun's predictions, Zonglun stated that the Huguo region was due for a disaster, but that after he suffered great casualties, he would be able to rebound and be victorious; Li believed Zonglun and therefore resolved to continue to resist. ( Li Yiyin

11178-544: The event occurs along the famous Zhengkai Express Way ( 郑开大道 ). At its launch in 2007, 5600 athletes competed. By 2012, almost 25000 athletes from 28 countries and regions have participated in the ZK International Marathon. Kaifeng is the headquarters of the 20th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army , one of three group armies that compose the Jinan Military Region responsible for the defense of

11316-508: The extinct Ailuropoda baconi panda, the Crocuta ultima hyena, the Stegodon , and the giant tapir . Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of Guanyindong Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago. The Neolithic Age in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago. Because the Neolithic

11454-428: The famous polymath Zhang Heng . By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs . The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords . In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name. The classic historical novel Romance of

11592-614: The fiscal structure of the dynasty with government monopolies . Major military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire , limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian , the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin , opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To

11730-516: The frontier to command an army against the potential invasion, with Huangfu Yu ( 皇甫遇 ) serving as his deputy. However, with the report apparently being a false alarm, Li, after minor border skirmishes, was returned to his position at Chan. (It was said that at this time, Li Yantao had become particularly powerful as Shi's close associate, such that he had Li Shouzhen's every move under control. Li Shouzhen, in response, outwardly showed respect and deference to him, while inwardly resented his influence on

11868-464: The future, if there were to be a major attack against Liao, he and Du could work together, and Shi agreed. In 946, there were rumors that the major Liao general Zhao Yanshou —who had previously been a major Later Tang general before being captured by the Khitan in the campaign that led to Later Tang's destruction—was planning on defecting to Later Jin. This rumor was believed by Li Song and Feng, who then served as Shi's chief of staff. They had Du write

12006-441: The general Bai Wenke ( 白文珂 ) the military governor of Baoyi Circuit (保義, headquartered in modern Sanmenxia , Henan ) against the three rebellious circuits. However, Bai and several other Later Han generals who were sent had little coordination with each other and became defensive in their actions. Concerned about how the campaign was turning out, the regents decided to have Guo Wei lead the imperial guards against Li and coordinate

12144-716: The grand mansion that Yang had at Kaifeng—which Li then expanded into an even grander structure, said to be the largest mansion for officials at Kaifeng. Shi held feasts in his honor and gave him rewards beyond all others. In late 944, Emperor Taizong launched another major incursion into Later Jin territory, inflicting much damage on the Later Jin populace north of the Yellow River . As the Liao army withdrew in spring 945, Shi sent Du Wei (Shi Jingtang's sister's husband, and therefore, Shi Chonggui's uncle by marriage) and Li Shouzhen in command of an army to give chase. They crossed into Liao territory and captured Qi ( 祁州 ) and Tai ( 泰州 ) (both in modern Baoding), but soon received news that

12282-441: The inner city and captured several surviving sons of Li Shouzhen's, as well as his chancellors, chief of staff, and Zonglun; they were delivered to Kaifeng and executed. History of China The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in

12420-575: The late 6th century in the Yangtze valley. A bronze hatchet with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei ) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings. Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to

12558-773: The major general Yang Guangyuan the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Weifang , Shandong ) rebelled with Liao support, Shi sent Li to attack Yang. (The reason why Shi sent Li was because Li and Yang had prior grudges against each other.) Around the new year 945, Yang Guangyuan's son Yang Chengxun ( 楊承勳 ) put his father under house arrest and surrendered to Li. With Yang Chengxun's having surrendered on his own, Shi, while believing that Yang Guangyuan deserved death, did not want to execute him publicly, and therefore had Li secretly send executioners to batter Yang to death, while publicly claiming that Yang had died of an illness. Yang's treasury officer Song Yan ( 宋顏 ), who had encouraged Yang's rebellion and therefore

12696-428: The metropolitan area consisting of Xiangfu, Longting, Shunhe Hui, Gulou and Yuwantai Districts. Located along the Yellow River 's southern bank, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the west, Xinxiang to the northwest, Shangqiu to the east, Zhoukou to the southeast, Xuchang to the southwest, and Heze of Shandong to the northeast. Kaifeng is a major city for scientific research, appearing among

12834-484: The military governor ( Jiedushi ) of Anyuan Circuit (安遠, headquartered in modern Xiaogan , Hubei ) rebelled against Shi's rule, Shi sent the general Ma Quanjie ( 馬全節 ) to attack Li Jinquan. Li Shouzhen served as Ma's army monitor during the campaign, and after Li Jinquan fled to Later Jin's southeastern neighbor Southern Tang and Later Jin retained Anyuan, Li Shouzhen was promoted to be the director palace affairs (宣徽使, Xunahuishi ). After Shi Jingtang died in 942 and

12972-442: The military governor of Dingnan Circuit did consider aiding him, but upon hearing that Hezhong was completely surrounded, withdrew.) When Li Shouzhen's emissaries Zhu Yuan and Li Ping ( 李平 ) were eventually able to bypass Later Han guards and reach Southern Tang, Southern Tang's emperor Li Jing launched an abortive campaign to try to help him, but eventually concluded that his army could never reach Huguo, and therefore abandoned

13110-886: The north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify . In the north the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the Northern Wei , a kingdom founded by the Xianbei , a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei , which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou . These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into

13248-547: The notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang. This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally. The earliest period once considered historical

13386-527: The original plan advocated by many other generals to attack Yongxing (which Li had renamed back to Jinchang (晉昌, its prior name during Later Jin)) and Fengxiang, and decided to concentrate on defeating Li at Huguo first, believing that Li's destruction would lead to the collapse of the other two circuits. Guo's imperial guard troops soon arrived at Huguo's capital in Hezhong Municipality ( 河中 ). Li had anticipated that they would turn and support him, but

13524-440: The overall operations. At the suggestion of the senior statesman Feng Dao , who pointed out that the imperial guard soldiers might still bear allegiance in their hearts to Li, Guo awarded the soldiers a great amount of treasure to turn their allegiance to him rather than to Li. Also, accepting the suggestion of Hu Yanke ( 扈彥珂 ) the military governor of Zhenguo Circuit (鎮國, headquartered in modern Weinan , Shaanxi ), Guo abandoned

13662-676: The past , making it one of the cradles of civilization . At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the Tian Shan , the Tarim Basin , and the Himalayas , as far north as the Sayan Mountains , and as far south as the delta of the Red River . The Neolithic period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along

13800-408: The population, "suffered harsh treatment" according to the historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey , as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects. This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around 4,250 miles (6,840 km) altogether. Other major construction projects were assigned to the general Meng Tian , who concurrently led

13938-772: The power of great families. In 266, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived. The Jin dynasty reunited China proper for the first time since the end of the Han dynasty , ending the Three Kingdoms era. However, the Jin dynasty was severely weakened by the War of the Eight Princes and lost control of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and Chang'an . In 317,

14076-689: The provincial capital Zhengzhou and Kaifeng. The railway currently terminates at Songchenglu , and is planned to be extended to Kaifeng railway station . The designed top speed is 200 km/h (120 mph). Kaifeng North railway station of the Xuzhou–Lanzhou high-speed railway is the main high-speed railway station of the city. It started operation on 10 September 2016. There are 4 main coach stations in Kaifeng: There are frequent services to many neighboring counties, other provincial cities and long-distance services to other provinces. Kaifeng

14214-562: The region as a true empire for the first time in Chinese history, rather than a state, and its pivotal status probably led to "Qin" ( 秦 ) later evolving into the Western term " China ". To emphasise his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi ( 始 皇 帝 ; "First Emperor"); the Huangdi title, derived from Chinese mythology , became the standard for subsequent rulers. Based in Xianyang ,

14352-575: The region, including the northwestern Lantian Man in Shaanxi , as well minor specimens in northeastern Liaoning and southern Guangdong . The dates of most Paleolithic sites were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern magnetostratigraphy : Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, Xiaochangliang at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, Banshan at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma. Evidence of fire use by Homo erectus occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at

14490-405: The same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper . The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in

14628-436: The siege. However, by the time that Wang launched his attack, Guo had already returned from the west, and Wang's attempt to fight out was a failure, with Wang himself seriously injured. By summer 949, the food supplies at Hezhong had run out, and it was said that some 50-60% of the populace had died. Li made another attempt to fight out of the siege, but was again defeated. In the aftermaths of this defeat, Guo decided to make

14766-456: The site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like Taosi and the Liangzhu culture in

14904-564: The soldiers, having recently received the award of gold from Guo, no longer felt allegiance toward Li, and therefore began the siege enthusiastically, causing Li to be distressed. Guo's subordinates, seeing this, advocated a quick siege, but Guo pointed out that Li had great battlefield credentials and that a quick attack could lead to massive casualties because of the strength of Hezhong's defenses; rather, he resolved to put Hezhong under long-term siege to drain Li's food supplies and morale. As he tightened

15042-668: The south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire. Emperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue tribes. The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC , and Dian in 109 BC . Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south. It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade. After Emperor Wu

15180-463: The sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. The Zhou established two capitals Zongzhou (near modern Xi'an ) and Chengzhou ( Luoyang ), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into

15318-562: The stated objectives being to first recapture the prefectures Shi Jingtang previously ceded to Liao (the Sixteen Prefectures ), and then to destroy Liao. (Zhao Ying, however, had reservations, pointing out that Du, despite his honored position, was still often dissatisfied with his station, and therefore suggested to Li Song and Feng that Li Shouzhen be put in command by himself; Zhao Ying's suggestions were not listened to, however.) When Du and Li Shouzhen advanced, though, they were met by

15456-452: The subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the dominant ethnic group in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and written characters . After the initial laissez-faire policies of Emperors Wen and Jing ,

15594-445: The subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism , Taoism , Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture. After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th century   BC. The years in which these states battled each other

15732-433: The surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and partitioned the state between them . The Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy began blossoming during this period and

15870-502: The time period, they permitted trade. The richest residents of the city sold their luxury belongings to Mongol soldiers for critically needed food supplies. Male members of the Jurchen Jin Wanyan royal family residing in the city were captured and executed. All Jin imperial concubines, including the empress dowager, were captured and taken north. In 1260, Marco Polo arrived at Kaifeng, and wrote about it in his diaries. The city

16008-520: The time that Li Shouzhen was kept at Kaifeng, the people of Kaifeng, whenever they saw him and Du out in public, would curse them; neither of them showed any sign of shamefulness.) Later in the year, the formerly Later Jin-commissioned military governor of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan , Shanxi ), claimed imperial title, establishing a new state of Later Han . With Liao's Emperor Taizong having become tired of Chinese resistance and deciding to withdraw back to Liao proper (and dying on

16146-569: The trivial political importance of the city at this period. Early in the 7th century, Kaifeng was transformed into a major commercial hub when it was connected to the Grand Canal as well as through the construction of a canal running to western Shandong . In 781 during the Tang dynasty , a new city was reconstructed and named Bian ( 汴 ). Bian was the capital of the Later Liang , Later Jin (936–946), Later Han (947–950), and Later Zhou (951–960) of

16284-438: The vicissitudes of war and floods to become the oldest landmark in this ancient city. Another Song-dynasty pagoda, Po Tower  [ zh ] , dating from 974, has been partially destroyed. Another well-known sight was the astronomical clock tower of the engineer, scientist, and statesman Su Song (1020–1101 AD). It was crowned with a rotating armillary sphere that was hydraulically powered (i.e. by water wheel and

16422-437: The victory with items that they did not appreciate—such as fermented tea, dyed wood, ginger, and herbs. The soldiers receiving such "rewards" often tied them up in bundles and hanged them on trees, calling them, "Shouzhen's heads". Nevertheless, upon Li's return to the capital Kaifeng after the victory, he was greatly honored by being given the honorary chancellor designation Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi ( 同中書門下平章事 ) and

16560-474: The way), the remaining power vacuum allowed Liu to arrive at Kaifeng quickly and gradually take over the vacated former Later Jin territory. In or around summer 947, Li Shouzhen submitted a petition to him, formally submitting as a Later Han subject. Liu thereafter moved him to be the military governor of Huguo Circuit (護國, headquartered in modern Yuncheng , Shanxi ) and gave him the honorary chancellor title Zhongshu Ling ( 中書令 ). In 948, Liu Zhiyuan died and

16698-635: The weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time. By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as Laozi , Confucius and Sun Tzu lived during this chaotic period. Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced

16836-506: The well known Terracotta Army . After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire. The Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang , who emerged victorious in the Chu–Han Contention that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A golden age in Chinese history,

16974-448: The world's fastest-growing major economy . China had been the most populous nation in the world for decades since its unification, until it was surpassed by India in 2023. The archaic human species of Homo erectus arrived in Eurasia sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 million years ago (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China. The oldest of these

17112-495: The world's top 200 cities by scientific output as tracked by the Nature Index . The city is home to a campus of Henan University , one of the national key universities in the Double First Class University Plan . The postal romanization for the city is "Kaifeng". Its official one-character abbreviation in Chinese is 汴 ( Biàn ). Historically it has also been known as: The area was named "Kaifeng" after

17250-518: Was first united under a single imperial state by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. Orthography , weights, measures, and law were all standardized. Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical era with the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), marking a critical period. A term for the Chinese language is still "Han language", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group is known as Han Chinese . The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during this period. Confucianism

17388-586: Was briefly captured around the mid-14th century by the Red Turban rebels who made it their capital for ten years. They were crushed by the newly established Ming forces. At the beginning of the Ming dynasty in 1368, Kaifeng was made the capital of Henan province. In 1642, Kaifeng was flooded by the Ming army with water from the Yellow River to prevent the peasant rebel Li Zicheng from taking over. After this disaster,

17526-594: Was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago. Early evidence for millet agriculture in the Yellow River valley was radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC. The Jiahu site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes called proto-writing , were found at

17664-458: Was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River ; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23. Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at Luoyang , east of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era

17802-423: Was decreed to be executed, submitted Yang's treasures, beautiful concubines, and best horses to Li, hoping to be spared. Li thus hid him from the imperial officials. However, the chancellor Sang Weihan , receiving reports that Li had sheltered Song, sent officers to search Li's camp and, upon locating Song, executed him, causing Li to resent Sang. Li also drew resentment from his own soldiers by awarding them for

17940-452: Was defeated by the Later Han general Guo Wei , however, and he committed suicide. It is not known when Li Shouzhen was born. It is known that he was from Heyang (河陽, in modern Jiaozuo , Henan ). He was said to be intelligent and strong in character in but poor in his youth. He became an officer at Heyang Circuit (headquartered at Heyang). When Shi Jingtang served as the military governor ( Jiedushi ) of Heyang under his father-in-law,

18078-417: Was friendly with Du, and they had together surrendered to Liao previously, Li feared that he would be next, and therefore began to prepare for a campaign to resist the Later Han imperial government. He also believed that he was a senior general who had previously endeared himself to the Later Jin imperial guards (which Later Han had inherited) and therefore might be able to entice them to turn to him, and viewed

18216-489: Was officially sanctioned and its core texts were edited into their received forms. Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power. Han technology can be considered on par with that of the contemporaneous Roman Empire : mass production of paper aided the proliferation of written documents, and the written language of this period was employed for millennia afterwards. China became known internationally for its sericulture . When

18354-423: Was one of the Later Jin generals sent to resist the invasion. When the Liao general Yelü Mada ( 耶律麻荅 ) tried to attack Shi Chonggui himself directly during the campaign, Li Shouzhen intercepted and defeated him. After the end of that campaign, Shi, while retaining him as discipline officer, also made him the military governor of Taining Circuit (泰寧, headquartered in modern Jining , Shandong ). Subsequently, when

18492-571: Was reconstructed during this time. The Jurchen kept their main capital further north until 1214 when they were forced to move the imperial court southwards to Kaifeng in order to flee from the onslaught of the Mongols . In 1232 they succumbed to the combined Mongol and Song forces in the Mongol siege of Kaifeng . The Mongols captured the city and in 1279 conquered all of China . During the Yuan dynasty Bianliang became

18630-402: Was removed from his dual roles as chancellor and chief of staff ( Shumishi ) and replaced by Zhao Ying and Li Song . Around this time, his military governorship was moved from Guide to Tainting (天平, headquartered in modern Tai'an , Shandong ). In 946, there was a report from Ding Prefecture (定州, in modern Baoding , Hebei ) that another Liao attack was impending. Shi Chonggui sent Li to

18768-596: Was succeeded by his nephew Shi Chonggui , Li Shouzhen was given the dual offices of commander of the imperial cavalry guards and military governor of Yicheng Circuit (義成, headquartered in modern Anyang , Henan ). His imperial guard office was soon changed to be discipline officer of the imperial guards. In 944, the Khitan Liao dynasty 's Emperor Taizong —whose support had been instrumental in Shi Jingtang's establishment of Later Jin but whose relationship with Shi Chonggui had become inimical—invaded Later Jin. Li Shouzhen

18906-456: Was succeeded by his son Liu Chengyou . Pursuant to instructions that Liu Zhiyuan left, a group of high-level officials and generals ( Su Fengji , Yang Bin , Shi Hongzhao , and Guo Wei ) were entrusted with the responsibilities of the imperial government. Liu Zhiyuan also left instructions to "defend against Du Chongwei", which these officials interpreted as an order to execute Du, and which they then carried out after Liu Zhiyuan's death. As Li

19044-399: Was the legendary era of the sage-emperors Yao , Shun , and Yu . Traditionally, the abdication system was prominent in this period, with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty. The Xia dynasty ( c.  2070  – c.  1600 BC ) is the earliest of the three dynasties described in much later traditional historiography, which includes

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