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52-496: A relationship between Lemnian, Raetic and Etruscan , as a Tyrsenian language family , has been proposed by German linguist Helmut Rix due to close connections in vocabulary and grammar. For example, Rix's Tyrsenian family is supported by a number of linguists such as Stefan Schumacher, Carlo De Simone , Norbert Oettinger, Simona Marchesini, or Rex E. Wallace . Common features between Etruscan, Raetic , and Lemnian have been observed in morphology , phonology , and syntax . On

104-488: A cable-stayed suspension bridge opened in 1993, joins Chalcis to the mainland to the south. A special tidal phenomenon takes place in the strait, as strong tidal currents reverse direction once every six hours, creating strong currents and maelstroms. The municipality Chalcis was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of Chalcis city itself with four former municipalities, which also became municipal units: The municipality has an area of 424.766 km ,

156-413: A city in the 6th-century Synecdemus and mentioned by the contemporary historian Procopius of Caesarea , who recorded that a movable bridge linked the two shores of the strait. In Byzantine times, Chalcis was usually called Euripos , a name also applied to the entire island of Euboea, although the ancient name survived in administrative and ecclesiastical usage until the 9th century; alternatively, it

208-502: A junior football team named Evoikos Chalkida. The Chalkida football team merged with Lilas Vasilikou for a period of two years (2004–2006). The team was finally dissolved because of financial difficulties. Although there was a team created with the same name (AOX) it does not represent the glorious team of the past. Chalcis also has a basketball team ( AGEX ), which previously played in the Greek A2 Basketball League . For

260-673: A migration from Lemnos to Etruria or to the Alps where Raetic was spoken. The indigenous inhabitants of Lemnos, also called in ancient times Sinteis , were the Sintians , a Thracian population. A 2021 archeogenetic analysis of Etruscan individuals concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous and genetically similar to the Early Iron Age Latins , and that the Etruscan language, and therefore

312-826: A significant role in the history of Frankish Greece , and was attacked by the Principality of Achaea in the War of the Euboeote Succession (1257/8), the Catalan Company in 1317, the Turks in 1350/1, until it was finally captured by the Ottoman Empire after a long siege in 1470. That siege is the subject of the Rossini opera Maometto II . The Ottomans made it the seat of the Admiral of

364-510: Is a high probability that here king/tyrant of Athens Hippias was mentioned. Tyrand Hippias died in Lemnos in 490 BC. Transcription: Another Lemnian inscription was found during excavations at Hephaistia on the island of Lemnos in 2009. The inscription consists of 26 letters arranged in two lines of boustrophedonic script. Transcription: Rhaetic language Rhaetic or Raetic ( / ˈ r iː t ɪ k / ), also known as Rhaetian ,

416-540: Is among the oldest examples of early Dominican architecture surviving, and is one of the only early Dominican churches to retain its original form until the present. The central arch over the iconostasis and the ceiling and walls of the south chapel are the best examples of Italian Gothic stone-carving in Greece. Images of the Dominican saints, Dominic and Peter Martyr, stand at the base of the central arch. The north chapel holds

468-761: Is based on the fact that in 510 BC the Athenian Miltiades invaded Lemnos and hellenized it. The stele bears a low-relief bust of a male soldier and is inscribed in an alphabet similar to the western (" Chalcidian ") Greek alphabet . The inscription is in Boustrophedon style, and has been transliterated but had not been successfully translated until serious linguistic analysis based on comparisons with Etruscan, combined with breakthroughs in Etruscan's own translation started to yield fruit. The inscription consists of 198 characters forming 33 to 40 words, word separation sometimes indicated with one to three dots. The text on

520-799: Is mentioned in the same line as its rival Eretria . It is also documented that the ships set for the Trojan War gathered at Aulis, the south bank of the strait near the city. Chamber tombs at Trypa and Vromousa dated to the Mycenaean period were excavated by Papavasiliou in 1910. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC, colonists from Chalcis founded thirty townships on the peninsula of Chalcidice and several important cities in Magna Graecia and Sicily , such as Naxos , Rhegion , Zankle and Cumae . Its mineral produces, metal-work, purple , and pottery not only found markets among these settlements but were distributed over

572-566: Is no evidence of it through the early Middle Ages. In the Hellenistic period, it gained importance as a fortress by which the Macedonian rulers controlled central Greece. It was used by kings Antiochus III of Syria (192 BC) and Mithradates VI of Pontus (88 BC) as a base for invading Greece. Characteristic is the fact that in 323 BC the Stagerite philosopher Aristotle comes to Chalkida to die

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624-437: Is not to be confused with the modern Romance languages of the same Alpine region, known as Rhaeto-Romance . The German linguist Helmut Rix proposed in 1998 that Rhaetic, along with Etruscan , was a member of a language family he called Tyrrhenian , and which was possibly influenced by neighboring Indo-European languages. Robert S. P. Beekes likewise does not consider it Indo-European. Howard Hayes Scullard (1967), on

676-417: Is possible that the name was given anew to a settlement that was founded in the 9th century in the location of the ancient city, after the latter had been abandoned in the early Middle Ages. The town survived an Arab naval raid in the 880s and its bishop is attested in the 869–70 Church council held at Constantinople . By the 12th century, the town featured a Venetian trading station, being attacked by

728-715: The Aegean Sea during the Late Bronze Age , when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily , Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula. Scholars such as Norbert Oettinger, Michel Gras and Carlo De Simone think that Lemnian is the testimony of an Etruscan commercial settlement on the island that took place before 700 BC, not related to the Sea Peoples. After more than 90 years of archaeological excavations at Lemnos, nothing has been found that would support

780-648: The Archipelago (the Aegean Islands). In 1688, it was successfully held by the Ottomans against a strong Venetian attack. Chalkida became part of the newborn Greek state after the Greek War of Independence . The modern town received an impetus in its export trade from the establishment of railway connection with Athens and its port Piraeus in 1904. In the early 20th century it was composed of two parts—the old walled town at

832-627: The Byzantine reconquest of the city, could have actual jurisdiction on Greek soil and exercise a direct role as head of the Latin clergy in what remained of Latin Greece . The church of Saint Paraskevi (the patron saint of the island ) was the church of the Dominican Priory of Negroponte, one of the first two houses authorized for the Order of Preachers' Province of Greece in 1249. Started about 1250, this

884-612: The Euripus Strait at its narrowest point. The name is preserved from antiquity and is derived from the Greek χαλκός ( copper , bronze ), though there is no trace of any mines in the area. In the Late Middle Ages , it was known as Negropont(e) , an Italian name that has also been applied to the entire island of Euboea. The earliest recorded mention of Chalcis is in the Iliad , where it

936-605: The Fritzens-Sanzeno and Magrè cultures . It is clear that in the centuries leading up to Roman imperial times, the Rhaetians had at least come under Etruscan influence, as the Rhaetic inscriptions are written in what appears to be a northern variant of the Etruscan alphabet. The ancient Roman sources mention the Rhaetic people as being reputedly of Etruscan origin, so there may at least have been some ethnic Etruscans who had settled in

988-578: The Mediterranean in the ships of Corinth and Samos . The development of the city led consequently to the increase of the population and finally to the colonization with the establishment of many important cities in the West, but also in the Greek area. The first recorded settlement in the West, which paved the way for the 2nd Greek colonization, is Pithecusae on the island of Ischia, in front of Naples, from Chalcidians and Eretrians around 770 BC. The etymology of

1040-721: The Peloponnese ), as well as the island of Euboea , and in colonies associated with these places, including most colonies in Italy. The alphabet used for Lemnian inscriptions is similar to an archaic variant used to write the Etruscan language in southern Etruria. The stele, also known as the stele of Kaminia, was found built into a church wall in Kaminia and is now at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens . The 6th century date

1092-674: The Eretrians. The Thessalians also allied with the Chalcidians, a fact mentioned by Plutarch. The historical sources provide evidence for only one battle of the war, undoubtedly the last, with the reference point being the death of the Thessalian Amphidamandas, who was praised by Hesiod. In this battle the help from the Thessalian cavalry resulted in victory for Chalkida, by which it acquired the best agricultural district of Euboea and became

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1144-565: The Lemnian language appears to have had a four-vowel system, consisting of "i", "e", "a" and "o". Other languages in the neighbourhood of the Lemnian area, namely Hittite and Akkadian , had similar four-vowel systems, suggesting early areal influence . The Lemnian inscriptions are in Western Greek alphabet , also called the "red alphabet". The red type is found in most parts of central and northern mainland Greece ( Thessaly , Boeotia and most of

1196-618: The Metropolitan of Athens, remaining in the sway of the Patriarchate of Constantinople . It was also known as Euripo, like it is mentioned in the Byzantine imperial Notitia Episcopatuum since emperor Leo VI the Wise (886-912). Several of its Greek bishops are recorded, but some are disputed : At the establishment of the crusader state Lordship of Negroponte , Chalcis or Negroponte (seat of

1248-509: The Rhaeti in the second Iron Age being characterized by the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture , in continuity with late Bronze Age culture and early Iron Age Laugen-Melaun culture . The Raeti are not believed, archeologically, to descend from the Etruscans, as well as it is not believed plausible that the Etruscans are descended from the Rhaeti. Helmut Rix dated the end of the Proto-Tyrsenian period to

1300-535: The Venetian fleet in 1171 and eventually seized by Venice in 1209, in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade . For Westerners, its common name was Negropont or Negroponte. This name comes indirectly from the Greek name of the Euripus Strait : the phrase στὸν Εὔριπον 'to Evripos', was rebracketed as στὸ Νεὔριπον 'to Nevripos', and became Negroponte in Italian by folk etymology , the ponte 'bridge' being interpreted as

1352-510: The Venetic goddess Reitia has commonly been discerned in the Rhaetic finds, but the two names do not seem to be linked. The spelling as Raet- is found in inscriptions, while Rhaet- was used in Roman manuscripts; it is unclear whether this Rh represents an accurate transcription of an aspirated R in Rhaetic, or is merely an error. Our understanding of Rhaetic phonology is quite uncertain, and

1404-672: The bridge of Chalcis to Boeotia . The town was a condominium between Venice and the Veronese barons of the rest of Euboea, known as the " triarchs ", who resided there. Chalcis or Negroponte became a Latin Church diocese , see below. A large hoard of late medieval jewellery dating from Venetian times was found in Chalcis Castle in the nineteenth century and is now in the British Museum . The synagogue dated to around 1400. Negroponte played

1456-506: The bridge over the Euripus, where a number of Turkish families continued to live until the late 19th century, and a sizeable Jewish community lived until World War II, and the more modern suburb that lies outside it, chiefly occupied by Greeks. The old town, called the Castro (citadel), was surrounded by a full circuit of defense walls until they were completely razed for urban development around

1508-514: The central one of its three 'triarchies' constituent baronies) became a Latin Church diocese , the first bishop being Theodorus, the Greek bishop of the see, who entered communion with the see of Rome , installed by papal legate . On 8 February 1314, the Latin see was united in commendam (as an 'additional benefice') with the Latin Patriarchate of Constantinople , so that the exiled Patriarch, excluded from Constantinople itself since

1560-524: The centuries the Romans renamed it 'Latin'.So today, at least eight letters of all Latin-derived languages are the same as their ancient Euboic counterparts. They are C, D, F, P, R, S and X (pronounced ks). The transmission of the Chalkidic alphabet to the west is the most important cultural contribution of ancient Chalkida to the world culture. The Lelantine War was a war fought in the late 8th century BC. between

1612-553: The chief city of the island. Late in the 6th century BC, its prosperity was broken by a disastrous war with the Athenians , who expelled the ruling aristocracy and settled a cleruchy on the site. Chalcis subsequently became a member of both the Delian Leagues . Chalkis has had a Greco-Jewish presence since antiquity, which is sometimes claimed to have been continuous and to thus form Europe's oldest Jewish community, although there

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1664-567: The contrary, suggested it to be an Indo-European language , with links to Illyrian and Celtic . Nevertheless, most scholars now think that Rhaetic is closely related to Etruscan within the Tyrrhenian grouping. Rix's Tyrsenian family is supported by a number of linguists such as Stefan Schumacher, Carlo De Simone , Norbert Oettinger, Simona Marchesini, and Rex E. Wallace . Common features between Etruscan, Rhaetic, and Lemnian have been observed in morphology , phonology , and syntax . On

1716-530: The course of the Neolithic Revolution ". The lack of recent Anatolian-related admixture and Iranian-related ancestry among the Etruscans, who genetically joined firmly to the European cluster, might also suggest that the presence of a handful of inscriptions found at Lemnos, in a language related to Etruscan and Raetic, "could represent population movements departing from the Italian peninsula". Like Etruscan,

1768-471: The ending -r(a) is attested. Two verbal suffixes have been identified, both known from Etruscan: Chalcis Chalcis ( / ˈ k æ l s ɪ s / ; Ancient Greek & Katharevousa : Χαλκίς , romanized : Chalkís ), also called Chalkida or Halkida ( Modern Greek : Χαλκίδα , pronounced [xalˈciða] ), is the chief city of the island of Euboea or Evia in Greece , situated on

1820-553: The following year at his mother's house. Then during the Hellenistic era, settlers from Chalkida founded Chalkida in Syria, by order of Seleucus I, from which settlers founded another Chalkida in the Lebanon Valley, as well as another Chalkida in Arabia. Under Roman rule, Chalcis retained a measure of commercial prosperity within the province of Achaea (southern Greece). It is recorded as

1872-465: The front consists of three parts, two written vertically (1; 6-7) and one horizontally (2-5). Comprehensible is the phrase sivai avis šialχvis ('lived forty' years, B.3), reminiscent of Etruscan maχs śealχis-c ('and forty-five years'), seeming to refer to the person to whom this funerary monument was dedicated, holaiesi φokiašiale ('to Holaie Phokiaš' B.1), who appeared to have been an official called maras at some point marasm avis aomai ('and

1924-581: The last quarter of the 2nd millennium BC . Carlo De Simone and Simona Marchesini have proposed a much earlier date, placing the Tyrsenian language split before the Bronze Age . This would provide one explanation for the low number of lexical correspondences. * The language is documented in Northern Italy between the 5th and the 1st centuries BC by about 280 texts, in an area corresponding to

1976-539: The municipal unit 30.804 km . In 2003, a bypass of Chalcis was opened from the southern part of the bridge to connect with GR-77, also with access to GR-44. Chalcis station is the northern terminus of the Oinoi–Chalcis railway , and is served by Line 3 of the Athens Suburban Railway . Chalcis also has a water polo team named NC Chalkida , a football (soccer) team named Chalkida F.C. , as well as

2028-470: The oldest Etruscan and Rhaetic inscriptions, such as in the grammatical voices of past tenses or in the endings of male gentilicia . Around 600 BC, the Rhaeti became isolated from the Etruscan area, probably by the Celts, thus limiting contacts between the two languages. Such a late datation has not enjoyed consensus, because the split would still be too recent, and in contrast with the archaeological data,

2080-439: The other hand, few lexical correspondences are documented, at least partly due to the scanty number of Raetic and Lemnian texts and possibly to the early date at which the languages split. The Tyrsenian family (or Common Tyrrhenic) is often considered to be Paleo-European and to predate the arrival of Indo-European languages in southern Europe. According to Dutch historian Luuk De Ligt, the Lemnian language could have arrived in

2132-561: The other hand, few lexical correspondences are documented, at least partly due to the scanty number of Rhaetic and Lemnian texts and possibly to the early date at which the languages split. The Tyrsenian family (or Common Tyrrhenic) is often considered to be Paleo-European and to predate the arrival of Indo-European languages in southern Europe. In 2004 L. Bouke van der Meer proposed that Rhaetic could have developed from Etruscan from around 900 BC or even earlier, and no later than 700 BC, since divergences are already present in

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2184-560: The other languages of the Tyrrhenian family, may be a surviving language of the ones that were widespread in Europe from at least the Neolithic period before the arrival of the Indo-European languages, as already argued by German geneticist Johannes Krause who concluded that it is likely that the Etruscan language (as well as Basque , Paleo-Sardinian and Minoan ) "developed on the continent in

2236-636: The region by that time. In his Natural History (1st century AD), Pliny wrote about Alpine peoples: ... adjoining these (the Noricans ) are the Rhaeti and Vindelici . All are divided into several states. The Rhaeti are believed to be people of Etruscan race driven out by the Gauls ; their leader was named Rhaetus. Pliny's comment on a leader named Rhaetus is typical of mythologized origins of ancient peoples, and not necessarily reliable. The name of

2288-604: The sea strait between Sicily and Italy, just as the Metropolis of Chalkida controlled the Euboean gulfs. In the 8th century BC the increase in trade between the Chalkidian colonies in lower Italy and Sicily with the local populations resulted in the spread of the Chalkidic alphabet among the most ancient inhabitants of the peninsula. The Etruscans took this alphabet and appropriated it so that they too could express themselves in writing. Over

2340-405: The start of the 20th century. The city is served by a railway station and is the terminus for the Athens Suburban Railway to Athens. There is a Holocaust memorial honoring the Jewish lives lost during World War II outside of the Chalkis Jewish cemetery. The Byzantine diocese of Chalkis was initially a suffragan of the Archdiocese of Corinth , but in the 9th century was transferred to

2392-407: The time of Justinian the fixed bridge was replaced with a movable structure. The Turks replaced this once again with a fixed bridge. In 1856, a wooden swing bridge was built; in 1896, an iron swing bridge, and in 1962, the existing "sliding bridge"; the construction works of the 19th century destroyed the most part of the medieval castle built across the bridge. The Euripus Bridge or Chalcis Bridge,

2444-409: The tomb of the founder of the senatorial Lippamano family of Venice. Some of the column capitals are Byzantine. The town is now connected to mainland Greece by two bridges, the "Sliding Bridge" in the west at the narrowest point of the Euripus Strait and a suspension bridge. The Euripus Strait which separates the city and the island from the mainland was bridged in 411 BC with a wooden bridge. In

2496-441: The toponym "Pithikousa" comes from the pithos (pitharia) that the first settlers had with them to transport their products. Because of the first Chalcidian settlers, the Romans initially called all Greeks "Chalcidians", as they were the first Greeks they came into contact with.A few years later, the Chalcidian Antimnestos founds Rigio in 730-720 BC. and Crataimenis' fellow-citizen Zagli (later Messina) in 730 BC, thus wanting to control

2548-410: The two powerful ancient states of Evia, Chalkida and Eretria, which at that time were at the height of their prosperity. This war was one of the first known major wars between ancient Greek cities and took pan-Hellenic dimensions as the warring Chalcidians and Eretrians allied themselves with other Greek cities. As Herodotus mentions, the Samians allied with the Chalcidians, while the Milesians allied with

2600-498: The working hypothesis is that it's very similar to Etruscan phonology . It appears that Rhaetic, like Etruscan, had a four-vowel system: /a/, /i/, /e/, /u/. Unlike Etruscan, Rhaetic does not seem to have the distinction between aspirated and non-aspirated stops. Consonant phonemes attested in Rhaetic include a dental (or palatal) affricate /ts/, dental sibilant /s/, palatal sibilant /ʃ/, nasals /n/, /m/ and liquids /r/, /l/. The following cases are attested in Rhaetic: For plural,

2652-463: Was a Tyrsenian language spoken in the ancient region of Rhaetia in the eastern Alps in pre-Roman and Roman times. It is documented by around 280 texts dated from the 5th up until the 1st century BC, which were found through northern Italy, southern Germany, eastern Switzerland, Slovenia and western Austria, in two variants of the Old Italic scripts . Rhaetic is largely accepted as being closely related to Etruscan . The ancient Rhaetic language

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2704-528: Was a maras one year'B3), compare Etruscan -m "and" (postposition), and maru . Oddly, this text also contains a word naφoθ that seems to be connected to Etruscan nefts "nephew/uncle"; but this is a fairly clear borrowing from Latin nepot-, suggesting that the speakers of this language migrated at some point from the Italic peninsula (or independently borrowed this Indo-European word from somewhere else). G.Kleinschmidt in 1893 proposed such translation of expression haralio eptesio - king έπιτιδημι. It

#191808