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138-699: Laba Festival was not on a fixed day until the Southern and Northern dynasties , when it was influenced by Buddhism and was fixed on the eighth day of twelfth month, which was also the enlightenment day of the Buddha. Therefore, many customs of the Laba Festival are related to Buddhism. It corresponds directly to the Japanese Rohatsu and the South Asian Bodhi Day . The Laba Festival's name represents its date on

276-687: A Jin prince who had moved to the South, continued the dynasty as the Eastern Jin from Jiankang (modern day Nanjing ). The collapse of Jin authority in the North led other leaders to declare independence. In 315, Tuoba Yilu , a Xianbei chieftain, founded the Dai in modern-day Inner Mongolia . In 318, Zhang Shi , the ethnic Chinese governor of Liangzhou founded the Former Liang in modern-day Gansu . After Liu Cong's death,

414-617: A Xiongnu chieftain, rebelled and founded the Xia in northern Shaanxi, and the Western Qin was revived in the southern Shaanxi. In 416, the Eastern Jin under General Liu Yu launched a northern expedition that captured Luoyang and Chang'an and extinguished the Later Qin. The Eastern Jin could not hold these cities as Liu Yu returned south to seize the Jin throne . The Xia kingdom quickly seized Chang'an. In

552-455: A brief interlude from 552 to 555), they are sometimes grouped together with Eastern Wu and Eastern Jin under the historiographic term "the Six Dynasties ". The rulers of these short-lived dynasties were generals who seized and then held power for several decades but were unable to securely pass power of rule onto their heirs to continue their dynasty successfully. Emperor Wu of Liang (502–549)

690-445: A ceasefire and peace. However, Hou thought that peace was unsustainable, so he broke the ceasefire and captured the palace, leading to the slaughter of the nearby populace. Emperor Wu was starved to death and after the short puppet reigns of crown prince Xiao Gang and Xiao Dong, Hou seized power and established the Han dynasty. In spite of conquering Jiankang, Hou essentially only controlled

828-665: A descendant of Goguryeo royalty who was adopted into the Murong court, is considered either the last emperor of the Later Yan or the founding emperor of the Northern Yan . In 409, he was killed by Feng Ba, a Han Chinese assimilated to Xianbei culture, who took control of the Northern Yan. During its century-long rule of southern China, the Eastern Jin dynasty, though beset by local rebellions and insurrections, made several attempts to recapture

966-504: A diplomatic faux pas, he incited the anger of Yuwen Tai, the leading general of Western Wei, which resulted in him being deposed and dying. Western Wei set up the puppet state of Western Liang with capital at Jiangling. Northern Qi also had designs on the Liang throne and sent an expedition under the banner of a cousin of Emperor Yuan. Chen Baxian and Wang Sengbian set up the last surviving son of Emperor Yuan, Xiao Fangzhi , as Liang ruler, but he

1104-658: A failed coup by the ruling Cao family against the Sima family, the final Cao ruler abdicated. Sima Yan (Emperor Wu of Jin) then founded the Western Jin dynasty and the conquest of Eastern Wu by Western Jin occurred in 280, ending the Three Kingdoms period and reuniting China proper. The Western Jin dynasty was severely weakened due to the War of the Eight Princes from 291 to 306. During

1242-682: A formidable general to the great delight of the Northern Wei. Thus, they were unable to capitalize when Northern Wei suffered the Wuqi Incident . Starting in 445, Northern Wei, taking advantage of Liu Song's weakness, made major incursions in the lands between the Yangtze and the Huai (modern Shandong, Hebei, and Henan) and devastating six provinces. Emperor Wen lamented that if Tan were still alive, he would have prevented Northern Wei advances. From then on, Liu Song

1380-639: A fratricidal succession struggle and the kingdom was ended in 350 by General Ran Min , an ethnic Chinese who seized the throne and founded the Ran Wei . Ran Min favored Han Chinese and massacred thousands of Jie. He was defeated and killed in 352 by the Murong Xianbei from Liaodong . In 337, Murong Huang founded the Former Yan in Liaodong, which by 356 had expanded into much of Hebei , Henan and Shandong . For

1518-526: A monk, but each time he was persuaded to return by extravagant court donations to Buddhism. Furthermore, since Buddhists and Daoists were exempt from taxation, nearly half of the population fraudulently named themselves as such, badly damaging state finances. Imperial clansmen and officials were also greedy and wasteful. Emperor Wu was willing to accept generals who defected from Northern Wei. So when Northern Wei suffered major revolts in their northern garrison towns , he sent his general Chen Qingzhi to support

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1656-659: A new conception referring to the two as distinct 'Northern' and Southern' parallels, using unique local customs to distinguish themselves and compete for legitimacy. It was during the Northern and Southern dynasties period that the earliest recorded mass migration of ethnic Han to southern China (south of the Yangtze River ) took place. This sinicisation helped to develop the region from its previous state of being inhabited by isolated communities separated by vast uncolonized wilderness and other non-Han ethnic groups. During this period,

1794-534: A new sinification program that had the Xianbei elites conform to many Han standards. These social reforms included donning Han clothing (banning Xianbei clothing at court), learning the Han language (if under the age of thirty), converting Xianbei family names to one-character Han surnames, and encouraging high-ranking Xianbei and Han families to intermarry. Emperor Xiaowen also moved the capital city from Pingcheng to one of China's old imperial sites, Luoyang , which had been

1932-402: A peace offering. Despite Emperor Wu's assurances, Hou decided to rebel in the name of Xiao Dong , the grandson of the former crown prince Xiao Tong who died in 531 and was removed from crown prince because of conflicts with his father. Hou surprised Emperor Liang by besieging the Liang capital at Jiankang. Attempts by Liang forces to break the siege failed, and Emperor Wu was forced to negotiate

2070-624: A time, the Former Yan vied for supremacy in northern China with the Former Qin . The Former Qin was founded in 351 by Fu Jian (317–355) , a Di general, who had served under the Later Zhao and surrendered to the Jin before declaring independence in Shaanxi . After his death in 355, the kingdom was briefly handed to his son Fu Sheng , before his nephew Fu Jian (337–385) took control of the leadership. Under

2208-602: Is Laba garlic , which is particularly popular in northern China. Garlic in Chinese ( 蒜 ; suàn ) has the same pronunciation as calculate ( 算 ; suàn ), and it is said that on the Laba Festival businesses should balance their books and calculate their revenues and expenditures for the year. Laba garlic is made by soaking garlic in vinegar . Laba garlic is soaked in vinegar from the Laba Festival until Chinese New Year . The garlic and vinegar are then used alongside Chinese dumplings ( jiaozi ) around Chinese New Year. The festival

2346-480: Is beating drums to drive away diseases. This practice, which originated from ancient traditions of witchcraft, is still observed in places such as Xinhua , Hunan. Traditionally, the consumption of Laba congee is an important element of the festival. There are multiple legendary accounts of the dish's origins. One story says that it originated in the Song dynasty with Buddhist monasteries giving congee to people in honor of

2484-550: Is now one of China's greatest tourist attractions. In the year 523, a revolt of several military garrisons broke out, the Rebellion of the Six Garrisons ( Liu Zhen ). The revolt was caused by a food shortage far north of Luoyang. After the rebels force was suppressed, the government had 200,000 surrendered garrison rebels deployed to Hebei, which proved later to be a mistake when a former garrison officer organized another rebellion in

2622-448: Is relevant to the plot of Jin Yong 's novel Ode to Gallantry . In 2011, Google published a Google Doodle commemorating the festival. Southern and Northern dynasties The Northern and Southern dynasties ( Chinese : 南北朝 ; pinyin : Nán běi cháo ) was a period of political division in the history of China that lasted from 420 to 589, following the tumultuous era of

2760-639: Is usually made with eight or more ingredients, representing good luck. Eight is a lucky number in China, and the ba in Laba also means eight. There are many variations of Laba congee in different regions of China. Ingredients can include mixed grains, such as rice, millet , and barley ; beans and nuts such as mung beans , azuki beans , lotus seeds , peanuts, walnuts , and chestnuts ; dried fruit such as red dates , longan , raisins , and goji berries ; and other ingredients such as vegetables and meat. Another Laba food

2898-470: The Book of Zhou , Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei 's sister was married to the ethnic Han Zhang Huan, son of Zhang Qiong. When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended, Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi  [ zh ] as a refugee, and he married a Northern Wei Princess. Their son Sima Jinlong in turn married Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian 's daughter. In the year 523, Prince Dongyang of

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3036-513: The Chinese calendar . La is the name of the twelfth and final month, and ba means "eight". In ancient China, the "eight" referred to making sacrifices to eight gods at the end of the year. In its original form, the festival was celebrated by making sacrifices to gods and ancestors to wish for good fortune, health, safety, and a good harvest in the new year. The word la originally referred to these sacrifices. After Buddhism spread to China during

3174-618: The Former Qin briefly unified northern China, but this ended when the Eastern Jin inflicted a crippling defeat on it at the Battle of Fei River , after which the Former Qin splintered and northern China experienced even greater political fragmentation. The fall of the Western Jin dynasty amidst the rise of non-Han regimes in northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms period resembles the fall of

3312-704: The Hexi Corridor of western Gansu, the Later Liang splintered into the Northern Liang and Southern Liang in 397. The Southern Liang was founded by Tufa Wugu , a Xianbei, in Ledu , Qinghai. The Northern Liang was founded by an ethnic Chinese, Duan Ye in Zhangye , Gansu with the support of Juqu Mengxun , a Xiongnu, who then seized control of the kingdom in 401. In 400, Li Gao , the Chinese commander at Dunhuang broke away from

3450-563: The Later Yan that ended favorably for the Northern Wei after they received help from Zhang Gun that allowed them to destroy the Later Yan army at the Battle of Canhe Slope . Following this victory, Tuoba Gui conquered the Later Yan capital of Pingcheng (modern-day Datong). That same year he declared himself Emperor Daowu. Due to Emperor Daowu's cruelty, he was killed by his son Tuoba Shao, but crown prince Tuoba Si managed to defeat Tuoba Shao and took

3588-573: The Liu Song royal Liu Hui ( 刘辉 ), married Princess Lanling ( 蘭陵公主 ) of the Northern Wei, Princess Huayang ( 華陽公主 ) to Sima Fei ( 司馬朏 ), a descendant of Jin royalty, Princess Jinan ( 濟南公主 ) to Lu Daoqian ( 盧道虔 ), Princess Nanyang ( 南阳长公主 ) to Xiao Baoyin , a member of Southern Qi royalty. Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei 's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to Emperor Wu of Liang 's son Xiao Zong  [ zh ] . According to

3726-619: The Liu Song dynasty . In 423, he planned to launch an expedition against the Northern Wei, but died of illness. The Liu Song dynasty ruled southern China until 479. The ancestral home of the Tuoba Xianbei was the Greater Khingan range of Inner Mongolia. In 258, the clan migrated south to the Yin Mountains and spread into the Ordos Loop region. In 315, chief Tuoba Yilu was recognized as

3864-555: The Northern Liang and founded the short-lived Western Liang . The Western Liang was reabsorbed by the Northern Liang in 421. Li Gao's descendants would go on to found the Tang dynasty in the 7th century. The Southern Liang was conquered by the Western Qin in 414, and the Northern Liang lasted until 439, when it surrendered to the Northern Wei. The Later Yan conquered the Zhai Wei in 392 and

4002-643: The Northern Wei and its predecessor Dai , because the Northern Wei is considered to be the first of the Northern Dynasties in the period that followed the Sixteen Kingdoms. Classical Chinese historians called the period the " Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarians " ( simplified Chinese : 五胡十六国 ; traditional Chinese : 五胡十六國 ; pinyin : Wǔhú Shíliù Guó ) because of the active roles played by non-Han ethnicities during this period. Even among

4140-574: The Northern Wei , a dynasty established by the Xianbei Tuoba clan. This occurred 19 years after the Eastern Jin collapsed in 420, and was replaced by the Liu Song dynasty . Following the unification of the north by Northern Wei, the Northern and Southern dynasties era of Chinese history began. The term "Sixteen Kingdoms" was first used by the 6th-century historian Cui Hong in the Spring and Autumn Annals of

4278-504: The Northern Zhou dynasty (557–580). The Northern Qi inherited the primary recruiting grounds of the Northern Wei army; previously, five out of six Northern Wei military officers came from the eastern territories, particularly the local armed forts of Han military families and steppe tribes who had settled in these areas. The members of these military families, both men and women, were often expert riders and archers. Like its predecessor

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4416-545: The Rouran nomads to the north and began the conquest of Shaanxi, Ningxia, and Gansu. In 427, he captured the Xia capital, Tongwancheng in modern-day Jingbian County , Shaanxi. The Xia under Helian Ding moved to Pingliang , Gansu and conquered the Western Qin at Jincheng (modern day Lanzhou ) in 431. Helian Ding sought an alliance with the Liu Song dynasty but was driven further west by

4554-448: The Rouran , Goguryeo , Tuyuhun and smaller local powers to defeat the Northern Wei, the North and South were forced into tacitly acknowledging their equal status, for example, by granting each other the highest positions as the most esteemed envoys. As the Wei Shu and Song Shu testify, there was a shift from imperial rhetoric denouncing the other side as illegitimate barbarians, towards

4692-524: The Sixteen Kingdoms and the Eastern Jin dynasty . It is sometimes considered as the latter part of a longer period known as the Six Dynasties (220–589). The period featured civil war and political chaos, but was also a time of flourishing arts and culture, advancement in technology, and the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism . The period saw large-scale migration of Han people to lands south of

4830-462: The Sixteen States , was a chaotic period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states . The majority of these states were founded by the " Five Barbarians ", non- Han peoples who had settled in northern and western China during the preceding centuries, and had launched a series of rebellions against the Western Jin dynasty in

4968-666: The Sui dynasty extinguished the Chen dynasty . It can be divided into three time periods: Northern Wei ; Eastern and Western Weis ; Northern Qi and Northern Zhou . The Northern, Eastern, and Western Wei along with the Northern Zhou were established by the Xianbei people while the Northern Qi was established by a Xianbei-influenced ethnic Han. In the north, local ethnic Han gentry clans responded to

5106-668: The Western Yan in Shanxi. Yao Chang founded the Later Qin in eastern Gansu . Fu Jian was killed by Yao Chang, but the Former Qin survived by relocating from Shaanxi to Gansu and then Qinghai . In 385, Qifu Guoren , a Xianbei former vassal under Fu Jian, founded the Western Qin . In 386, Lü Guang , a Di general of the Former Qin, founded the Later Liang in western Gansu while Tuoba Gui revived

5244-610: The Yangtze . The period came to an end with the unification of China proper by Emperor Wen of the Sui dynasty . During this period, the process of sinicization accelerated among the non-Han ethnicities in the north and among the indigenous peoples in the south. This process was also accompanied by the increasing popularity of Buddhism in both northern and southern China and Daoism gaining influence as well, with two essential Daoist canons written during this period. Notable technological advances occurred during this period. The invention of

5382-565: The Yellow Turban and the Five Pecks of Rice rebellions, China eventually coalesced into the Three Kingdoms . Of these, Cao Wei was the strongest, followed by Eastern Wu and Shu Han , but they were initially in a relatively stable formation. After a 249 coup by Sima Yi , the Sima family essentially controlled Cao Wei and the conquest of Shu Han by Cao Wei rapidly followed. Following

5520-502: The stirrup during the earlier Jin dynasty (266–420) helped spur the development of heavy cavalry as a combat standard. Historians also note advances in medicine, astronomy , mathematics , and cartography . Intellectuals of the period include the mathematician and astronomer Zu Chongzhi (429–500), and astronomer Tao Hongjing . After the collapse of a unified China proper under the Eastern Han dynasty in 220 due in large part to

5658-559: The Buddhist Gai Wu ( 蓋吳 ) rebelled. After pacifying this rebellion, Emperor Taiwu, under the advice of his Daoist prime minister Cui Hao , proscribed Buddhism — the first of the persecutions of Chinese Buddhism known as the Three Disasters of Wu . At this late stage in his life, Emperor Taiwu meted out cruel punishments, which led to his death in 452 at the hands of the eunuch Zong Ai . His death sparked off turmoil that only ended with

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5796-439: The Chen dynasty. Chen Shubao relied on the natural barrier of the Yangtze River and continued as always with his festive and licentious activities. The next year, Sui forces captured the Chen capital of Jiankang. Chen Shubao and his favorite concubine Zhang Lihua attempted to hide in a well but eventually were captured by Sui forces, thus ending the Chen dynasty. After the failure of the Liu Song's efforts to form an alliance with

5934-425: The Dai as the Northern Wei . In 388, Zhai Liao , an ethnic Dingling leader in Henan founded the Zhai Wei , which was wedged between the Later Yan, Western Yan and Eastern Jin. As many as seven kingdoms coexisted for nine years. The Later Qin, which ended the Former Qin in 394, the Western Qin in 400, and Later Liang in 403, extended its control over much of Shaanxi, Gansu, and Ningxia . But in 407, Helian Bobo ,

6072-417: The Eastern Jin as their suzerain. Jin princes and military governors often recruited non-Chinese tribes into their armies in their suppression of rebellions and wars with each other. Also in 304, Liu Yuan , a Xiongnu chieftain, who had been fighting in the Jin civil war on the side of Prince Sima Ying , returned home to Shanxi where he reorganized the five tribes of the Xiongnu and declared independence as

6210-468: The Eastern Jin attempted to draft the dependents of the great families, the court was quickly overthrown. However, with the fall of the Eastern Jin in 420, the balance of power shifted in favour the central government. The subsequent Liu Song, Qi, Liang and Chen dynasties were ruled by military leaders from lowly social backgrounds. They gradually stripped the powerful clans of military power, authority and wealth. The emperors stationed regional armies around

6348-418: The Eastern Jin court. In order to gain popularity to take the throne he led expeditions against the Sixteen Kingdoms, capturing Shandong , Henan and, briefly, Guanzhong by 416. He gave up Guanzhong to try to take the throne. Because he believed in a prophecy saying there would be one more emperor after Emperor An , he deposed the former and, soon afterwards, his replacement, Emperor Gong in 420, ending

6486-435: The Eastern Jin dynasty. Even after crowning himself Emperor Wu, Liu Yu remained frugal. However, he did not care for education and trusted unsavory people. He felt that the nobility had too much power, so he tended to appoint the lower classes to government positions and gave military power to imperial kinsmen. Ironically, because the imperial kinsmen stabilized their military power and wished to gain political power, Emperor Wu

6624-513: The Former Qin in 354 and Luoyang from Qiang chieftain Yao Xiang in 356. In 369, he led a large force across the Yellow River into Hebei but was defeated by the Former Yan. In 383, the Eastern Jin reclaimed Henan south of the Yellow River after turning back the Former Qin in the Battle of Feishui in 383, but lost that territory once the northern kingdoms strengthened. Huan Wen had pretensions to seize power and deposed Emperor Fei in favor of Emperor Jianwen in 371. His son Huan Xuan briefly took

6762-431: The Former Qin kingdom collapsed after the Battle of Feishui in 383. Lü Guang founded the Later Liang and held Kumārajīva captive in western Gansu for 18 years. In 401, the Later Qin ruler, Yao Xing conquered the Former Liang and Kumārajīva was able to settle in Chang'an and become one of the most influential translators of Buddhist sutras into Chinese. The earliest grottoes in the Mogao Caves of Dunhuang were carved in

6900-467: The Great successfully invaded the kingdoms of Baekje , Silla , and Dongbuyeo . Riding its success, Goguryeo campaigned against the Later Yan , obtaining the Liao River region. King Murong Xi of Later Yan twice launched retaliatory attacks to reclaim the Liao River watershed territory, but was only partially successful. At Northern Yan's destruction by the Northern Wei , Yan king Feng Hong fled to Goguryeo to seek asylum. Although granted asylum, Hong

7038-400: The Huai River. Northern Zhou instead took advantage of Northern Qi's weakness and following their defeat of Northern Qi, in 577, they sent troops to the territories south of the Huai River, where they decisively defeated the Chen dynasty forces. The Chen dynasty was in imminent danger. In a stroke of fortune, Northern Zhou's Emperor Wu suddenly died and his general Yang Jian attempted to take

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7176-412: The Ning of Qinzhou, the Li of Guizhou-Tengzhou and the Chen of Shuangzhou. These families functioned both as cheftains to the natives and bureaucrats to the court. Liu Song founder Liu Yu was originally a leader of the Army of the Northern Garrison ( Chinese : 北府軍 ) that notably won the Battle of Fei River in 383. In 404, he helped suppress Huan Xuan 's rebellion, leading to his dominance over

7314-472: The North, and managed to make some inroads, but were ultimately unsuccessful. In 313, Sima Rui, the Yuan Emperor gave Zu Ti 1,000 men and 3,000 bolts of cloth for a northern expedition. Despite meager resources, Zu Ti managed to recapture a large swath of Henan south of the Yellow River and repeatedly defeated Shi Le's Later Zhao forces. Eastern Jin Emperors were wary of generals acquiring power and prestige from successful northern expeditions and threatening

7452-524: The Northern Wei (essentially the Tuoba Xianbei), held de facto rule over the entire Mongolian Plateau and the Liao River region. In the Western Regions (modern Xinjiang ) of the former Han Empire lay the kingdoms of Shanshan , Qiuzi , Yutian , Dongshi, and Shule . These kingdoms were often controlled or influenced by the various Liang kingdoms that existed during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Former Liang organized Gaochang Commandery (Chinese: 高昌郡 ) and Tiandi County ( Chinese : 闐地縣 ) in

7590-419: The Northern Wei arranged for Han elites to marry daughters of the Xianbei Tuoba imperial family. More than fifty per cent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats of the southern dynasties, who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei married Han elites:

7728-424: The Northern Wei was sent to Dunhuang to serve as its governor for a term of fifteen years. With Buddhism gaining mainstream acceptance in Chinese society, Prince Dongyang and local wealthy families set out to establish a monumental project in honor of Buddhism, carving and decorating Cave 285 of the Mogao Caves with beautiful statues and murals. Such promotion of the arts would continue for centuries at Dunhuang and

7866-429: The Northern Wei's unification of northern China and marking the end of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Tuobas were eventually Sinicized , changing their name to Yuan, and held northern China through the 550s. Chinese history then entered the Northern and Southern Dynasties period as parallel series of dynasties in the North and South co-existed until the Sui dynasty united the country in 589. The Goguryeo kingdom

8004-487: The Northern Wei, content to protect his borders. This period of peace was known as Yongming Administration . He also used government secretaries appointed with provincial governors and members of the imperial clan to monitor them. The short reigns of Emperor Wu's grandsons, Xiao Zhaoye and Xiao Zhaowen (his first son predeceased him), were dominated by Xiao Luan, Emperor's Wu's first cousin. He killed them in turn and crowned himself as Emperor Ming of Southern Qi . Using

8142-418: The Northern Wei. From near Hohhot, Tuoba Gui expanded southward, capturing Shanxi and Hebei from the Former Yan and Henan from the Liu Song dynasty . In 398, he moved the capital to Pingcheng (modern day Datong ) and declared himself the Emperor Daowu. In 423, Tuoba Gui's grandson Tuoba Tao took the throne as Emperor Taiwu and began the quest to unify the North. Under his leadership, the Northern Wei subdued

8280-403: The Northern Wei. Helian Ding wanted to invade the Northern Liang but was captured in a raid by the Tuyuhun nomads and executed by the Northern Wei. In 436, the Tuoba Tao, as Emperor Taiwu, led an expedition against the Northern Yan. Feng Hong, the younger brother of Feng Ba, fled to Goguryeo , where he was killed. The last ruler of the Northern Liang, Juqu Mujian , surrendered in 439, completing

8418-422: The Prince of Dai by the Jin Emperor. In 338, Tuoba Shiyiqian formally declared Dai's independence and built the capital at Shengle (modern day Horinger County , Hohhot ). In 376, the Former Qin attacked Shengle and drove the Tuoba into the northern steppes; Tuoba Shiyiqian was killed by his son. In 386, Tuoba Shiyiqian's grandson Tuoba Gui revived the kingdom, which he renamed Wei; it is known to historians as

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8556-442: The Prince of Xiangdong, whom he called the "Prince of Pigs" for his obesity, eventually assassinated him and became Emperor Ming . Emperor Ming began his reign by killing all the descendants of Emperor Xiaowu, and his suspicious nature resulted in the loss of the provinces north of the Huai River, which were only briefly regained in the other Southern dynasties. Emperor Ming's young son became Emperor Houfei . The political situation

8694-480: The Sixteen Kingdoms and refers to the five Liangs ( Former , Later , Northern , Southern and Western ), four Yans ( Former , Later , Northern , and Southern ), three Qins ( Former , Later and Western ), two Zhaos ( Han/Former and Later ), Cheng-Han and Xia . Cui Hong did not count several other kingdoms that appeared at the time including the Ran Wei , Zhai Wei , Chouchi , Duan Qi , Qiao Shu , Huan Chu , Tuyuhun and Western Yan . Nor did he include

8832-433: The Sixteen Kingdoms, the Eastern Jin dynasty to the south continued to insist on its status as supreme overlord and refused to treat any of the kingdoms as equals. For instance, when the Later Zhao sent a diplomatic mission to the south to establish equal relations, the Eastern Jin burnt the embassy's gifts and expelled the envoy. Some of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as Former Yan and Former Liang also agreed to nominally recognise

8970-400: The Sui and Tang dynasties centuries later. In the Sixteen Kingdoms period, the Tuoba family of the Xianbei were the rulers of the state of Dai (Sixteen Kingdoms) . Although it was conquered by the Former Qin , the defeat of the Former Qin at the Battle of Fei River resulted in the collapse of the Former Qin. The grandson of the last prince of Dai Tuoba Shiyiqian , Tuoba Gui restored

9108-406: The Western Roman Empire amidst invasions by the Huns and Germanic tribes in Europe, which also occurred in the 4th to 5th centuries. From the late Eastern Han dynasty to the early Western Jin dynasty , large numbers of non- Han peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the Xiongnu and Xianbei had been pastoralist nomads from

9246-440: The Western Wei, the Northern Zhou reacted against sinicization by trying to revive Xianbei warrior culture: reviving Xianbei tunics, trousers and boots, reverting sinicized surnames into Xianbei names and even giving Han officers Xianbei surnames. This "tribalization" policy was intended to convert large numbers of Han Chinese army recruits into "Xianbei" who would pay for their own equipment in exchange for tax exemptions. The policy

9384-485: The Western Yan in 394, but lost a series of engagements to the Northern Wei. In 397, the Northern Wei captured Hebei and splitting the Later Yan into two. Murong Bao moved the Later Yan capital north to Liaoning but Murong De refused to move north and founded the Southern Yan in Henan and Shandong. The Southern Yan was extinguished by the Eastern Jin in 410. The Later Yan lasted until 407 when General Feng Ba , killed Emperor Murong Xi and installed Gao Yun . Gao Yun,

9522-436: The Xiao ( 蕭 ) family from Lanling ( 蘭陵 , in modern Cangshan County , Shandong ). Because Emperor Gao had a low social standing, he earned the disdain of nobility. His style of governance was similar to the early style of the Liu Song dynasty and was very economical. He died in the fourth year of his reign and his heir, who was only 13 years younger than him, succeeded him as Emperor Wu of Southern Qi . Emperor Wu made peace with

9660-525: The Xiongnu confederation in the Han–Xiongnu War by Han General Dou Xian led to the Han dynasty deporting the Southern Xiongnu along with their Chanyu into northern China. In 167 AD, Duan Jiong conducted an anti-Qiang campaign and massacred Qiang populations as well as settled them outside the frontier in northern China. Cao Cao had a policy of settling Xiongnu nomads away from the frontier near Taiyuan in modern Shanxi province, where they would be less likely to rebel. The Xiongnu abandoned nomadism and

9798-405: The Yellow River while establishing his own puppet ruler to maintain authority. As conflict swelled in the north between successive leaders, Gao Huan took control of the east and Luoyang (holding Emperor Xiaojing of Eastern Wei as a puppet ruler) by 534, while his rival Yuwen Tai took control of the west and the traditional Chinese capital of Chang'an by 535. The Western regime was dominated by

9936-610: The aristocrats of the remnants of the Chin [Jin] ruling house fled to the Nanking [Nanjing] area early in the 4th century, the south contained perhaps a tenth of the population of China. There were centers of Chinese culture and administration, but around most of these lay vast uncolonized areas into which Chinese settlers were slow to move". Sixteen Kingdoms The Sixteen Kingdoms ( simplified Chinese : 十六国 ; traditional Chinese : 十六國 ; pinyin : Shíliù Guó ), less commonly

10074-555: The ascension of Emperor Wencheng later that same year. Wang Yu  [ zh ] , an ethnic Qiang court eunuch and the favourite of Empress Dowager Wenming, patronized Buddhism lavishly. He constructed Cave 9–10, the most highly decorated of the Yungang Grottoes , and had a temple constructed in 488 at Lirun, Fengyi (modern day Chengcheng), which was his birthplace according to the Booke of Wei. Wang Yu may have been castrated during

10212-540: The banner of Xiao Baojuan's brother who was declared Emperor He of Southern Qi . Xiao Baojuan was killed by one of his generals during the siege of his capital at Jiankang, and after a short puppet reign by Emperor He, Xiao Yan overthrew the Southern Qi and established the Liang dynasty. Emperor Wu was economical, worked hard at governing, and cared for the common people. His early reign was known as Reign of Tianjian . The Liang dynasty's military strength gradually surpassed

10350-412: The capital during the earlier Eastern Han and Western Jin dynasties. The new capital at Luoyang was revived and transformed, with roughly 150,000 Xianbei and other northern warriors moved from north to south by the year 495 to serve in the capital. Within a couple of decades, the population rose to about half a million residents and was famed for being home to over a thousand Buddhist temples. Defectors from

10488-512: The chaos by constructing fortified villages. Clans would then carve de facto fiefs out of these highly cohesive family-based self-defense communities. Lesser peasant families would work for the dominant clan as tenants or serfs. The chaos also led these Han gentry families to avoid government service, before the Northern Wei court launched the sinicization movement. Northern gentry were therefore highly militarized as compared to their refined southern counterparts, and this distinction persisted well into

10626-509: The civil wars to seize power. Their armies almost destroyed the dynasty in the Disaster of Yongjia of 311, when the Five Barbarians sacked Luoyang . Chang'an met a similar fate in 316. However, a scion of the imperial house, Sima Rui (Emperor Yuan of Jin) fled south of the Huai River and reestablished the dynasty, known in historiography as the Eastern Jin dynasty . Cementing their power in

10764-557: The country selling their services to the warring princes and plundering the populace. These upheavals devastated the south which eased the fall of the south to the Sui dynasty. Under the later waning leadership of the Chen dynasty, the southern Chinese were unable to resist the military power amassed in the north by Yang Jian, who declared himself Emperor Wen of Sui and invaded the south. Aboriginal chiefs played an important active role in adapting to

10902-523: The country under the command of their imperial relatives, recruited officers from humble backgrounds and appointed low-ranking officials to monitor the powerful elites occupying the top government posts. The southern aristocracy declined with the rise of the Indian Ocean trade in the mid 5th century, which led to the court revenues shifting to trade and the disappearance of the caste by the Chen dynasty. As landowning aristocrats were unable to convert cash from

11040-463: The country. The numerous tribal groups in the north and northwest who had been heavily drafted into the military then exploited the chaos to seize power. In Sichuan region, Li Xiong , a Di chieftain, led a successful rebellion and founded Cheng-Han kingdom in 304. Thus began the creation of independent kingdoms in China as Jin authority crumbled. Most of these kingdoms were founded by non-Chinese tribal leaders who took on Chinese reign names. During

11178-424: The death of Emperor Wen, his son, the weak-willed Chen Bozong, took power and became Emperor Fei of Chen . His uncle, Chen Xu, after essentially controlling the country through his short reign, eventually deposed him and took power as Emperor Xuan of Chen . At that time, the Northern Zhou intended to conquer Northern Qi and thus invited the Chen dynasty to help. Emperor Xuan agreed to help because he wanted to recover

11316-674: The dominant Chinese structure, rather than being forcibly subjugated. For instance, the aboriginal chief Lady Xian who married the Liang court's governor Feng Bao, helped to extend the dynasties' authority while preserving autonomy and local culture. Lady Xian and Feng Bao played a critical role in assisting Chen Baxian's rise, and in stabilising the region between the Liang, Chen, and Sui dynasties. The court acknowledged her authority by awarding her with official titles and emblems of power. There were many other local chieftains of mixed origins between Guangzhou and modern Vietnam that displayed mixed traits of both aboriginal and sinicized culture, such as

11454-433: The early 4th century. However, several of the states were founded by the Han people, and all of the states—whether ruled by Xiongnu , Xianbei , Di , Jie , Qiang , Han, or others—took on Han-style dynastic names. The states frequently fought against both one another and the Eastern Jin dynasty , which succeeded the Western Jin in 317 and ruled southern China. The period ended with the unification of northern China in 439 by

11592-526: The elite were educated in Chinese-Confucian literate culture, but they retained their distinct identity and resented the discrimination they received. The War of the Eight Princes (291–306) during the reign of the second Jin ruler Emperor Hui severely divided and weakened imperial authority. Hundreds of thousands were killed and millions were uprooted by the internecine fighting. Popular rebellions against heavy taxation and repression erupted throughout

11730-402: The fall of the Northern Liang in 439, Emperor Taiwu united northern China, ending the Sixteen Kingdoms period and beginning the Northern and Southern dynasties period with their southern rivals, the Liu Song. Even though it was a time of great military strength for the Northern Wei, Rouran harassment from the north forced them to divert their focus from their southern expeditions. After uniting

11868-631: The first century CE, the festival was used as commemoration of Gautama Buddha 's enlightenment. It was given a fixed date (the eighth day of the twelfth month) during the Northern and Southern dynasties . During the Qing dynasty , ceremonies for the Laba festival were held at the Yonghe Temple in Beijing . Laba Festival is considered the prelude to Chinese New Year , which falls about three weeks later. An old custom

12006-485: The fortunes of the Tuoba clan, renaming his state Wei (now known as Northern Wei) with its capital at Shengle (near modern Hohhot ). Under the rule of Emperors Daowu (Tuoba Gui), Mingyuan , and Taiwu , the Northern Wei progressively expanded. The establishment of the early Northern Wei state and the economy were also greatly indebted to the father-son pair of Cui Hong and Cui Hao . Tuoba Gui engaged in numerous conflicts with

12144-490: The founder of the Northern Yan, was an ethnic Han who had prominent Xianbei friends, as well as a Xianbei nickname. Gao Yun , considered by other historians to be the Northern Yan founder, was a member of the Goguryeo royal family who had been adopted by Xianbei nobility. Due to fierce competition among the states and internal political instability, the kingdoms of this era were mostly short-lived. For seven years from 376 to 383,

12282-399: The founding elites of the Sui and Tang dynasties. Hence, they tended to have a flexible approach to steppe nomads, viewing them as possible partners rather than intrinsic enemies. The Jin were succeeded by a series of short-lived dynasties: Liu Song (420–479), Southern Qi (479–502), Liang (502–557) and Chen (557–589). As all of these dynasties had their capital at Jiankang (except for

12420-513: The government secretaries, he slaughtered all the sons of Emperors Gao and Wu. Emperor Ming soon became very ill and started following Daoism, changing his whole wardrobe to red. He also passed an edict making officials try to find whitebait (銀魚). He died in 498 and was succeeded by his son Xiao Baojuan , who killed high officials and governors at whim, sparking many revolts. The final revolt in 501 started after Xiao Baojuan killed his prime minister Xiao Yi, leading his brother Xiao Yan to revolt under

12558-496: The idea. In 383, after Wang Meng's death, Fu Jian launched a massive invasion of southern China, but was he was routed in a devastating defeat at the Battle of Feishui , in which Eastern Jin troops vanquished a much larger Former Qin force. After the Battle of Feishui, the power of the Former Qin quickly unraveled as various regimes in the North broke loose. In 384, Murong Chui founded the Later Yan in Hebei. Other Murong royals founded

12696-506: The imperial clan, one of which saw him slaughter the inhabitants of Guangling . The following ballad gives an idea of those times: Emperor Xiaowu died naturally in 464 and was succeeded by his son, who became Emperor Qianfei . Emperor Qianfei proved to be similar to his father, engaging in both kin-slaughter and incest. In a scandalous move, because his sister complained about how it was unfair that men were allowed 10,000 concubines, he gave her 30 handsome young men as lovers. His uncle Liu Yu,

12834-615: The kingdom was split between Liu Yao and General Shi Le . Shi Le was an ethnic Jie who had worked as an indentured farm laborer before joining Liu Yuan 's rebellion and becoming a powerful general in Hebei . In 319, he founded a rival Zhao Kingdom, known as the Later Zhao and in 328 conquered Liu Yao's Han-Zhao. Shi Le instituted a dual-system of government that imposed separate rules for Chinese and non-Chinese, and managed to control much of northern China. After his death, his sons were locked in

12972-478: The lost territories south of the Huai River. In 573, he sent general Wu Mingche to assist the effort; in two years, he managed to recover he lost territories south of the Huai River. At the time, Northern Qi was in a precarious situation with little military strength and Emperor Xuan could have taken advantage of the opportunity to entirely defeat Northern Qi. However, he only wanted to protect his territories south of

13110-488: The minority of the populace where centers of power were located. Widespread social and cultural transformation in northern China came with Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei (reigned 471–499), whose father was a Xianbei, but whose mother was Han. Although of the Tuoba Clan from the Xianbei tribe, Emperor Xiaowen asserted his dual Xianbei-Han identity, renaming his own clan "Yuan" ( 元 ). In the year 493 Emperor Xiaowen instituted

13248-562: The nearby areas. The rest of the Liang dynasty lands were under the control of members of the imperial clan. Their squabbling amongst themselves weakened their efforts to defeat Hou. In the end, Xiao Yi with the aid of his generals Wang Sengbian and Chen Baxian defeated Hou, crowning himself Emperor Yuan of Liang . His brother Xiao Ji based in Sichuan was still a major threat. Emperor Yuan asked for assistance from Western Wei to defeat Xiao Ji, but after subduing Xiao Ji, they kept Sichuan. Due to

13386-541: The north, Emperor Taiwu also conquered the powerful Shanshan kingdom and subjugated the other kingdoms of Xiyu ( Western Regions ). In 450, Emperor Taiwu once again attacked the Liu Song and reached Guabu (瓜步, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu), threatening to cross the river to attack Jiankang, the Liu Song capital. Though up to this point, the Northern Wei military forces dominated the Liu Song forces, they took heavy casualties. The Northern Wei forces plundered numerous households before returning north. At this point, followers of

13524-477: The northern dynasties by their placement of naval fleets along the Yangtze, they suffered various problems related to the creation and maintenance of military strength. The court's designation of specific households for military service through the tuntian system eventually led to a fall in their social status, causing widespread desertion of troops. Faced with shortage of troops, Eastern Jin generals were often sent on campaigns to capture non-Han indigenous peoples in

13662-463: The northern steppes. Others such as the Di and Qiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of western Sichuan of southwest China . As migrants, they lived among ethnic Han and were sinified to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. They also faced discrimination and retained clan and tribal affiliations. The Han dynasty's defeat of

13800-567: The period was called the Reign of Yuanjia ( Chinese : 元嘉之治 ). In 430, Emperor Wen started a number of northern expeditions against Northern Wei. These were ineffective because of insufficient preparations and excessive micromanagement of his generals, increasingly weakening the dynasty. Because of his jealousy of Tan Daoji , a noted leader of the Army of the Northern Garrison, he deprived himself of

13938-582: The pretender Yuan Hao . Despite the fact that Chen was only given 7,000 troops, he still managed to defeat army after army and even captured Luoyang, the capital of Northern Wei. Ultimately, Chen was insufficiently supplied and was defeated by troops ten times his size. After the Northern Wei split into Eastern and Western Wei, Emperor Wu granted asylum to rebel Eastern Wei commander Hou Jing , sending him on Northern Expeditions against Eastern Wei. After some initial successes, Liang forces were decisively defeated. Rumors abounded that Emperor Wu intended to give Hou as

14076-435: The primary power brokers in the Eastern Jin. With the greatly increased importance of proving one's pedigree to receive privileges, there was a rise in compiling of genealogy records, and the great families moved to legally outlaw intermarriage with common families. The lower class Northern migrants were forced to become "guests" (dependents) of the great families who established private guard forces with their new retainers. When

14214-424: The produce of their estates, the resurgence of trade and the money-based economy forced them to break up and sell their lands to the burgeoning merchant class. Influential merchants increasingly occupied political offices, displacing the old aristocrats. On the other hand, the economic developments also drove peasants, unable to cope with inflation or to pay taxes in cash, to become mercenary soldiers, wandering through

14352-608: The region of Wu (a region near modern-day Shanghai). At that time, due to the Hou Jing rebellion, the Qiao and Wu clans were greatly weakened, and many independent regimes emerged. Emperor Wu could not pacify all the independent regimes, so he adopted conciliatory measures. After the sudden death of Emperor Wu, his nephew Chen Qian took power as Emperor Wen of Chen . After the fall of Liang, the general Wang Lin had established an independent kingdom based in modern-day Hunan and Hubei provinces and

14490-466: The reigns of Emperor Huai of Jin and Emperor Min of Jin , the empire was put into grave danger by the uprising of northern non-Han peoples collectively known as the Five Barbarians . Numerous nomadic tribal groups had been forcibly resettled in northern and northwestern China during previous centuries. When the warring princes heavily drafted these tribes into the military, they mutinied and exploited

14628-503: The rise and usurpation of the Sima family who established the Jin dynasty; subsequent leaders were similarly unable to bring the other great families in line. The Jin dynasty's flight south greatly exacerbated the weakness of the central government, and the great families who accompanied the Emperor in his flight, along with the most wealthy clans of earlier settlers along the Zhejiang coast, were

14766-563: The sinicized nobles and their Han bureaucrats while the Eastern regime was controlled by the traditional steppe tribes. Eventually, Gao Huan's son Gao Yang forced the Eastern Wei emperor to abdicate in favor of his claim to the throne, establishing the Northern Qi dynasty (551–577). Afterward, Yuwen Tai's son Yuwen Jue seized the throne of power from Emperor Gong of Western Wei , establishing

14904-505: The south to draft them into the military. The Eastern Jin dynasty fell not because of external invasion, however, but because Liu Yu (Emperor Wu of Liu Song) seized the throne from the Emperor Gong of Jin and founded the Liu Song dynasty , which officially began the Northern and Southern dynasties period. The Northern dynasties began in 439 when the Northern Wei conquered the Northern Liang to unite northern China and ended in 589 when

15042-512: The south went from being nearly a frontier to being on a path to the thriving, urbanized, sinicized region that it became in later centuries. In his book Buddhism in Chinese History , Arthur F. Wright points out this fact by stating: "When we speak of the area of the Yangtze valley and below in the period of disunion, we must banish from our minds the picture of the densely populated, intensively cultivated South China of recent centuries. When

15180-455: The south, such as Wang Su of the prestigious Langye Wang family, were largely accommodated and felt at home with the establishment of their own Wu quarter in Luoyang (this quarter of the city was home to over three thousand families). They were even served tea (by this time gaining popularity in southern China) at court instead of the yogurt drinks commonly found in the north. Beginning in the 480s,

15318-470: The south, the Eastern Jin established Jiankang on the existing site of Jianye (now Nanjing ) as their new capital. In the north, the Five Barbarians established numerous short-lived dynasties, leading to the period known as the Sixteen Kingdoms in historiography. Eventually, the Northern Wei dynasty conquered the rest of the northern states in 439 and unified northern China. Although the Eastern Jin and successive southern dynasties were well-defended from

15456-412: The states founded by ethnic Han ( Former Liang , Western Liang , Ran Wei and Northern Yan ), several founders had close relations with ethnic minorities. For example, the father of Ran Min , who founded Ran Wei, was adopted by the ethnically Jie Later Zhao ruling family, though Ran Min ordered a genocidal massacre of Jie people after he seized power. Feng Ba , who is considered by some historians to be

15594-431: The story that Sakyamuni (Gautama Buddha) reached enlightenment on the eighth day of the twelfth month after eating congee. Laba congee or Laba porridge ( 臘八粥 ; Làbāzhōu ) is very popular in many places in China. Different kinds of rice, beans, nuts and dried fruits are the main ingredients. People believe that it's good for health in the winter. It is also known as "eight-treasure congee" ( 八宝粥 ; Bā bǎo zhōu ) and

15732-480: The strength of the Northern Wei, who suffered internal strife due to their policy of sinicization . In 503, the Northern Wei invaded but were defeated at Zhongli (modern Bengbu ). Emperor Wu supported the Northern Expeditions but did not aggressively take advantage of his victory in 516 at Shouyang due to heavy casualties. Given the excessive kin-slaughter in the Liu Song and Southern Qi dynasties, Emperor Wu

15870-569: The successor to the Han dynasty . His regime, later renamed Zhao, is designated by historians as the Han-Zhao . After Liu Yuan died in 310, his son Liu Cong killed older brother Liu He and claimed the throne. Liu Cong captured the Jin capital Luoyang and Emperor Huai in 311. In 316, Liu Cong's cousin Liu Yao seized Chang'an (modern day Xi'an ) and Emperor Min , ending the Western Jin dynasty. Sima Rui ,

16008-476: The suppression of a 446 Qiang rebellion since the Northern Wei would castrate rebel tribes' young elite. In the first half of the Northern Wei dynasty , the Xianbei steppe tribesmen who dominated northern China kept a policy of strict social distinction between them and their Han subjects. Ethnic Han were drafted into the bureaucracy, employed as officials to collect taxes, etc. However, the Han were kept out of many higher positions of power. They also represented

16146-425: The throne as Emperor Mingyuan. Though he managed to conquer Liu Song 's province of Henan, he died soon afterward. Emperor Mingyuan's son Tuoba Tao took the throne as Emperor Taiwu. Due to Emperor Taiwu's energetic efforts, Northern Wei's strength greatly increased, allowing them to repeatedly attack Liu Song. After dealing with the Rouran threat to his northern flank, he engaged in a war to unite northern China. With

16284-571: The throne from Emperor An in a palace coup in 403, but was defeated by general Liu Yu . Liu Yu also used northern expeditions to build up his power. In 409–10, he led Jin forces in the Battle of Linqu , defeating and destroying the Southern Yan in Shandong. In 416, he took advantage of the death of the Later Qin ruler, invaded Henan and captured Luoyang, and then turned toward Shaanxi and seized Chang'an. The last Later Qin ruler Yao Hong surrendered and

16422-483: The throne. The Yuan Emperor did not entrust Zu Ti with the command of much larger expeditionary force in 321. A disappointed Zu Ti died of illness. The expeditionary force was called back to Jiankang to quell an insurrection, and Shi Le retook Henan. In 347, Jin general Huan Wen invaded Sichuan and ended the Cheng-Han kingdom. He then launched successive expeditions against northern kingdoms, briefly retaking Chang'an from

16560-441: The throne. This stopped the southern advance of the northern troops. The respite was short though, as after Yang Jian defeated his rival General Yuchi Jiong , he usurped the throne from Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou and established the Sui dynasty , crowning himself Emperor Wen of Sui . He proceeded to invade the south to reunify China. Emperor Xuan had just died and his incompetent son Chen Shubao (Houzhu of Chen) took power. He

16698-540: The west, both under the administration of the Gaochang Governor. Day-to-day administration was run out of several forts: Western Regions Chief Clerk, Wu and Ji Colonel, and Jade Gate Commissioner of the Army. Other Liangzhou states generally followed this administrative system. In 382, the Former Qin ruler Fu Jian sent General Lü Guang on a military expedition to the Dayuan kingdom and promoted him to Protector General of

16836-452: The western border regions. After Qin collapsed and Lü Guang founded the Later Liang, the western border forts and the Shanshan kingdom all became parts of or vassals to the Later Liang. Several rulers of the northern kingdoms patronized Buddhism which spread across northern China during the Sixteen Kingdoms and flourished during the subsequent Northern Dynasties. The Former Qin ruler Fu Jian

16974-401: The years 526–527. The underlying cause of these wars was the growing rift between the governing aristocracy which was increasingly adopting Han-style sedentary policies and lifestyles and their nomadic tribal armies who continued to preserve the old steppe way of life. The Northern Wei court was betrayed by one of their own generals, who had the empress dowager and the young emperor thrown into

17112-598: The younger Fu Jian, who was guided by Wang Meng , an ethnic Chinese advisor, the Former Qin strengthened rapidly. From 370 to 76, the Former Qin extinguished the Former Yan, Dai and Former Liang to unite all of northern China. Fu Jian also captured Sichuan from the Eastern Jin and wanted to conquer the rest of southern China. Wang Meng opposed this move, citing the need for the Former Qin to consolidate control over various ethnicities in northern China, while Qiang chieftain Yao Chang and Xianbei general Murong Chui both supported

17250-520: Was a decadent ruler who had lost the Mandate of Heaven , the Sui Dynasty was able to effectively conquer the south. After this conquest, the whole of China entered a new golden age of reunification under the centralization of the short-lived Sui dynasty and the succeeding Tang dynasty (618–907). The core elite of the Northern dynasties, mixed-culture, and mixed-ethnicity military clans, would later also form

17388-563: Was a powerful and influential state in northern Korea and parts of northeastern China at the beginning of the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Goguryeo was attacked by the Murong Xianbei numerous times, and in 342 Prince Murong Huang of Former Yan captured the Goguryeo capital Hwando (Wandu in Chinese). Under the powerful and dynamic leadership of feudal kings, Goguryeo during the reign of Gwanggaeto

17526-570: Was a strong patron of Buddhist scholarship. After capturing Xiangyang in 379, he invited the monk Dao An to Chang'an to catalogue Buddhist scriptures. When the teachings of the famed Kuchean monk, Kumārajīva , reached Chang'an, Dao An advised Fu Jian to invite the Kumārajīva. In 382, Fu Jian sent general Lü Guang to conquer the Western Regions ( Tarim Basin ) and bring Kumārajīva to Chang'an. Lü Guang captured Kucha and seized Kumārajīva, but

17664-473: Was afraid they would have thoughts of usurping the throne. Thus, he also frequently killed his kinsmen. After the death of Emperor Wu, his son Emperor Shao ruled briefly before being judged incompetent and killed by government officials led by Xu Xianzhi , replacing him with Emperor Wen , a different son, who soon killed the officials who supported him. Emperor Wen's reign was a period of relative political stability because of his frugality and good government;

17802-411: Was highly successful in boosting the state's military strength. The Northern Zhou dynasty was able to defeat and conquer Northern Qi in 577, reunifying the north. However, this success was short-lived, as the Northern Zhou was overthrown in 581 by Yang Jian, who became Emperor Wen of Sui . With greater military power and morale, along with convincing propaganda that the Chen dynasty ruler Chen Shubao

17940-451: Was in a weakened state. Emperor Wen was assassinated by Crown Prince Shao and Second Prince Jun in 453 after planning to punish them for witchcraft. However, they were both defeated by Third Prince Jun, who become Emperor Xiaowu . proved to be licentious and cruel, supposedly committing incest with the daughters of an uncle who had helped him gain the throne; his rivals also claimed he had incest with his mother. This led to two rebellions by

18078-499: Was licentious and wasteful, resulting in chaos and corruption in the government; many officials heavily exploited the people, causing great suffering. In planning to defeat the Chen dynasty, Emperor Wen of Sui took the suggestion of his general Gao Jiong and waited until the South were harvesting their crops to entirely burn the farmland, crippling the strength of the Chen dynasty. In 588, Emperor Wen of Sui sent his son Yang Guang (who would become Emperor Yang of Sui ) to finally vanquish

18216-493: Was not given the imperial title. After some defeats to the forces of Northern Qi, Wang Sengbian allowed their pretender, Xiao Yuanming to establish himself as Emperor Min of Liang. However, Chen Baxian was displeased with the arrangements, and in a surprise move killed Wang and deposed Emperor Min in favor of Xiao Fangzhi who became Emperor Jing of Liang. After a short reign, Chen deposed Emperor Jing and took power himself as Emperor Wu of Chen in 557. Emperor Wu of Chen came from

18354-475: Was now starting to cause trouble. Wang Lin allied with Northern Zhou and Northern Qi to conquer the Chen capital at Jiankang. Emperor Wen first defeated the combined forces of Northern Qi and Wang Lin before preventing the forces of Northern Zhou from entering the South at Yueyang . Furthermore, through Emperor Wen's extensive efforts at good governance, the economic situation of the South was greatly improved, restoring his kingdom's national strength. Following

18492-601: Was said to have acted as if he was still king, issuing orders and demanding respect, and was executed by King Jangsu of Goguryeo . The Yuwen Xianbei group Kumo Xi , who lived north of Youzhou , and the Khitan began increasing in strength. In 414, the Kumo Xi tribes sent a trade caravan to Northern Yan , then joined with the Khitan in declaring allegiance to Northern Yan, and then to Northern Wei after its destruction of Northern Yan. Thus,

18630-403: Was sent to Jiankang and executed. With the Later Qin destroyed, several smaller states in the northwest, Western Qin, Northern Liang and Western Liang, nominally submitted to Eastern Jin authority. But Liu Yu retreated back to Jiankang to plan his takeover of the Jin throne, and Chang'an was taken by the Xia forces. In 420, Liu Yu forced the Emperor Gong to abdicate and declared himself emperor of

18768-456: Was the most notable ruler of his age, being a patron of the arts and of Buddhism. The Southern dynasties, except for the last Chen dynasty, were strongly dominated by the shijia , the great families, who monopolized political power until the mid-6th century. This class was created by Cao Cao during the late Han dynasty when he attempted to consolidate his power by building an endogenous military caste of professional soldiers. His policy led to

18906-522: Was very lenient to imperial clansmen, not even investigating them when they committed crimes. The Liang reached a cultural peak because he was very learned, supported scholars, and encouraged the flourishing education system. An avid poet, Emperor Wu was fond of gathering many literary talents at court, and even held poetry competitions with prizes of gold or silk for those considered the best. In his later years, however, sycophants surrounded him. Three times he dedicated his life to Buddhism and tried to become

19044-415: Was volatile. General Xiao Daocheng slowly gained power and eventually deposed Emperor Houfei in favor of his brother, who became Emperor Shun . After defeating the rival general Shen Youzhi , Xiao forced Emperor Shun to yield the throne and crowned himself Emperor Gao of Southern Qi , thus ending the Liu Song dynasty. Though distantly related, the Southern Qi and the following Liang dynasty were members of

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