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77-518: All rulers of the Northern Liang proclaimed themselves " wang " (translatable as either "prince" or "king"). It was also only known as "Liang" (涼) from 399 to 401 and from 431 to 433, as their rulers took on several lesser titles while they were acting as vassals. To distinguish with the other Liang states, they were given the prefix of "Northern" by historiographers as they controlled northern Gansu when they first established. They later went on to rule

154-654: A princess or gōngzhǔ (公主), and incorporated her associated place into her title if she had one. Besides the systematized ranks listed above, there were also other familial appellations used as titles, e.g. Bo (伯; such as Bo Qin of Lu, later, its usage changed to titles for hegemony and countship ), Zhong (仲; such as Guo Zhong  [ zh ] , younger brother of King Wen of Zhou), Shu (叔; such as several younger brothers of King Wu of Zhou, Guanshu Xian , Wei Kangshu , etc.), and Ji (季; such as Ranji Zai  [ zh ] ), birth order terms meaning "eldest," "second eldest," "third eldest," and "youngest" ( Shu

231-690: A bilingual inscription on a stone pillar outside the Jokhang in Lhasa . The Western Xia dynasty was established in the 11th century by the Tangut people . Western Xia controlled from 1038 CE up to 1227 CE the areas in what are now the northwestern Chinese provinces of Gansu , Shaanxi , and Ningxia . Genghis Khan began the conquest of the Jin dynasty around 1207 and Ögedei Khan continued it after his death in 1227. The Jurchen -led Jin dynasty fell in 1234 CE with help from

308-760: A cadet branch of the Han dynasty. When Cao Wei defeated the Shu Han Emperor Liu Shan , he and his family were granted noble titles under the new regime. When the Eastern Wu was defeated by the Western Jin dynasty , the Jin Emperor granted the Eastern Wu Emperor Sun Hao the title of "Marquis of Guiming". Sun Hao's sons were made junior officials in the Jin government. A number of outgoing emperors during

385-794: A garrison at Hami . After the new Protector General of the Western Regions Chen Mu was killed in 75 CE by allies of the Xiongnu in Karasahr and Kucha , the garrison at Hami was withdrawn. At the Battle of the Altai Mountains in 89 CE, Dou Xian defeated the Northern Chanyu , who retreated into the Altai Mountains . The Han forces, allied with the subjugated Southern Xiongnu, again defeated

462-518: A main route connecting China proper and Central Asia (approximately 150 miles (240 km) west of modern Xi'an), just south of the Weihe (Wei River). It had the additional advantage of located not too distant from a main route that also ran N-S to Chengdu and the Indian subcontinent. The Northern Liang also built and decorated the first decorated Mogao Caves (caves 268, 272 and 275 ) from 419 to 439 CE until

539-464: A narrow trackway , where relatively small fortifications could control passing traffic. There are several major cities along the Hexi Corridor. In western Gansu Province is Dunhuang (Shazhou), then Yumen , then Jiayuguan , then Jiuquan ( Suzhou ), then Zhangye ( Ganzhou ) in the center, then Jinchang , then Wuwei ( Liangzhou ) and finally Lanzhou in the southeast. In the past, Dunhuang

616-617: A narrow stretch of traversable and relatively arable plain west of the Yellow River 's Ordos Loop (hence the name Hexi , meaning 'west of the river'), flanked between the much more elevated and inhospitable terrains of the Mongolian and Tibetan Plateaus. As part of the Northern Silk Road , running northwest from the western section of the Ordos Loop between Yinchuan and Lanzhou ,

693-595: A particular achievement, with or without executive portfolio following the granting of the title, and might truly be titles outside the executive government structure, even when words used in their phrasing would otherwise imply executive office, e.g., Protector General (都護; Duhu) – for example, Ban Chao . On the other hand, victorious generals were often granted official praise-names or names implying particular old and new duties or some combination of these, which would be quasi-executive or fully executive titles honored as much like peerage as like actual military rank, as in

770-460: A significant feature of the traditional social structure until the end of the imperial period . The concepts of hereditary sovereignty, peerage titles, and noble families existed as early as the semi-mythical and early historical periods, but the systems of enfeoffment and establishment only developed in the Zhou dynasty , by the end of which a clear delineation of ranks had emerged. This process

847-482: A state stipend. Holders of the highest ranks also received fiefs and the honorific title Jun (君, lord), such as Lord Chunshen . The full systematization of ranks pioneered by the Qin dynasty took a bit longer to overcome Chu's distinct culture, such that the Han founder Liu Bang , being of Chu origin, also awarded distinctly Chu titles. Other titles might be tailored down to a single individual being officially honored for

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924-449: A term for king or prince, although the sovereignty of such relatives was limited. Local tribal chiefs could also be termed "king" of a particular territory ranging from vast to tiny, using convenient terms of the form "(locality)" + "king" such as Changshawang, "King of Changsha ". Changsha was briefly recognized as a kingdom, but was usually a political subunit. " Barbarian " leaders could also be referred to by names such as Yiwang, "king of

1001-611: A title and fiefs by the Shang King in Qi ( 杞 ) and Zeng . When the Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Zhou dynasty , the Zhou King granted a Shang royal scion the title Gong and fief of Song . In 220 CE , Emperor Xian of Han abdicated his throne to Cao Pi , who granted the previous emperor the title Duke of Shanyang (山陽公). His line persisted until 309. The Emperors of Shu Han came from

1078-554: A woman was the actual power behind the imperial throne . Hou ( 后 : Empress, Queen, Empress Consort) was a title granted to an official primary spouse of the polygynous male Chinese Emperor. It was also used for the mother of the Emperor, typically elevated to the rank of Empress Dowager ( 太后 : Tai Hou , "Grand Empress") regardless of which spousal ranking she bore prior to the emperor's accession. In practice, many Chinese Empresses Dowager wielded great power— either as official regent for

1155-485: A young sovereign or with the influence of position within family social ranks. From Empress Lü of Han ( r.   195 BCE – 180 BCE ) to Empress Dowager Cixi of Qing ( r.   CE 1861–1908), some women unquestionably reigned supreme. Imperial Consorts, ranking below Empress, aren't often distinguished in English from imperial Concubines , the next lower rank, but these were also titles of significance within

1232-541: Is Xiang Yu (d. 202 BCE ), who styled himself Xīchǔ Bàwáng, Hegemon of Chu . It was a custom in China for the new dynasty to ennoble and enfeoff a member of the dynasty which they overthrew, so that they could maintain sacrifices to their ancestors. This practice was referred to as "the two crownings and three respects." It is said that when the purported Xia dynasty was overthrown by the Shang dynasty , Xia descendants were given

1309-577: The An Lushan Rebellion . It was during this rebellion that the Tang withdrew its western garrisons stationed in what is now Gansu and Qinghai , which the Tibetans then occupied along with the area that is modern Xinjiang . Hostilities between the Tang and Tibet continued until they signed a formal peace treaty in 821. The terms of this treaty, including fixed borders between the two countries, are recorded in

1386-581: The Central Plain . The Hexi Corridor is located in western Gansu province, bordered to the south by the Qilian Mountains and to the north by the Gobi Desert . It extends for approximately 1,000–1,200 kilometres (620–750 mi) from Wushao Mountain in the south to Dunhuang in the north, and covers approximately 5,100 square kilometres (2,000 sq mi). There are several major cities along

1463-544: The Eastern Jin in the south vassal, and they continued to send tribute to their successor, the Liu Song , who affirmed Mengxun's imperial title in 423. However, in 431, both Western Qin and Xia fell, and Northern Liang was now in direct contact with the powerful Northern Wei dynasty . As a result, Mengxun decided to become a vassal to Wei, who bestowed him the title of King of Liang. Juqu Mengxun grew deathly ill in 433, and as he

1540-516: The Gobi desert to the north. Geologically, the Hexi Corridor belongs to a Cenozoic foreland basin system on the northeast margin of the Tibetan Plateau . The ancient trackway formerly passed through Haidong , Xining and the environs of Juyan Lake , serving an effective area of about 215,000 km (83,000 sq mi). It was an area where mountain and desert limited caravan traffic to

1617-641: The Han -ruled Southern Song dynasty . Ögedei also conquered the Western Xia dynasty in 1227, pacifying the Hexi Corridor region, which was later absorbed into the Yuan dynasty . The Hexi Corridor is a long, narrow passage stretching for some 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) from the steep Wushaolin hillside near the modern city of Lanzhou to the Jade Gate at the border of Gansu and Xinjiang . There are many fertile oases along

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1694-581: The Han–Xiongnu War , Han general Huo Qubing expelled the Xiongnu from the Hexi Corridor and even drove them from Lop Nur when King Hunye surrendered to Huo Qubing in 121 BCE . The Han Empire acquired a new territory with trade access to the Western Regions, and also cutting the Xiongnu off from their Qiang allies. Again in 111 BCE , Han forces repelled a joint Xiongnu-Qiang invasion, and to consolidate

1771-520: The Northern Wei invasion. They have many common points and were built at the same time as Cave 17 of the Kizil Caves . Tianxi (天璽) 399–401 Xuanshi (玄始) 412–428 Chengxuan (承玄) 428–430 Yihe (義和) 430–433 Chinese nobility#wang The nobility of China represented the upper strata of aristocracy in premodern China , acting as the ruling class until c. 1000 CE , and remaining

1848-561: The Protectorate of the Western Regions in 60 BCE, which dealt with the region's defense and foreign affairs. During the turbulent reign of Wang Mang , Han lost control over the Tarim Basin, which was reconquered by the Xiongnu in 63 CE and used as a base to invade the Hexi Corridor. Dou Gu defeated the Xiongnu again at the Battle of Yiwulu in 73 CE, evicting them from Turpan and chasing them as far as Lake Barkol before establishing

1925-616: The Qijia , Xichengyi , Siba , Shajing , and Shanma cultures. The Hexi Corridor underwent further aridification around 3500 BP during the Iron Age , and cultures at the time (such as the Shajing culture) saw a decrease in their number of settlements, becoming dominated by nomadic production rather than agriculture. At the end of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), the Yuezhi overcame previous settlers,

2002-537: The Qing . The Republican Revolution of 1911 ended the official imperial system. Though some noble families maintained their titles and prestige for a time, new political and economic circumstances forced their decline. Today, this class has virtually disappeared. The apex of the nobility is the sovereign . The title of the sovereign has changed over time, together with the connotations of the respective titles. Three levels of sovereignty could be distinguished: supreme rule over

2079-460: The Western Zhou period, ranks were not systematized. There were titles that indicated political authority as well as those concerned with seniority in the ancestral temple. These were not mutually exclusive, and the names of some ranks could also be used as generic terms of respect to varying degrees in different circumstances. The most common titles were as follows: As central authority crumbled,

2156-747: The Wusun and Qiang , occupying the western Hexi Corridor. All three were possibly connected with the Shajing, and the Wusun were possibly associated with the Shanma culture. Later, the newly risen Xiongnu armies under Modu Chanyu vanquished and expelled the Yuezhi , and established a dominant confederacy empire during the Chu-Han contention and the early Han dynasty . During the reign of Emperor Wen of Han , Modu's son Laoshang Chanyu defeated Yuezhi again in 162 BCE , forcing

2233-577: The Yangshao Culture in the western Loess Plateau , who enabled the transfer of millet to Central Asia , and consequently to the rest of Eurasia and Africa . Wheat and barley from the Fertile Crescent arrived in the Hexi Corridor via Central Asia around 4000 BP, and later spread into China proper . By 3700 BP, most likely due to the weakening and retreat of the East Asian monsoon in

2310-433: The primogeniture of rank and succession of other siblings. The eldest son of the consort would inherit the title and retained the same rank within the system. Other sons from the consort, concubines and mistresses would be given titles one rank lower than their father. As time went by, all terms had lost their original meanings nonetheless. Qing (卿), Daifu (大夫) and Shi (士) became synonyms of court officials. In

2387-526: The Administrator of Dunhuang , Li Gao rebelled in his commandery and established the Western Liang, taking over the westernmost region and attracting the local Han Chinese. Tension also arose between Mengxun, Nancheng and Duan Ye. In 401, Mengxun manoeuvred into killing Nancheng and Duan Ye, seizing power for himself. Juqu Mengxun claimed the title of Duke of Zhangye. With the Western Liang breaking away,

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2464-695: The Eastern Yi ", while in other cases terms such as tusi ( 土司 , "native chief") might be used for the same office. Family members of individual sovereigns were also born to titles – or granted them – largely according to family tree proximity. This included blood relatives and affinal relatives. Frequently, the parents of a founding dynast would be posthumously elevated to honorary sovereignty. Titles translated in English as "prince" and "princess" were generally immediate or recent descendants of sovereigns, with increasing distance at birth from an ancestral sovereign in succeeding generations resulting in degradations of

2541-408: The Hexi Corridor around 4200   BP with the arrival of bronze-smelting technology. Domesticated livestock were also introduced to the area around this time, so Bronze Age cultures of the Hexi Corridor typically farmed millet and wheat, while keeping livestock such as sheep, pigs, cattle and horses as well as producing bronze objects. Bronze age societies in the Hexi Corridor at this time include

2618-544: The Hexi Corridor was the most important trade route in Northwest China . It linked China proper to the historic Western Regions for traders and military incursions into Central Asia . It is a string of oases along the northern edges of the Qilian Mountains and Altyn-Tagh , with the high and desolate Tibetan Plateau further to the south. To the north are the Longshou, Heli and Mazong Mountains separating it from

2695-454: The Hexi Corridor. From west to east, the major cities are: Dunhuang, Yumen , Jiayuguan , Jiuquan , Zhangye , Jinchang , Wuwei , and finally Lanzhou in the southeast. Just south of the provincial boundary of Gansu lies Xining , the capital of Qinghai Province, which served as the chief commercial hub of the Hexi Corridor along the Northern Silk Road . The Hexi Corridor was first settled around 4800 BP by Chinese millet farmers from

2772-619: The Northern Chanyu twice in 90 CE and 91 CE, forcing him to flee west into Wusun and Kangju territories. The Tang dynasty fought the Tibetan Empire for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia. There was a long string of conflicts with Tibet over territories in the Tarim Basin between 670 and 692. In 763 the Tibetans even captured the Tang capital of Chang'an for fifteen days during

2849-648: The Northern Liang was weaker than it was before and had to rely on careful diplomacy with their neighbours. Initially, Mengxun allied with the Southern Liang to destroy Later Liang, achieving so in 403. He then declared himself a vassal of the Later Qin and began clashing with Southern Liang and Western Liang. He repelled several attacks by Southern Liang, and in 410, even besieged their capital Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu ) but without success. The inhabitants of Guzang later surrendered to him in 411, and in 412, he made

2926-543: The Northern Liang. The Northern Liang was the last of the so-called Sixteen Kingdoms, and their fall in 439 marked a formal end to the period. Juqu Mujian was initially treated with respect in Wei, but by 452, he and his family members in Wei were all put to death under suspicion of plotting to rebel. While he was in Wei, Juqu Wuhui and Juqu Anzhou , continued to hold out in the far northwest and attempted to revive their state in their former territory, but eventually fled and occupied

3003-685: The Western Liang. Thus, the Northern Liang became the sole power in the Hexi Corridor and began trading with the Western Regions . With their western frontier secured, Northern Liang now concentrated their resources on the Western Qin. They allied themselves with the Helian Xia in the Guanzhong and launched a series of attacks on Qin, gradually weakening them. Previously, Northern Liang had submitted to

3080-671: The Xiongnu empire under the title of "Juqu" of the Right of Xiongnu (匈奴左沮渠), which they then adopted as their family name. The Juqu eventually submitted to the Han dynasty , and centuries later found themselves serving under the Di -led Later Liang dynasty. After the Later Liang suffered a heavy defeat to the Western Qin in 397, two members of the Juqu, Juqu Luochou (沮渠羅仇) and Juqu Quzhou (沮渠麴粥) were blamed for

3157-572: The area, the more drought-resistant wheat and barley had replaced millet as the main staple crop in the Hexi Corridor. Several Neolithic cultures developed in the Hexi corridor at this time, such as the Majiayao , Banshan , and Machang . The oldest bronze object to be discovered in China, dating to around 5000-4500   BP, was found at a Majiayao site in the Hexi Corridor, and the Bronze Age began in

Northern Liang - Misplaced Pages Continue

3234-723: The arid Badain Jaran Desert , Gobi Desert and the cold steppes of the Mongolian Plateau . At the western end, the route splits into three, going either north of the Tianshan Mountains or south on either side of the Tarim Basin . At the eastern end, the mountains around Lanzhou grants access to the Longxi Basin , which leads east through Mount Long along the Wei River valley into the populous Guanzhong Plain , and then into

3311-475: The aristocracy found itself needing to signal who had more land, power, and resources. During this time the titles they had been using started to take on a more systematized structure. After a few hundred years, political thinkers saw this emergent structure and projected it idealistically and anachronistically backwards into a past where it had not actually held. This was called Wǔděngjuéwèi ( 五等爵位 ), five (aristocratic) peerage ranks (abbreviated Wǔjué ) below

3388-489: The case of Liu Bei promoting Guan Yu to a rank phrased as General Who Exterminates Bandits (蕩寇將軍) during the active course of Guan Yu's military career. In Dutch East Indies (modern-day Indonesia), the Dutch authorities appointed Chinese officers to the colonial administration to oversee the governance of the colony's Chinese subjects. These officials bore the ranks of Majoor , Kapitein or Luitenant der Chinezen , and had extensive political and legal jurisdiction over

3465-459: The central plain states, including the nobility system. The royal ancestral temple kinship group surnamed Xiong and its branch lineages of Qu, Jing, and Zhao formed the main nobility of Chu. Within the elite, Chu's early period mirrored that of Predynastic Zhou , the aristocratic ancestral temples and clan lineages sufficing to determine social position, without an additional expressly political dimension. Chu's formal system of rank appeared around

3542-472: The city his new capital, where he elevated himself to the King of Hexi. Northern Liang continued to place pressure on Southern Liang before they fell to Western Qin in 414. Their demise placed Northern Liang in contact with Qin, sparking a new conflict between them. In 417, taking advantage of Li Gao's death, he went on the offensive against Western Liang. By 421, he captured their capital, Jiuquan and destroyed their last pocket of resistance in Dunhuang, ending

3619-407: The control of the region, four new commanderies were established in the Hexi Corridor, namely (from east to west) Wuwei , Zhangye , Jiuquan and Dunhuang , collectively known as the Four Commanderies of Hexi ( Chinese : 河西四郡 ). From roughly 115–60 BCE, Han forces fought the Xiongnu over control of the oasis city-states in the Tarim Basin . Han was eventually victorious and established

3696-421: The entirety of the Hexi Corridor with the key city of Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu ) as their capital. After Northern Liang fell, remnants of the Juqu clan fled and occupied the oasis city of Gaochang in 442, where they restored their state as the " Northern Liang of Gaochang " ( Chinese : 高昌北涼 ; pinyin : Gāochāng Běi Liáng ; 442–460). For most of its existence, the Northern Liang dynasty

3773-435: The era name, although real power was shared between him, Juqu Mengxun and Juqu Nancheng. In 398, Mengxun took several commanderies before capturing Zhangye, effectively controlling the western parts of Later Liang. Duan Ye shifted the capital to Zhangye, and in 399, he elevated himself to King of Liang. To distinguish with the other Liang states at the time, historiographers refer to his state as Northern Liang. However, in 400,

3850-621: The full unification of early China under the Qin dynasty , the first empire whose realm would subsequently be considered to extend broadly enough to be national in the context of the territorial concept of China, the Zhouli , Rites of Zhou were subsequently canonized by Confucius among his Confucian Chinese classics as a model precedent in principles of government, so ranks of nobility in later regimes both in periods of unified sovereignty and of competing smaller states would typically draw from its catalog of peerage. From Zhouli, later Confucian political philosophy and government publications, and from

3927-438: The hands of court factions, eunuchs , the bureaucracy or noble families. The title of emperor was usually transmitted from father to son . Most often, the first-born son of the primary wife inherited the office, failing which the post was taken up by the first-born son of a concubine or consort of lower rank, but this rule was not universal and disputed succession was the cause of a number of civil wars. The emperor's regime in

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4004-518: The imperial household. The Rites of Zhou states that Emperors are entitled to the following simultaneous spouses: Sovereigns styled Ba or Bawang ( 霸王 , hegemon -protector), asserted official overlordship of several subordinate rulers while refraining from claiming the royal title. This practice began in the Spring and Autumn period , spurred by a royal house too militarily weak to defend its own lands, in combination with an aristocracy flexing its power in novel ways. A later example of this title

4081-459: The kaleidoscopic Six Dynasties period were enfeoffed by their overthrowers and subsequently killed anyway. This specific vicissitude was shared by Emperor Gong of Jin , Emperor Shun of Liu Song , Emperor He of Southern Qi , and Emperor Jing of Liang , representing consecutive dynasties between 421 and 558. The child emperor Gao Heng of the Northern Qi dynasty experienced a similar narrative arc two decades later. This practice continued all

4158-421: The late Spring and Autumn period, similar to the remainder of the Zhou confederation, but with different titles such as Tonghou (通侯, marquis-peer), Zhigui (執珪, jade scepter bearer), Zhibo (執帛, silk bearer). Their political offices also differed in name even where scope of responsibilities did not. Noble ranks, bestowed primarily as reward for military and civil service, and not in principle heritable, came with

4235-399: The local Chinese community. Their descendants bore the hereditary title of Sia , and constituted the Cabang Atas or the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia. Hexi Corridor The Hexi Corridor ( / h ə ˈ ʃ iː / hə-SHEE ), also known as the Gansu Corridor , is an important historical region located in the modern western Gansu province of China . It refers to

4312-420: The loss and executed. At their funeral, their nephew, Juqu Mengxun riled up the ten thousands in attendant to rebel and avenge their kin. He was defeated early on, but his cousin, Juqu Nancheng , rallied his troops and convinced Duan Ye , the Administrator of Jiankang (建康, in modern Zhangye , Gansu ) and a Han Chinese , to lead their rebellion. Duan Ye took the imperial title of Duke of Jiankang and changed

4389-435: The oasis city of Gaochang in 442. In historiography, their state is known as the "Northern Liang of Gaochang". In 444, Juqu Wuhui submitted to the Liu Song and received the title of King of Hexi. He died shortly after and was succeeded by Juqu Anzhou. Anzhou destroyed the Jushi Kingdom in 450 and attempted to maintain friendly relations with the Rouran Khaganate . However, in 460, the Rouran conquered Gaochang and slaughtered

4466-588: The particular grade of prince or princess, eventually to nullity. Rulers of smaller states were typically styled with lesser titles of aristocracy, which could be upgraded or downgraded with or without royal assent. Sometimes such an alteration in grade reflected real power dynamics; in other cases it was merely an act of public relations. Also known as Tianzi , "The Son of Heaven " the Chinese emperor wielded varying degrees of power between different emperors and different dynasties, with some emperors being absolute rulers and others being figureheads with actual power in

4543-408: The path, watered by rivers flowing from the Qilian Mountains , such as the Shiyang , Jinchuan , Ejin (Heihe), and Shule Rivers. A strikingly inhospitable environment surrounds this chain of oases: the snow-capped Qilian Mountains (the so-called "southern mountains" or "Nanshan") to the south; the Beishan ("northern mountains") mountainous area, the Alashan Plateau , and the vast expanse of

4620-400: The political economy of the times. After the Song dynasty , most bureaucratic offices were filled through the imperial examination system , undermining the power of the hereditary aristocracy. Historians have noted the disappearance by 1000 CE of the powerful clans that had dominated China. The last, well-developed system of noble titles was established under the final imperial dynasty,

4697-581: The political theory of Heaven's mandate allowed for a change in dynasty, and an emperor could be replaced by a rebel leader. The overthrow of an imperial house was sufficient evidence of the loss of the Mandate. It was generally not accepted for a female to succeed to the throne as a sovereign regnant in her own right , rather than playing the role of a sovereign's consort or regent for a sovereign during his age of minority. Official Chinese histories list only one reigning empress, Empress Wu of Tang . However, there have been numerous cases in Chinese history where

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4774-435: The realm , relatively autonomous local sovereignty, and tributary vassalage. The supreme sovereign is the only office translated into English as the term " emperor ". An emperor might appoint, confirm, or tolerate sub-sovereigns or tributary rulers styled kings . As a title of nobility, Ba Wang , hegemon , denoted overlordship of several subordinate kings while refraining from claiming the title of emperor. Sovereigns holding

4851-430: The reigning king. Some clans even took them as lineage names . Gongzi eventually evolved into the generic honorific for all young gentry. Today it is either used as a flattering way to address an interlocutor's son, or a pejorative term for a wealthy man. Wangzi , on the other hand, is used today as the generic translation for the sons of a foreign monarch. The southern state of Chu had a notably distinct culture from

4928-437: The remnants of the Juqu family. The Juqu were strong propagators of Buddhism , and it was during the Northern Liang that the first Buddhist cave shrine sites appear in Gansu Province. The two most famous cave sites are Tiantishan ("Celestial Ladder Mountain"), which was south of the Northern Liang capital at Yongcheng, and Wenshushan ("Manjusri's Mountain"), halfway between Yongcheng and Dunhuang. Maijishan lies more or less on

5005-417: The royal ranks. This idealized structure was later implemented as policy during the early imperial period. Much later English translators attempted to map European-style feudal titles onto these. Titles of female members of the aristocracies varied in different dynasties and eras, each having unique classifications for the spouses of the emperor. Any female member excluding a spouse of an emperor can be called

5082-475: The surrounding historical literature of particular individuals, localities and events, the following social classifications have been attested. The social system of the Zhou dynasty is sometimes referred to as the Chinese feudalism and was the combination of fengjian (enfeoffment and establishment) and zongfa (clan law). Male subjects were classified into, in descending order of rank: Zongfa (宗法, clan law), which applied to all social classes, governed

5159-453: The title of King of Hexi. Meanwhile, he was also a vassal to the Liu Song, who he engaged with in cultural exchange by trading literature works from their respective territories. Despite their alliance, Emperor Taiwu was determined to complete his unification. In 439, alleging that Mujian was planning to rebel, the Northern Wei launched a campaign against Northern Liang and placed Guzang under siege. Mujian surrendered himself to Wei, thus ending

5236-471: The title of king of an individual state within and without the shifting borders of the Chinese political realm might be fully independent heads of foreign states, such as the King of Korea . In some cases, they could be subordinate to foreign emperors just as territorial or tribal sovereign Mongol khans might be subject to one of several Khagans or Great khans . Some Chinese emperors styled many or all close male relatives of certain kinds such as wang ,

5313-422: The two tribes of Hunye and Xiutu . In 138 BCE , Emperor Wu sent Zhang Qian as the ambassador to the Western Regions in an attempt to make contact with Greater Yuezhi. Zhang Qian's envoy was intercepted by Xiongnu while travelling through the Hexi Corridor, and he was held a captive for ten years, until he finally escaped and continued his mission further west. He eventually arrived at Yuezhi territory, but

5390-483: The way through the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, when the Republic of China allowed the last Qing Emperor to stay in the Forbidden City and keep his title, treating him as a foreign monarch until 1924. The descendants of Confucius were maintained in the title of Duke Yansheng until 1935 when the title was changed to Sacrificial Official to Confucius (大成至聖先師奉祀官), which remains as a position to this day, currently held by Kung Tsui-chang . The Zhou dynasty not only preceded

5467-405: The westward exodus of majority of the Yuezhi survivors (later known as the Greater Yuezhi) into Central Asia, while the small portion of Yuezhi population that didn't migrate (known as the Lesser Yuezhi) was forced to mixed among the Qiang people and become the subjects of Xiongnu's Worthy Prince of the Right . At this point, the Hexi Corridor was under complete Xiongnu control, mainly occupied by

5544-460: Was a function of the interface between the ancient patriarchal clan system , an increasingly sophisticated apparatus of state, and an evolving geopolitical situation . In the subsequent millennia , this system retained its essential character, albeit with modifications in titles and their relative rankings, and fluctuating power dynamics between the great families, the imperial house, the ministerial and mercantile classes, and other stakeholders in

5621-527: Was dying, his officials considered his heir apparent, Juqu Puti (沮渠菩提) as being too young to lead and supported another son, Juqu Mujian to the throne. At this point, the Northern Wei was on the verge of unifying northern China. After succeeding his father, Mujian was compelled into entering a marriage alliance with Wei, sending his sister Princess Xingping to marry Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei while he married Taiwu's sister, Princess Wuwei , and Wei granted him

5698-463: Was later used by extension to denote a father's younger brother); and Jiu (舅, maternal uncle). Sons of kings who did not receive other titles were generically called Wangzi (王子, king's son), and their children Wangsun (王孫, royal scion). Similarly, sons and grandsons of dukes and lords were called Gongzi (公子, duke's son) and Gongsun (公孫, noble descendant). These honorifics occasionally became heritable titles, no longer indicating relation with

5775-487: Was part of the area known as the Western Regions . South of Gansu Province, in the middle just over the provincial boundary, lies the city of Xining , the capital of Qinghai Province. Xining used to be the chief commercial hub of the Hexi Corridor. The Jiayuguan fort guards the western entrance to China. It is located in Jiayuguan pass at the narrowest point of the Hexi Corridor, some 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) southwest of

5852-622: Was ruled by the Juqu tribe of Lushuihu ethnicity. The Lushuihu, or "Lu River Barbarians" were an ethnic group whose origin is still debated by scholars today. Theories range from them being a branch of the Xiongnu people, to them being descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi that intermingled with the Qiang . The Juqu, in particular, were a Lushuihu tribe based in Linsong Commandery (臨松郡; in modern-day Zhangye , Gansu ). Their ancestors once served under

5929-479: Was unable to convince the Yuezhi leaders to ally against Xiongnu. On his return journey he was once again captured by Xiongnu while traversing the Hexi Corridor, but again managed to escape two years later. He finally returned to Chang'an in 125 BCE , bringing back invaluable detailed information about the various Central Asian kingdoms such as Dayuan , Daxia and Kangju , as well as other farther countries such as Anxi , Tiaozhi , Shendu and Wusun . During

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