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54-597: A branch of the Tanguts also bore a surname transcribed as Tuoba before their chieftains were given the Chinese surnames Li ( 李 ) and Zhao ( 趙 ) by the Tang and Song dynasties respectively. Some of these Tangut Tuobas later adopted the surname Weiming ( 嵬名 ), with this branch eventually establishing and ruling the Western Xia in northwestern China from 1038 to 1227. By

108-768: A Sino-Tibetan people who founded and inhabited the Western Xia dynasty . The group initially lived under Tuyuhun authority, but later submitted to the Tang dynasty . After the collapse of Tang dynasty, the Tanguts established the Western Xia. They spoke the Tangut language , which was previously believed to be one of the Qiangic languages or Yi languages which belong to the Tibeto-Burman family." Phylogenetic and historical linguistic accounts, however, reveal that Tangut belonged instead to

162-488: A 20th-century scholar, the Tuoba language was essentially Turkic with Mongolic admixture. Chen Sanping observed that the Tuoba language contains both elements. Liu Xueyao stated that the Tuoba may have had their own language which should not be assumed to be identical with any other known languages. Andrew Shimunek (2017) classifies Tuoba (Tabghach) as a "Serbi" (i.e., para-Mongolic ) language. Shimunek's Serbi branch also consists of

216-590: A consequence of the Northern Wei's extensive contacts with Central Asia, Turkic sources identified Tabgach, also transcribed as Tawjach, Tawġač, Tamghaj, Tamghach, Tafgaj, and Tabghaj, as the ruler or country of China until the 13th century. The Orkhon inscriptions in the Orkhon Valley in modern-day Mongolia from the 8th century identify Tabgach as China. I myself, wise Tonyukuk , lived in Tabgach country. (As

270-638: A dissertation entitled "The Art of War in Ancient China: A Study Based on the Dialogues of Li, Duke of Wei ." In 1932, Boodberg was hired to teach at Berkeley as an instructor in the Oriental Languages department. He was made an associate professor in 1937, Chairman of the department in 1940, and was promoted to full professor in 1948. Boodberg's scholarship won him Guggenheim Fellowships in 1938, 1956, and 1963. In 1963, Boodberg also became President of

324-510: A member of Southern Qi royalty. Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei 's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to Emperor Wu of Liang 's son Xiao Zong  [ zh ] . One of Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei 's sisters was married to Zhang Huan, a Han Chinese, according to the Book of Zhou (Zhoushu). His name is given as Zhang Xin in the Book of Northern Qi (Bei Qishu) and History of

378-514: A transcription into Turkic languages of the Chinese name "Great Han " ( 大漢 , s 大汉 , Dà Hàn , MC * Dàj Xàn ) . Tuoba is the atonal pinyin romanization of the Mandarin pronunciation of the Chinese 拓跋 ( Tuòbá ), whose pronunciation at the time of its transcription into Middle Chinese has been reconstructed as * tʰak-bɛt or * Thak-bat . The same name also appears with

432-544: Is Khitāy, lower which is Barkhān in the vicinity of Kashgar. But now Tawjāch is known as Maṣīn and Khitai as Ṣīn. At the time of his writing, China's northern fringe was ruled by Khitan-led Liao dynasty while the remainder of China proper was ruled by the Northern Song dynasty . Arab sources used Sīn (Persian: Chīn) to refer to northern China and Māsīn (Persian: Machīn) to represent southern China. In his account, al-Kashgari refers to his homeland, around Kashgar, then part of

486-555: Is a tonal language with predominantly mono-syllabic roots, but it shares certain grammatical traits central to the Tibeto-Burman branch. It used to be debated as to whether Tangut belonged to the Yi or Qiangic subdivision of Tibeto-Burman. The Tanguts, called the Dangxiang ( 党項 ; Dǎngxiàng ) in Chinese, are typically regarded by Chinese scholars to be synonymous with or at least related to

540-584: The American Oriental Society . He continued to teach until his death from a heart attack in 1972. Boodberg influenced several generations of sinologists, notably Edward H. Schafer , who wrote a long obituary article in the Journal of the American Oriental Society that was followed by a full bibliography by Alvin P. Cohen. Boodberg's only child, Xenia Boodberg Lee (1927–2004), was

594-655: The Gyalrongic branch of Tibeto-Burman. Western Xia was annihilated by the Mongol Empire in 1227, most of its written records and architecture were destroyed. Today the Tangut language and its unique script are extinct; only fragments of Tangut literature remain. The Tangut language , otherwise known as Fan , belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Like many other Sino-Tibetan languages, it

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648-566: The Huang Chao rebellion. As a reward the Tang central government granted the Tangut general Li Sigong the three prefectures of Xia ( Chinese : 夏州 , Tangut: 𘒂𗉔 ), Sui ( Chinese : 綏州 , Tangut: 𗉢𗉔 ), and Yin ( Chinese : 銀州 , Tangut: 𘝰𗉔 ) as hereditary titles under the Dingnan Jiedushi . After the collapse of Tang China, multiple warlords started to form new states in

702-483: The Huayan - Chan tradition of Guifeng Zongmi (Chinese: 圭峰宗密, 780–841) and his master Huayan Chengguan was the most influential. A number of texts previously believed to be of native Tangut origin turned out to be translations of Khitan source texts. The degree of Tibetan impact on the formation of Tangut Buddhism still remains unexplored, especially in the light of new discoveries showing that Tangut Buddhism owed more to

756-719: The Kara-Khanid Khanate , as Lower China. The rulers of the Karakanids adopted Tamghaj Khan (Turkic: the Khan of China) in their title, and minted coins bearing this title. Much of the realm of the Karakhanids including Transoxania and the western Tarim Basin had been under the rule of the Tang dynasty prior to the Battle of Talas in 751, and the Karakhanids continued to identify with China, several centuries later. The Tabgatch name for

810-535: The Notes on Transmitting the Dharma Treasure through Generations implies that at the period of 760's some sort of Buddhism was spread in the region of Helanshan, where the Tangut were already residing.　Concerning the late 8th century Helanshan Buddhism, little can be said: the doctrines of the lu (律) school and the teaching of Sichuan Chan of Rev. Kim (金和尚) seem to be known there. Worship of Confucianism also existed in

864-597: The Qiang people. Historically, "Qiang" was a collective term for the multiple ethnic groups who lived on the western borderlands of China, including the modern Qiang people (Rma). The name Tangut first appears in the Orkhon inscriptions of 735. In their own Tangut language, the Tanguts called themselves Mi-niah (Miñak). Until the 19th century, the term Minjak was still used to refer to the area inhabited by Qiang people in today's Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. Speakers of

918-634: The Tuyuhun and Khitan languages. The Tuoba were a Xianbei clan. The distribution of the Xianbei people ranged from present day Northeast China to Mongolia , and the Tuoba were one of the largest clans among the western Xianbei, ranging from present day Shanxi province and westward and northwestward. They established the state of Dai from 310 to 376 AD and ruled as the Northern Wei from 386 to 536. The Tuoba states of Dai and Northern Wei also claimed to possess

972-508: The Xianbei Tuoba royal family in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Chinese men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Some Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of

1026-786: The quality of earth in the Chinese Wu Xing theory. All the chieftains of the Tuoba were revered as emperors in the Book of Wei and the History of the Northern Dynasties . A branch of the Tuoba in the west known as the Tufa also ruled the Southern Liang dynasty from 397 to 414 AD during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. The Northern Wei started to arrange for Chinese elites to marry daughters of

1080-532: The "Black Headed". The Red Faced Tanguts were seen as commoners while the Black Headed Tanguts made up the elite priestly caste . Although Buddhism was extremely popular among the Tangut people, many Tangut herdsmen continued to practice a kind of shamanism known as Root West (Melie). The black caps worn by Root West shamans give the Black Headed caste its name. According to Tangut myth, the ancestor of

1134-636: The 13th century. After Russia annexed Estonia in 1721, they became a prominent diplomatic and military family in Imperial Russia . Boodberg's father, Aleksei Pavlovich Budberg (1869–1945), was a baron and the commanding general of the Russian forces in Vladivostok. His father's position ensured that Boodberg enjoyed a strong education in the Latin and Greek Classics and in the major European languages. Budberg

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1188-528: The 8th century, the Old Turkic form of the name was Tabγač ( 𐱃𐰉𐰍𐰲 ), usually anglicized as Tabgatch or Tabgach. The name appears in other Central Asian accounts as Tabghāj and Taugash and in Byzantine Greek sources like Theophylact Simocatta 's History as Taugas ( Ancient Greek : Ταυγάς ) and Taugast ( Ταυγάστ ). Zhang Xushan and others have argued for the name's ultimate derivation from

1242-509: The Black Headed Tanguts was a heavenly white crane , while the ancestor of the Red Faced Tanguts was a monkey. Tangut kings went by the title of Wuzu. According to sources in the Tangut language, the Tangut state known now as the Western Xia was named 𗴂𗹭𗂧𘜶 translated as "Great State of White and Lofty" ( phôn¹ mbın² lhi̯ə tha² ). Although the Chinese translation of this name ( Chinese : 白高大國 ; pinyin : Báigāo Dàguó )

1296-730: The Mongol Empire. Some of them led Mongol armies, e.g. Cha'an, into the conquest of China. After the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) was established, the Tangut troops were incorporated into the Mongol army in their subsequent military conquests in central and southern China. The Tangut were considered Semu under the Yuan class system, thus separating them from the North Chinese. As late as the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), there

1350-637: The Northern Dynasties (Beishi) which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a naming taboo on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong. When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended, Northern Wei received the Han Chinese Jin prince Sima Chuzhi  [ zh ] as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong (司馬金龍). Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian 's daughter married Sima Jinlong. According to Zhou (2006)

1404-637: The Qiangic Muya language in western Kangding calls themselves Minyak. Geographic names such as Min river and Min county (Gansu) are pointed to this root. According to William of Rubruck , who travelled to various parts of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the Tanguts were valiant and had big swarthy men among them, in contrast to the Uyghurs , who were "of medium size, like us". The Tangut people I saw were tall but swarthy. The Iugurs are of medium build like our own people. The early Tanguts inhabited

1458-501: The Song dynasty Zhao royal family, he adopted a Tangut surname 𗼨𗆟 , rendered in Chinese as "Weiming" ( Chinese : 嵬名 ). He made Xingqing ( Chinese : 興慶 , modern Yinchuan ) his capital city. In the thirteenth century, Genghis Khan unified the northern grasslands of Mongolia and led his troops in six rounds of attacks against the Western Xia over a period of twenty-two years (1205, 1207, 1209–10, 1211–13, 1214–19, 1225–27). During

1512-414: The Tangut people adopted many Han/Tang Chinese culture, but also maintained their own customs, as is proven by the vast amount of literature which survived the Tangut state itself. The Western Xia founder Li Deming's son, Li Yuanhao, enthroned as Emperor Jingzong , sought to differentiate the Tangut state from that of its rival Han-led Song China and started to nurture a national Tangut identity by ordering

1566-511: The Tangut state strictly forbade religious teachers from accepting compensation or reward for their teaching services. Although the state did not support an official school of Buddhism, it did protect all religious sites and objects within the country's boundaries. As in China, becoming a Buddhist monk required government approval and anyone found to have taken the vows of a monk without such government oversight faced severe punishment. Remarkably for

1620-569: The Tuoba and their Rouran enemies descended from common ancestors. The Weishu stated that the Rourans were of Donghu origins and the Tuoba originated from the Xianbei, who were also Donghu's descendants. The Donghu ancestors of Tuoba and Rouran were most likely proto-Mongols . Nomadic confederations of Inner Asia were often linguistically diverse, and Tuoba Wei comprised the para-Mongolic Tuoba as well as assimilated Turkic peoples such as Hegu (紇骨) and Yizhan (乙旃); consequently, about one quarter of

1674-443: The Tuoba tribal confederation was composed of Dingling elements as Tuoba migrated from northeastern Mongolia to northern China. Alexander Vovin (2007) identifies the Tuoba language as a Mongolic language . On the other hand, Juha Janhunen proposed that the Tuoba might have spoken an Oghur Turkic language . René Grousset , writing in the early 20th century, identifies the Tuoba as a Turkic tribe . According to Peter Boodberg ,

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1728-522: The Western Xia, which has led to some claims that the Tangut religion was rooted in Confucianism, but this was incomparable with the degree of popularity of Buddhism. Tangut literature is dominated by Buddhist scriptures while secular teachings including the Chinese classics were rarely available in the Tangut language. The Tangut state enforced strict laws pertaining to the teaching of religious beliefs and rigorously screened potential teachers. Before he

1782-600: The Xianbei Tuoba Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Chinese elites: the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui married Princess Lanling of the Northern Wei; Princess Huayang  [ zh ] married Sima Fei  [ zh ] , a descendant of Jin dynasty (266–420) royalty; Princess Jinan  [ zh ] married Lu Daoqian  [ zh ] ; and Princess Nanyang  [ zh ] married Xiao Baoyin ( 萧宝夤 ),

1836-527: The Yuan and Ming courts of China where they served as the spiritual guides to princes and emperors. Their influence also extended to the court of the Tangut Xia Kingdom where a disciple of Dusum Khyenpa was given the title "Supreme Teacher" by a Tangut Xixia King[.] After the fall of the Western Xia, the influx of refugees into Tibet led to the adoption of the Pehar deity into Tibetan Buddhism , eventually in

1890-652: The anti-aristocracy violence of the Bolshevik Revolution . The family emigrated to the United States, changing their surname to Boodberg , and settled in San Francisco . Boodberg enrolled as a student at the University of California, Berkeley , graduating with a B.A. in Oriental Languages in 1924. Boodberg continued studying at Berkeley as a graduate student, earning a Ph.D. in Oriental Languages in 1930 with

1944-462: The creation of an official Tangut script and by instituting laws that reinforced traditional Tangut customs. One of the laws he mandated called for citizens to wear traditional ethnic apparel and another required men to wear their hair short or shaved as opposed to the Chinese custom of wearing hair long and knotted. Abandoning the royal Chinese surnames of "Li", previously bestowed by the Tang dynasty Li royal family, and "Zhao", subsequently bestowed by

1998-547: The first character transcribed as 托 or 㩉 and with the second character transcribed as 拔 ; it has also been anglicized as T'o-pa and as Toba . The name is also attested as Tufa ( 禿髮 , Tūfà or Tūfǎ ), whose Middle Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as * tʰuwk-pjot , * T'ak-bwat , or * T'ak-buat . The name is also sometimes clarified as the Tuoba Xianbei ( 拓跋 鮮卑 , Tuòbá Xiānbēi ). According to Hyacinth (Bichurin) , an early 19th-century scholar,

2052-585: The former territories of Tang China. The Tanguts expanded their realm southwest towards their old homelands. In 1002 they conquered Ling Prefecture and set up their first capital there under the name of Xiping. By 1036 they had annexed the Guiyi Circuit and the Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom , even pushing into Tibetan territory and conquering Xining . The state of Western Xia was proclaimed in 1038. Being subjects of Tang China previously for two centuries,

2106-455: The haplogroup frequencies of the Tuoba Xianbei were 43.75% haplogroup D , 31.25% haplogroup C , 12.5% haplogroup B , 6.25% haplogroup A and 6.25% "other." Zhou (2014) obtained mitochondrial DNA analysis from 17 Tuoba Xianbei, which indicated that these specimens were, similarly, completely East Asian in their maternal origins, belonging to haplogroups D, C, B, A and haplogroup G . As

2160-573: The important role as the state oracle, the Nechung Oracle . Peter A. Boodberg Peter Alexis Boodberg (born Pyotr Alekseyevich Budberg ; 8 April 1903 – 29 June 1972) was a Russian-American scholar, linguist, and sinologist who taught at the University of California, Berkeley for 40 years. Boodberg was influential in 20th century developments in the studies of the development of Chinese characters , Chinese philology , and Chinese historical phonology . He has been described as "one of

2214-540: The last spate of the Mongol attacks, Genghis died in Western Xia territory. The official Mongol history attributes his death to illness, whereas legends claim that he died from a wound inflicted in these battles. In 1227, the capital of Western Xia was overrun by the Mongols, who devastated its buildings and written records: all was burnt to the ground except its monastery. The last emperor was killed and tens of thousands of civilians massacred. However, many Tangut families joined

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2268-638: The local culture in North China than to pure Tibetan or Chinese influences. Texts belonging to the Tibetan Mahamudra tradition demonstrate that Tangut Buddhism initially evolved along the Karma Kagyu rather than Sakya lines of Buddhist transmission. A number of Tangut Buddhist institutions, such as "Imperial Preceptor" survived the Tangut State itself and could be found during the Yuan dynasty . One of

2322-763: The more definite sources of Tangut Buddhism was Mount Wutai , where both Huayan and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism flourished from the late Tang dynasty up to the time of the Mongol conquest . Solonin (2005: unpaginated) links the Tanguts, the Helan Mountains and the Chan teachings of both Kim Hwasang and Baotang Wuzhu: The origins of the Tangut Chan can also be traced deeper than previously believed: information on Bao-tang Wu-zhu (保唐无住720～794) travels in North-Western China from

2376-460: The most original and commanding scholars" of the 20th century. Peter Alexis Boodberg was born "Pyotr Alekseyevich Budberg" ( Russian : Пётр Алексеевич Будберг , Pjotr Alekséjevič Búdberg) on 8 April 1903 in Vladivostok, Russia , which was then still a part of the Russian Empire . The Budberg-Bönninghausen was a Baltic German noble family , originally from the district of Budberg  [ de ] in Werl , that had lived in Estonia since

2430-425: The political entity has also been translated into Chinese as Taohuashi ( Chinese : 桃花石 ; pinyin : táohuā shí ). This name has been used in China in recent years to promote ethnic unity. Tangut people The Tangut people ( Tangut : 𗼎𗾧 , mjɨ nja̱ or 𗼇𘓐 , mji dzjwo ; Chinese : 党項 ; pinyin : Dǎngxiàng ; Tibetan : མི་ཉག་ , Wylie : mi nyak ; Mongolian : Тангуд ) were

2484-412: The steppes and mountains of southeast Qinghai and northwest Sichuan . Their home originally was in the highlands of western Sichuan. These regions correspond to the Amdo and Kham regions of the Tibetan plateau. At some point their leader Tuoba Chici, who was likely of mixed Xianbei and Qiang heritage, submitted to Tang China rule and was bestowed the title of Captain General of Western-Rong and

2538-454: The surname "Li". In the early 8th century, increasing pressure from the Tibetan Empire had forced the Tanguts to migrate north from their homelands in northeastern Tibet to the eastern Ordos region . By the time of the An Lushan Rebellion (755–763), the Tanguts were the predominant local power in what is now eastern Gansu , Ningxia , and northern Shaanxi . In 881 the Tanguts, who were subjects of Tang China, assisted Tang in suppressing

2592-434: The time, women played a role in Tangut religious practices by serving as nuns , a position that could only be held by a woman who had been widowed or who was an unmarried virgin. Suchan (1998) traces the influence of the first several Karmapas upon the Yuan and Ming courts as well as the Western Xia, and mentions Düsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama : The first several Karmapas are distinguished by their important status at

2646-407: The whole) Turkic people was under Tabgach subjection. In the 11th century text, the Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk ("Compendium of the languages of the Turks"), Turkic scholar Mahmud al-Kashgari , writing in Baghdad for an Arabic audience, describes Tawjach as one of the three components comprising China. Ṣīn [i.e., China] is originally three fold: Upper, in the east which is called Tawjāch; middle which

2700-469: Was a cadet at a military academy in St. Petersburg until the outbreak of World War I , when Budberg's parents sent him and his brother to Harbin , Manchuria , out of concern for their safety. Budberg attended the Oriental Institute (now Far Eastern Federal University ) in Vladivostok, where he studied Chinese , which he had begun learning as a teenager in Harbin, and learned several other Asiatic languages. The Budberg family fled Russia in 1920 due to

2754-404: Was allowed to teach, a newcomer entering the state from Tibet or India first had to seek the approval of local authorities. Doctrines taught and methods used were carefully supervised to ensure there was no possibility that the Tangut people might misunderstand the teachings. Anyone found to be a fortune-teller or charlatan faced immediate persecution. Deeming it contrary to Buddhist ethical beliefs,

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2808-463: Was derived from the Middle Chinese name for Hexi , the region the Tanguts controlled ( Chinese : 河西 ). The Tanguts were primarily Buddhists. Tangut Buddhism was influenced by external elements. The entire Chinese Buddhist canon was translated into the Tangut language over a span of 50 years and published around 1090 in about 3700 fascicles. Buddhism in the Tangut state is believed to be an amalgamation of Tibetan and Chinese traditions, among which

2862-406: Was evidence of small Tangut communities in Anhui and Henan provinces. The people including members of the royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers. The Tangut people living in Central China preserved their language until at least the 16th century. Tangut society was divided into two classes: the "Red Faced" and

2916-418: Was occasionally used in Tangut sources, the state was most commonly referred to as the "Great Xia" (大夏) in Chinese-language sources of the Tangut or as the "Xia State" ( Chinese : 夏國 ) to the Song. In later historiography and in modern Chinese the Tangut state is referred to as the "Western Xia" ( Xī Xià 西夏). The Mongols and other steppe tribes referred to the Tangut kingdom as "Qashi" or "Qashin", which

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