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124-528: The Lake Superior Chippewa ( Anishinaabe : Gichigamiwininiwag ) are a large number of Ojibwe (Anishinaabe) bands living around Lake Superior ; this territory is considered part of northern Michigan , Wisconsin , and Minnesota in the United States. They migrated into the area by the seventeenth century, encroaching on the Eastern Dakota people who had historically occupied the area. The Ojibwe defeated

248-494: A lingua franca or trade language in the circum-Great Lakes area , particularly in interactions with speakers of other Algonquian languages. Documentation of such usage dates from the 18th and 19th centuries, but earlier use is likely, with reports as early as 1703 suggesting that Ojibwe was used by different groups from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to Lake Winnipeg , and from as far south as Ohio to Hudson Bay . Documentation from

372-435: A schwa and depending on the writer, may be transcribed as "i", "e" or "a". For example, anami'egiizhigad [ na · m ' e · gii · zh gad /əˌnaməˈʔɛːˌɡiːʒəˌɡad/ ] (Sunday, literally 'prayer day') may be transcribed as anama'egiizhigad in those dialects. The general grammatical characteristics of Ojibwe are shared across its dialects. The Ojibwe language is polysynthetic , exhibiting characteristics of synthesis and

496-456: A central role in Ojibwe grammar. Noun inflection and particularly verb inflection indicate a wide variety of grammatical information, realized through the use of prefixes and suffixes added to word stems . Grammatical characteristics include the following: There is a distinction between two different types of third person : the proximate (the third person deemed more important or in focus) and

620-400: A final treaty. Recalling the experiences of 1837 and 1842, Ojibwa leaders sought to control the negotiations in 1854. Ambiguity in those treaties had been partially to blame for ensuing problems, so Kechewaishke insisted he would accept no interpreter other than Armstrong, his adopted son. The Ojibwa insisted on a guarantee of the right to hunt, fish, and gather on all the ceded territory, and on

744-567: A geographical term of convenience rather than a genetic subgroup , and its use does not indicate that the Central languages are more closely related to each other than to the other Algonquian languages. The most general Indigenous designation for the language is Anishinaabemowin 'speaking the native language' ( Anishinaabe 'native person,' verb suffix –mo 'speak a language,' suffix –win 'nominalizer'), with varying spellings and pronunciations depending upon dialect. Some speakers use

868-577: A high morpheme -to-word ratio. Ojibwe is a head-marking language in which inflectional morphology on nouns and particularly verbs carries significant amounts of grammatical information. Word classes include nouns , verbs , grammatical particles , pronouns , preverbs , and prenouns . Preferred word orders in a simple transitive sentence are verb-initial, such as verb–object–subject and verb–subject–object . While verb-final orders are dispreferred, all logically possible orders are attested. Complex inflectional and derivational morphology play

992-562: A key Ojibwa village at Lake Superior's eastern end). At the time of first French contact in the mid-17th century, men of the Crane doodem held the positions of hereditary peace chiefs of Ojibwa communities at both Sault Ste. Marie and La Pointe. Andaigweos was a skilled orator and favorite of the French officials and voyageurs . In that period, leaders of the Cranes were concerned more with internal matters. By

1116-673: A large victory over the Dakota in the 1842 Battle of the Brule , 20th-century historians have cast doubt on his account. That year Kechewaishke was recorded as saying he "never took a scalp in his life, though he had taken prisoners whom he fed and well-treated." Overall, he seems to have supported efforts at peace between the Ojibwa and Dakota. Kechewaishke not only inherited the status afforded his family, but also had skills praised in his grandfather Andaigweos. Noted for his abilities in hunting and battle, he

1240-470: A letter to Governor Dodge, writing: "The Indians acted like children; they tried to cheat each other and got cheated themselves. When it comes my turn to sell my land, I do not think I shall give it up as they did." Regarding possible future land cessions, he said: "Father I speak for my people, not for myself. I am an old man. My fire is almost out—there is but little smoke. When I sit in my wigwam & smoke my pipe, I think of what has past and what

1364-602: A number of other young warriors from the La Pointe area abandoned the Midewiwin for a time to follow the teachings of the Shawnee prophet Tenskwatawa . While en route to Prophetstown to join the attack on the Americans , they were stopped by Michel Cadotte , the respected Métis fur trader from La Pointe. Cadotte convinced Kechewaishke and the others that it would be fruitless to fight

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1488-633: A o/ and three corresponding long vowels /iː aː oː/ in addition to a fourth long vowel /eː/ , which lacks a corresponding short vowel. The short vowel /i/ typically has phonetic values centring on [ɪ] ; /a/ typically has values centring on [ə]~[ʌ] ; and /o/ typically has values centring on [o]~[ʊ] . Long /oː/ is pronounced [uː] for many speakers, and /eː/ is often [ɛː] . Ojibwe has nasal vowels . Some arising predictably by rule in all analyses, and other long nasal vowels are of uncertain phonological status. The latter have been analysed as underlying phonemes and/or as predictable and derived by

1612-716: A series of treaties with the US Government in the mid-nineteenth century, the Lake Superior Chippewa were formally grouped as a unit, which included the In the winter of 1851, President Zachary Taylor ordered the removal of the Lake Superior Chippewa to west of the Mississippi River , as had already been forced on most other tribes in the east. During the course of these removals, the US Army attacked in what has become known as

1736-427: A third subgroup which is further divided into (i) a subgrouping of Northwestern Ojibwe and Saulteaux , and a subgrouping consisting of Eastern Ojibwe and a further subgrouping comprising Southwestern Ojibwe and Central Ojibwe. Valentine has proposed that Ojibwe dialects are divided into three groups: a northern tier consisting of Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin; a southern tier consisting of "Odawa, Chippewa, Eastern Ojibwe,

1860-586: A variety of treaties to protect their historic territories against land theft by European-American settlers. The United States set up several reservations for bands in this area under the treaties, culminating in one in 1854. This enabled the people to stay in this territory rather than to be forced west of the Mississippi River , as the government had attempted. Under the treaty, bands with reservations have been federally recognized as independent tribes; several retain Lake Superior Chippewa in their formal names to indicate their shared culture. At some point before 1650,

1984-490: Is a significant Ojibwe influence. In locations such as Turtle Mountain, North Dakota individuals of Ojibwe ancestry now speak Michif and Ojibwe. Bungi Creole is an English-based Creole language spoken in Manitoba by the descendants of "English, Scottish, and Orkney fur traders and their Cree or Saulteaux wives ...". Bungee incorporates elements of Cree; the name may be from the Ojibwe word bangii 'a little bit' or

2108-585: Is adduced. The Central languages share a significant number of common features. These features can generally be attributed to diffusion of features through borrowing: "Extensive lexical, phonological, and perhaps grammatical borrowing—the diffusion of elements and features across language boundaries—appears to have been the major factor in giving the languages in the area of the Upper Great Lakes their generally similar cast, and it has not been possible to find any shared innovations substantial enough to require

2232-494: Is also in place at Lowell Elementary School in Duluth, Minnesota . The Algonquian language family of which Ojibwemowin is itself a member of the Algic language family, other Algic languages being Wiyot and Yurok . Ojibwe is sometimes described as a Central Algonquian language, along with Fox , Cree , Menominee , Miami-Illinois , Potawatomi , and Shawnee . Central Algonquian is

2356-613: Is an open-source app available for iOS devices. The Ojibwe People's Dictionary is an online language resource created in collaboration with the University of Minnesota. It is an accessible system that allows users to search in English or Ojibwe and includes voice recordings for many of the 17 000 entries in the collection. Despite what they have faced in the American and Canadian Governments' attempt to force Ojibwe into language death through

2480-846: Is called makade-mashkikiwaaboo ('black liquid-medicine') by many speakers, rather than gaapii . These new words vary from region to region, and occasionally from community to community. For example, in Northwest Ontario Ojibwemowin , 'airplane' is ombaasijigan , literally 'device that gets uplifted by the wind' (from ombaasin , 'to be uplifted by the wind') as opposed to the Minnesota bemisemagak . Like any language dialects spanning vast regions, some words that may have had identical meaning at one time have evolved to have different meanings today. For example, zhooniyaans (literally 'small[-amount of] money' and used to refer to coins) specifically means 'dime' (10-cent piece) in

2604-447: Is known that some speakers of Menominee also speak Ojibwe and that the pattern persisted into the 20th century. Similarly, bilingualism in Ojibwe is still common among Potawatomis who speak Potawatomi. Reports from traders and travellers as early as 1744 indicate that speakers of Menominee , another Algonquian language, used Ojibwe as a lingua franca. Other reports from the 18th century and the early 19th century indicate that speakers of

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2728-487: Is more commonly employed in the United States and in southwestern Ontario among descendants of Ojibwe migrants from the United States. Ojibwe and Potawatomi are frequently viewed as being more closely related to each other than to other Algonquian languages. Ojibwe and Potawatomi have been proposed as likely candidates for forming a genetic subgroup within Proto-Algonquian , although the required research to ascertain

2852-798: Is not in dispute. The relatively low degrees of mutual intelligibility between some nonadjacent Ojibwe dialects led Rhodes and Todd to suggest that Ojibwe should be analyzed as a linguistic subgroup consisting of several languages. While there is some variation in the classification of Ojibwe dialects, at a minimum the following are recognized, proceeding west to east: Western Ojibwe (Saulteaux) , Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) , Northwestern Ojibwe , Severn Ojibwe (Oji-Cree) , Ottawa (Odawa) , Eastern Ojibwe , and Algonquin . Based upon contemporary field research, Valentine also recognizes several other dialects: Berens Ojibwe in northwestern Ontario, which he distinguishes from Northwestern Ojibwe; North of (Lake) Superior; and Nipissing. The latter two cover approximately

2976-554: Is now Wisconsin. Kechewaishke was born around 1759 at La Pointe on Madeline Island ( Mooningwanekaaning ) in the Shagawamikong region. Now part of Wisconsin, La Pointe was a key Ojibwa village and trading center for the empire of New France , which was fighting the Seven Years' War against Great Britain at the time of Kechewaishke's birth. Throughout the 18th century, the Ojibwa spread out from La Pointe into lands conquered from

3100-584: Is part of the Inter-Tribal Council of Michigan, which represents 11 of the 12 federally recognized tribes in Michigan. These include tribes of Potowatomi and Odawa peoples who, together with the Ojibwe, have made up the Council of Three Fires . In Wisconsin, reservations were established at Red Cliff , Bad River , Lac Courte Oreilles , and Lac du Flambeau . The St. Croix and Sokaogon bands, left out of

3224-476: Is phonologically contrastive and so is phonemic . Although long and short vowels are phonetically distinguished by vowel quality, vowel length is phonologically relevant since the distinction between long and short vowels correlates with the occurrence of vowel syncope , which characterizes the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, as well as word stress patterns in the language. There are three short vowels /i

3348-497: Is present in phonological representations . The Ottawa and Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) have /h/ in a small number of affective vocabulary items in addition to regular /ʔ/ . Some dialects may have otherwise non-occurring sounds such as /f, l, r/ in loanwords . Obstruent consonants are divided into lenis and fortis sets, with these features having varying phonological analyses and phonetic realizations cross-dialectally. In some dialects, such as Severn Ojibwe, members of

3472-601: Is regarded a hero of the Lake Superior Ojibwa . Those at Red Cliff also remember him as a founding figure of the community. His life is celebrated during commemorations of the treaty signings and the Sandy Lake Tragedy. He is buried in the La Pointe Indian Cemetery , near the deep, cold waters of Ojibwe Gichigami ( Lake Superior ), the "great freshwater-sea of the Ojibwa." His descendants, many going by

3596-403: Is the most plausible explanation for the distinctive linguistic features found in these three dialects. Many communities adjacent to these relatively sharply differentiated dialects show a mix of transitional features, reflecting overlap with other nearby dialects. While each of these dialects has undergone innovations that make them distinctive, their status as part of the Ojibwe language complex

3720-514: Is to come, and it makes my heart shake. When business comes before us, we will try and act like Chiefs. If any thing is to be done, it had better be done straight." Five years later, Kechewaishke was presented with the Treaty of La Pointe covering his lands. Acting Superintendent of Indian Affairs Henry Stuart, who was promoting development of the Lake Superior copper industry, led the negotiations for

3844-462: The 2000 United States Census and the 2006 Canadian census . The Ojibwe language is reported as spoken by a total of 8,791 people in the United States of which 7,355 are Native Americans and by as many as 47,740 in Canada, making it one of the largest Algic languages by numbers of speakers. The Red Lake , White Earth , and Leech Lake reservations are known for their tradition of singing hymns in

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3968-579: The Algonquian language family . The language is characterized by a series of dialects that have local names and frequently local writing systems . There is no single dialect that is considered the most prestigious or most prominent, and no standard writing system that covers all dialects. Dialects of Ojibwemowin are spoken in Canada, from southwestern Quebec , through Ontario , Manitoba and parts of Saskatchewan , with outlying communities in Alberta ; and in

4092-448: The Dakota people, and settled several village sites. These bands in the western Lake Superior and Mississippi River regions regarded La Pointe as their "ancient capital" and spiritual center. It had also become a center of trade. Traditional Ojibwa government and society centers around kinship clans , each symbolized by animal doodem . Each doodem had a traditional responsibility within

4216-482: The First Treaty of Prairie du Chien , with his name recorded as "Gitspee Waishkee" or La Boeuf. He is listed third after Shingabawossin , who was recognized as head of the Crane doodem at Sault Ste. Marie, and therefore of the whole Ojibwa nation, which was a loose confederacy of bands. Second in the list was chief "Gitspee Jiuaba". The treaty, which the US Government advanced as a pretext to end hostilities between

4340-671: The Indian Reorganization Act , the Keweenaw Bay Indian Community was defined as successor apparent to the L'Anse, Lac Vieux Desert, and Ontonagon bands. Government functions were centralized with it, although all three reservations were retained. In 1988 the Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa succeeded in gaining federal recognition as a separate tribe. Together with the Keneewaw Bay tribe, it

4464-522: The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 mandated the phasing-out of the Native American boarding school program, the practice of sending youth to these institutions continued into the 1960s and 1970s. Because children were forced to live away from their home communities, many never had the opportunity to hear and use their native language. This government assimilation effort caused widespread loss of language and culture among indigenous communities, including

4588-649: The Sandy Lake Tragedy , when hundreds of Ojibwa starved or died of exposure in Minnesota and on the journey home because the promised annuity supplies were late, contaminated or inadequate. In a later letter, Kechewaishke described the conditions: And when a message was sent to me by our Indian agent to come and get our pay, I lost no time in arising & complying with my Agents voice and when I reached my point of destination, verily my Agent fed me with very bad flour it resembled green clay. Soon I became sick and many of my fellow chippewas also were taken sick, and soon

4712-557: The Sandy Lake tragedy , in which several hundred Chippewa died, including women and children. The La Pointe chief Kechewaishke (Buffalo) went to Washington, DC to appeal to the government for relief. National outrage had been aroused by the many deaths of the Ojibwe, and the US ended attempts at Ojibwe removal. The final treaty in 1854 established permanent reservations in Michigan at L'Anse , Lac Vieux Desert , and Ontonagon . In 1934 under

4836-540: The obviative (the third person deemed less important or out of focus). Nouns can be singular or plural in number and either animate or inanimate in gender. Separate personal pronouns exist but are used mainly for emphasis; they distinguish inclusive and exclusive first-person plurals. Verbs, the most complex word class, are inflected for one of three orders ( indicative , the default; conjunct , used for participles and in subordinate clauses ; and imperative , used with commands), as negative or affirmative, and for

4960-718: The "Buffalo Estate" was acknowledged; it was extended by executive order into what is now the Red Cliff Indian Reservation . Kechewaishke was too ill to participate in the speeches at the time of the annuity payments in summer 1855. Tensions continued, as the Ojibwa accused US officials of corruption, members of the American Fur Company threatened violence, and infighting erupted among the Ojibwa bands. Morse records that these conflicts worsened Kechewaishke's condition. He died of heart disease on September 7, 1855, at La Pointe. Members of his band blamed his death on

5084-664: The 17th century indicates that the Wyandot language (also called Huron), one of the Iroquoian languages , was also used as a trade language east of the Great Lakes by speakers of the Nipissing and Algonquin dialects of Ojibwe, and also by other groups south of the Great Lakes, including the Winnebago and by a group of unknown affiliation identified only as "Assistaeronon." The political decline of

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5208-932: The 1854 treaty, did not obtain tribal lands or federal recognition until the 1930s after the Indian Reorganization Act . In Minnesota, reservations were set up at Fond du Lac and Grand Portage . Other bands, such as the Bois Forte Band , continued independent negotiations with the US government and ended political affiliation with the Lake Superior Chippewa. Today the bands are federally recognized as independent tribes with their own governments. They remain culturally closely connected. They have engaged in legal actions concerning treaty rights , such as fishing for walleye . Many bands include "Lake Superior Chippewa" in their official tribal names to indicate their historic and cultural affiliations (Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, Fond du Lac Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, etc.) Historical bands and political successors-apparent are

5332-506: The 19th century, it was Kechewaishke's clan, the Loons, that was recognized as the principal chiefs at La Pointe. Although the Loons were afforded respect as principal peace chiefs, this status was not permanent. The Cranes, led in Kechewaishke's time by his sub-chief Tagwagane , maintained that they were the hereditary chiefs. They said the Loons' status as spokesmen hinged upon recognition by

5456-605: The Americans. After that incident, Kechewaishke is recorded as using only peaceful tactics in his relations with the United States, though he often opposed US Indian policy . He also drew a contrast between himself and his contemporaries Aysh-ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay and Hole in the Day , two Ojibwa chiefs from present-day Minnesota , who carried out a long war against the Dakota Sioux people. Although Armstrong records Kechewaishke winning

5580-614: The British before the War of 1812, the U.S. government had not done enough to maintain peace among the tribes. In the next decades, there was pressure from Americans who wanted to exploit the mineral and timber resources of Ojibwa country, and the US government sought to acquire control of the territory through treaties. The Treaties of 1837 and 1842 covered La Pointe and territories held by other bands over which Kechewaishke held considerable influence. In both treaties, Americans recognized his position as

5704-401: The Cranes. A chief's power in Ojibwa society was based on persuasion and consensus, holding only as long as the community of elders, including the women, chose to respect and follow the chief's lead. Sources conflict as to the identity of Kechewaishke's father, who may also have been named Andaigweos. He appears to have been a descendant or relative of the famous war chief Waubojeeg . When he

5828-674: The Cree equivalent, but whether there is any other Ojibwe component in Bungee is not documented. Ojibwe borrowings have been noted in Menominee , a related Algonquian language . All dialects of Ojibwe generally have an inventory of 17 consonants . Most dialects have the segment glottal stop /ʔ/ in their inventory of consonant phonemes; Severn Ojibwe and the Algonquin dialect have /h/ in its place. Some dialects have both segments phonetically, but only one

5952-567: The Dakota and their neighbors, required all American Indian tribes and bands in and around Wisconsin and Iowa to delineate where their territories began and ended. Although the treaty did not state this goal, the US used information it acquired to negotiate to gain Indian lands and remove the nations westward. A year later, the US and Ojibwa signed the Treaty of Fond du Lac at a meeting at Lake Superior's western edge. The signatories were listed by band, and Kechewaishke, recorded as Peezhickee, signed as

6076-570: The Eastern Dakota, who migrated west into the Great Plains after the final battle in 1745. While they share a common culture including the Anishinaabe language , this highly decentralized group of Ojibwe includes at least twelve independent bands in the region. As the Lake Superior Chippewa in the nineteenth century, leaders of the bands negotiated together with the United States government under

6200-696: The French, which for a time gave them an advantage. They eventually drove the Dakota Sioux out of most of northern Wisconsin and northeastern Minnesota into the western plains. The Lakota were pushed west, where they eventually settled in the Great Plains of present-day Nebraska and the Dakotas. The Ojibwe successfully spread throughout the Great Lakes region, with colonizing bands settling along lakes and rivers throughout what would become northern Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. La Pointe on Madeline Island remained

6324-564: The Hurons in the 18th century and the ascendancy of Ojibwe-speaking groups including the Ottawa led to the replacement of Huron as a lingua franca. In the area east of Georgian Bay , the Nipissing dialect was a trade language. In the Lower Peninsula of Michigan , the eastern end of the Upper Peninsula , the area between Lake Erie and Lake Huron , and along the north shore of Georgian Bay,

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6448-408: The Lake Superior Chippewa. They do not exercise the aboriginal sovereign powers derived from the Lake Superior Chippewa. Anishinaabe language Ojibwe ( / oʊ ˈ dʒ ɪ b w eɪ / oh- JIB -way ), also known as Ojibwa ( / oʊ ˈ dʒ ɪ b w ə / oh- JIB -wə ), Ojibway , Otchipwe , Ojibwemowin , or Anishinaabemowin , is an indigenous language of North America of

6572-490: The Lake Superior region ran editorials condemning the removal effort. Kechewaishke sent two of his sons to St. Paul , where they obtained a portion of the annuities still owed. Ramsey and Watrous continued to work to remove the Ojibwa to Sandy Lake. Watrous said they considered Sandy Lake a "graveyard," but he still tried to move all the bands to Fond du Lac . Young Ojibwa men in Wisconsin were outraged at these developments and

6696-581: The Mississippi River unless they somehow "misbehaved." In 1830, President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act , which authorized the government to remove any Indian nations east of the Mississippi River to the western side and offer land in exchange. As northern Wisconsin was not then under pressure for development by white settlers, as occurred in the Southeast, the Ojibwa were not among

6820-474: The Ojibwa and Dakota. Kechewaishke replied that he was unable to stop the young men of Lac Courte Oreilles , St. Croix , Lac du Flambeau or other bands beyond La Pointe from fighting the Dakota. Historians take this to mean that while he was regarded as the head spokesman of the Ojibwa in Wisconsin, he could not control the day-to-day affairs of all the bands, which were highly decentralized, particularly with respect to warfare. Kechewaishke also said that, unlike

6944-597: The Ojibwa attracted attention, gaining publicity and money for their cause. But in Washington, they were turned away by the Bureau of Indian Affairs , and told they should never have come in the first place. Luckily, they drew the attention of the Whig Congressman Briggs from New York, who had a meeting with President Millard Fillmore scheduled for the next day. He invited the Ojibwa to come with him to see Fillmore. At

7068-432: The Ojibwa ceded title to the lands, and the Ojibwa claimed they ceded only resource rights. The government had said that the Ojibwa lands were unsuitable for farming and white settlement. The Ojibwa did obtain annuity payments to be paid each year at La Pointe, and reserved the right to hunt, fish, gather, and move across any lands outlined in the treaties. They obtained the promise that the nation would not be removed across

7192-407: The Ojibwa in Wisconsin. The delegation traveled back to Wisconsin by rail, spreading the good news to the various Ojibwa bands as they went. Kechewaishke also announced that all tribal representatives should gather at La Pointe for payments the next summer (1853), and he would reveal the specifics of the agreement. As Fillmore promised, treaty commissioners arrived in La Pointe in 1854 to conclude

7316-556: The Ojibwe language is kept alive through indigenous methods of teaching, which emphasizes hands-on experiences, such as the sugar bush harvest. The language is then passed on in a similar manner in which it has been throughout history in that older members of the community—including elders/instructors and older students at the schools—relay their knowledge and experiences to the younger generation. Ojibwe communities are found in Canada from southwestern Quebec , through Ontario , southern Manitoba and parts of southern Saskatchewan ; and in

7440-510: The Ojibwe language is notable for its relative lack of borrowing from other languages. Instead, speakers far prefer to create words for new concepts from existing vocabulary. For example in Minnesota Ojibwemowin , 'airplane' is bemisemagak , literally 'thing that flies' (from bimisemagad , 'to fly'), and 'battery' is ishkode-makakoons , literally 'little fire-box' (from ishkode , 'fire', and makak , 'box'). Even 'coffee'

7564-421: The Ojibwe language may be more culturally meaningful to communities than simply educating about the culture through English. The goal, as with many other language immersion schools across the country, is to meet state-mandated standards for curriculum in the native language. This can be a challenge as public education standards are rigorous with curriculum on complex mathematic and scientific concepts occurring at

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7688-583: The Ojibwe language, is a language of action." Therefore, students are encouraged to learn the language by observing and by doing. For example, each spring the students at Waadookodaading participate in a maple sugar harvest. Older students and elders instruct the younger students on the harvest process, narrating what they are doing in Ojibwemowin as the younger students observe. The younger students are then encouraged to participate as they learn, gathering wood, helping to drill trees, and hauling buckets of sap. Thus,

7812-452: The Ojibwe language. These courses mainly target adults and young adults; however, there are many resources for all age groups, including online games which provide domains for online language use. In the 1980s, The Northern Native-Languages Project was introduced in Ontario to get Indigenous languages such as Ojibwe, to be taught in schools. Years later, the first curriculum was established for

7936-420: The Ojibwe language. As of 2011, Ojibwe is the official language of Red Lake. Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible, Ojibwe is usually considered to be a single language with a number of dialects, i.e. Ojibwe is "... conventionally regarded as a single language consisting of a continuum of dialectal varieties since ... every dialect is at least partly intelligible to

8060-527: The Ojibwe of the Border Lakes region between Minnesota and Ontario, and Saulteaux; and third, a transitional zone between these two polar groups, in which there is a mixture of northern and southern features." Michif is a mixed language that primarily is based upon French and Plains Cree , with some vocabulary from Ojibwe, in addition to phonological influence in Michif-speaking communities where there

8184-584: The Ojibwe people. With the remaining population of native speakers declining as older generations pass away, many historians consider now an important point in the language's history that will determine if it will proliferate or become extinct. Ojibwe historian Anton Treuer estimates that there are about 1,000 speakers of Ojibwe left in the United States, most residing in Minnesota on the Red Lake Indian Reservation or in Mille Lacs region. Teacher of

8308-490: The Ojibwe split into two groups near what is now Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan . They believed this to have been one of the stops in their migration that their prophets predicted; it was part of the westward path of the Anishinaabe from the Atlantic Coast . Ojibwe who followed the south shore of Lake Superior found the final prophesied stopping place and "the food that grows on water" ( wild rice ) at Madeline Island . During

8432-402: The Ottawa dialect served as a trade language. In the area south of Lake Superior and west of Lake Michigan Southwestern Ojibwe was the trade language. A widespread pattern of asymmetrical bilingualism is found in the area south of the Great Lakes in which speakers of Potawatomi or Menominee, both Algonquian languages, also spoke Ojibwe, but Ojibwe speakers did not speak the other languages. It

8556-436: The US government. No record of the negotiations was made. But materials written by missionaries, traders, and the Ojibwa through their agent indicated that Stuart used bullying and outright deception to force the Ojibwa to accept the terms. Kechewaishke signed and was recorded as Gichi waishkey, 1st chief of La Pointe. Writing in 1855, Morse describes Kechewaishke's "voice so potent at the treaty of '42." But three months after

8680-675: The United States from northern Michigan through northern Wisconsin and northern Minnesota , with a number of communities in northern North Dakota and northern Montana . Groups of speakers of the Ottawa dialect migrated to Kansas and Oklahoma during the historical period, with a small amount of linguistic documentation of the language in Oklahoma. The presence of Ojibwe in British Columbia has been noted. Current census data indicate that all varieties of Ojibwe are spoken by approximately 56,531 people. This figure reflects census data from

8804-443: The United States, but a 'quarter' (25-cent piece) in Canada, or desabiwin (literally 'thing to sit upon') means 'couch' or 'chair' in Canada, but is used to specifically mean 'saddle' in the United States. Cases like 'battery' and 'coffee' also demonstrate the often great difference between the literal meanings of the individual morphemes in a word, and the overall meaning of the entire word. Kechewaishke Recognized as

8928-894: The United States, from Michigan to Wisconsin and Minnesota , with a number of communities in North Dakota and Montana , as well as groups that were removed to Kansas and Oklahoma during the Indian Removal period . While there is some variation in the classification of its dialects, at least the following are recognized, from east to west: Algonquin , Eastern Ojibwe , Ottawa (Odawa) , Western Ojibwe (Saulteaux) , Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe) , Northwestern Ojibwe , and Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) . Based upon contemporary field research, J. R. Valentine also recognizes several other dialects: Berens Ojibwe in northwestern Ontario, which he distinguishes from Northwestern Ojibwe; North of (Lake) Superior; and Nipissing. The latter two cover approximately

9052-628: The Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School located on the Lac Courte Oreilles Reservation in northern Wisconsin. Most students come from English-speaking homes and are learning Ojibwemowin as their second language. At this school, instructors and elders teach the preschoolers to third graders entirely in the Ojibwe language, so that by the time that students complete kindergarten, they know both English and Ojibwe alphabets and writing systems. In

9176-421: The agent presented him with a silver medal as a symbol of his chieftainship, Kechewaishke said that his power was based in his clan and reputation, and not from anything received from the U.S. government. Shortly after the treaties were signed, Henry Rowe Schoolcraft , acting in his capacity as US Indian agent, visited La Pointe. He reprimanded Kechewaishke for not stopping the continuing sporadic warfare between

9300-461: The bands. They allowed white settlers to move onto Ojibwa lands and refused the Ojibwa the rights reserved by treaties. The Ojibwa complained to Jackson about the mistreatment and broken promises, but politicians were more apt to listen to western land speculators, who saw possibilities for profit in removing the Ojibwa to Minnesota. Even with the treaties of 1837 and 1842, leaders worried about Ojibwa removal. Kechewaishke kept in constant contact with

9424-525: The beginning of a word are frequently lost. In the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, all metrically weak vowels are deleted. For example, bemisemagak(in) (airplane(s), in the Southwestern Ojibwe dialect) is stressed as [ be · m se · m gak /ˈbɛːmɪˌseːmʌˌɡak/ ] in the singular but as [ be · m se · m ga · kin /ˌbeːmɪˈsɛːmʌˌɡaˌkin/ ] in the plural. In some other dialects, metrically weak (unstressed) vowels, especially "a" and "i", are reduced to

9548-507: The classroom, students generally first become familiar with the language by hearing and speaking it and then advance to reading and writing it as well. They are taught mathematics, reading, social studies, music, and other typical school subjects through the medium of the Ojibwe language so as to increase student's exposure to Ojibwemowin while providing a well-rounded education. In her research study on Ojibwe immersion schools, Ojibwe scholar and educator Mary Hermes suggests that educating through

9672-537: The educational system, many indigenous communities across the Great Lakes region are making efforts towards the Ojibwe language revival by similarly using the school system. Largely inspired by the success of Polynesian languages immersion schools in Hawaii and New Zealand , similar school programs have been starting throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin in recent years. One of the most notable programs—developed by Ojibwe educators Lisa LaRonge and Keller Paap —is that of

9796-548: The establishment on several reservations across western Upper Michigan , northern Wisconsin, and northeastern Minnesota . In his mid-nineties and in failing health, Kechewaishke directed the negotiations but left most of the speaking to other chiefs. He entrusted Armstrong with the details of the written version. The reservations in Wisconsin were named the Lac Courte Oreilles Indian Reservation , and Lac du Flambeau Indian Reservation . The La Pointe Band

9920-420: The first chief from La Pointe. The treaty, mainly dealing with mineral rights for Ojibwa lands in what is now Michigan , had little immediate effect but foreshadowed future treaties. Kechewaishke did not speak on the copper issue. He praised the US officials for their ability to keep their young people under their control, and asked for whiskey to accomplish the same ends among the younger members of his band. When

10044-752: The first targets of the act. They watched closely as the government used the territorial claims defined by tribes in 1825 to force numerous tribes in Indiana, southern Michigan and southern Wisconsin to move west to Kansas , Iowa , Minnesota , and Indian Territory , present-day Oklahoma . These included the Odawa and Potawatomi , two Anishinaabe tribes closely related to and allied with the Ojibwa. In 1848, Wisconsin achieved statehood; Indian nations were under increased pressure for removal and marginalization. Corrupt US Indian agents controlled annuity payments, sometimes underpaying tribes, and took authority not granted them by

10168-786: The following: In addition to these political successors-apparent, the Mille Lacs Band of Ojibwe (via the St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Minnesota), Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe (via Removable Fond du Lac Band of the Chippewa Indian Reservation), and the White Earth Band of Chippewa (via the Removable St. Croix Chippewa of Wisconsin of the Gull Lake Indian Reservation) in present-day Minnesota retain minor Successorship to

10292-540: The fortis set are realized as a sequence of /h/ followed by a single segment drawn from the set of lenis consonants: /p t k tʃ s ʃ/ . Algonquin Ojibwe is reported as distinguishing fortis and lenis consonants on the basis of voicing , with fortis being voiceless and lenis being voiced. In other dialects fortis consonants are realized as having greater duration than the corresponding lenis consonant, invariably voiceless, "vigorously articulated," and aspirated in certain environments. In some practical orthographies such as

10416-517: The government officials' conduct. Kechewaishke was described as "head and the chief of the Chippewa Nation" and a man respected "for his rare integrity, wisdom in council, power as an orator, and magnanimity as a warrior." In his final hours he requested that his tobacco pouch and pipe be carried to Washington, D.C., and given to the government. His funeral was conducted in military fashion, with volleys fired at intervals in his honor. Kechewaishke

10540-541: The half breeds. ...I have good reasons for saying to you what I have just said; for at a certain Treaty held heretofore, there were some who got rich while others received nothing. Once the terms were agreed to, Kechewaishke marked and was recorded as Pe-zhe-ke, head of the La Pointe delegation. Although he and the other Lake Superior chiefs signed, they were said to be quieter than the Mississippi Chippewa chiefs during

10664-530: The important role language revitalization has in treating health concerns. The use of language connects a community through shared views and supports the well-being of said community. Researchers found that language and the notion of culture were intertwined together instead of being separate concepts, and the people who regularly practiced their language and culture were often associated with more positive health outcomes, particularly for psychological health and mental well-being. An "Ojibway Language and People" app

10788-665: The language Keller Paap approximates that most fluent speakers in the United States are over 70 years old, making exposure to spoken Ojibwemowin limited in many communities. Ojibwe educators and scholars across the region are working with the remaining elders who speak Ojibwemowin, known as the First Speakers, so as to document and learn the language in hopes to preserve it and pass it on to the next generation of speakers. In recent years, historian and Ojibwe professor Anton Treuer has been recording stories told by about 50 different Ojibwe elders in their native language so as to preserve both

10912-449: The language and language structure; however, it does not help grow the use of the language outside of a school setting. The most effective way of promoting language is being surrounded by the language, especially in a familial setting. This is difficult to replicate in schools, which is why speaking Ojibwe with family and in one's home life is important in growing language revitalization. Research has been done in Ojibwe communities to prove

11036-431: The language and pieces of knowledge and history. Alongside his current mentor, a Ponemah elder named Eugene Stillday, he writes the recorded stories in both Ojibwe and translated English. Recently, there has been more of a push toward bringing the Ojibwe language back into more common use, through language classes and programs sponsored by universities, sometimes available to non-students, which are essential to passing on

11160-570: The late 17th century, the Ojibwe at Madeline Island began to expand into other territory. They had population pressures, a desire for furs to trade , and divisions over relations with French Jesuit missions . For a time they had an alliance with the Eastern Dakota . Beginning about 1737, they competed for nearly 100 years with the Eastern Dakota and the Fox tribes in the interior of Wisconsin, west and south of Lake Superior. The Ojibwe were technologically more advanced, and acquired guns through trade with

11284-542: The late 19th century, the American federal Native American boarding school initiative which forced Native American children to attend government-run boarding schools in an attempt to "acculturate" them into American society. Often far from their home communities, these schools attempted to remove any ties children had to their native culture and to limit their ability to visit home. Students were forced to speak English, cut their hair, dress in uniform, practise Christianity, and learn about European culture and history. Although

11408-399: The linguistic history and status of a hypothetical "Ojibwe–Potawatomi" subgroup has not yet been undertaken. A discussion of Algonquian family subgroups indicates that "Ojibwe–Potawatomi is another possibility that awaits investigation." In a proposed consensus classification of Algonquian languages, Goddard (1996) classifies Ojibwa and Potawatomi as "Ojibwayan," although no supporting evidence

11532-453: The meeting, Kechewaishke rose first. He performed the pipe ceremony with a pipe made especially for the occasion. He had Oshaga speak for more than an hour about the broken treaty promises and the disastrous attempt at removal. Fillmore agreed to consider the issues. The next day, he announced that the removal order would be canceled, the payment of annuities would be returned to La Pointe, and another treaty would set up permanent reservations for

11656-415: The metrical foot defines the domain for relative prominence , in which a strong syllable is assigned stress because it is more prominent than the weak member of the foot. Typically, the strong syllable in the antepenultimate foot is assigned the primary stress. Strong syllables that do not receive main stress are assigned at least secondary stress. In some dialects, metrically weak (unstressed) vowels at

11780-532: The negotiations in protest and were excluded from the agreement. A small tract of land was also set aside for Kechewaishke and his family at Buffalo Bay on the mainland across from Madeline Island at a place called Miskwaabikong (red rocks or cliffs). Many of the Catholic and mixed-blooded members of the La Pointe Band elected to settle there around Kechewaishke rather than at Bad River. In 1855, this settlement at

11904-453: The negotiations. Historian Satz says this symbolized disagreement rather than acceptance of the terms of the treaty. Lyman Warren, a trader and interpreter from La Pointe, later complained that the Pillagers (bands from present-day Minnesota) had been bribed into selling the lands rightfully belonging to the Wisconsin bands. Kechewaishke expressed his misgivings over the treaty negotiations in

12028-444: The operation of phonological rules from sequences of a long vowel and /n/ and another segment, typically /j/. Placement of word stress is determined by metrical rules that define a characteristic iambic metrical foot , in which a weak syllable is followed by a strong syllable. A foot consists of a minimum of one syllable and a maximum of two syllables, with each foot containing a maximum of one strong syllable. The structure of

12152-459: The other bands to ensure the Ojibwa upheld their obligations. He sent runners to all the bands to report back on any conduct that could construed as grounds for removal. Nothing was reported. But President Zachary Taylor signed the removal order on February 6, 1850, under corrupt circumstances, claiming to be protecting the Ojibwa from "injurious" whites. The Wisconsin legislature resisted the order and put aside plans for removal. Alexander Ramsey ,

12276-399: The person, number, animacy, and proximate/obviative status of both the subject and object as well as for several different modes (including the dubitative and preterit ) and tenses. Although it does contain a few loans from English (e.g. gaapii , 'coffee') and French (e.g. mooshwe , 'handkerchief' (from mouchoir ), ni-tii , 'tea' (from le thé , 'the tea'), in general,

12400-416: The postulation of a genetically distinct Central Algonquian subgroup." The possibility that the proposed genetic subgrouping of Ojibwa and Potawatomi can also be accounted for as diffusion has also been raised: "The putative Ojibwa–Potawatomi subgroup is similarly open to question, but cannot be evaluated without more information on Potawatomi dialects." Several different Ojibwe dialects have functioned as

12524-574: The principal chief of the Lake Superior Chippewa (Ojibwa) for nearly a half-century until his death in 1855, he led his nation into a treaty relationship with the United States Government . He signed treaties in 1825, 1826, 1837, 1842, 1847, and 1854. He was instrumental in resisting the United States' efforts to remove the Ojibwa to western areas and secured permanent Indian reservations for his people near Lake Superior in what

12648-564: The principal chief of all the Lake Superior Ojibwa. In the Treaty of St. Peters (1837), the government sought the pine timber resources on Ojibwa lands. It intended to float the harvested timber southwest into the Mississippi River . The negotiations took place at Fort Snelling , near present-day Minneapolis . The delegations from Minnesota and the St. Croix area arrived first and began discussions on July 20. The assembled chiefs awaited Kechewaishke's judgment before deciding to approve

12772-446: The program and it was known as Native Languages 1987. There has also been an increase in published children's literature. The increase in materials published in Ojibwe is essential to increasing the number of speakers. Language revitalization through Ojibwe frameworks also allows for cultural concepts to be conveyed through language. A 2014 study has indicated that learning Indigenous languages such as Ojibwe in school helps in learning

12896-408: The question as to whether or not they should include English instruction. Some research suggests that learning to write in one's first language is important prior to learning a second language. Therefore, many schools include some level of English education at certain grade levels. Along with using the native language, Waadookodaading uses native ways of teaching in its education system. "Ojibwemowin,

13020-553: The reservation era. He practiced the Midewiwin religion, but converted to Roman Catholicism on his deathbed. Few details of Kechewaishke's early life are known. He appears to have been favored by British traders and decorated by British authorities, but few Ojibwa from Lake Superior fought in the American Revolution or the War of 1812 , and there is no record of his participation. When Tecumseh's War broke out, Kechewaishke and

13144-486: The results were manifested by the death of over two hundred persons of my tribe, for this calamity, I laid blame to the provisions issued to us... Back in La Pointe, Kechewaishke took several actions to forestall and prevent removal. He and other leaders petitioned the US government for the next two years to no avail. They did win considerable sympathy from whites who learned of the debacle in Sandy Lake. Newspapers throughout

13268-619: The same territory as Central Ojibwa , which he does not recognize. The aggregated dialects of Ojibwemowin comprise the second most commonly spoken First Nations language in Canada (after Cree ), and the fourth most widely spoken in the United States or Canada behind Navajo , the Inuit languages and Cree. Ojibwemowin is a relatively healthy indigenous language. The Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School in Hayward, Wisconsin teaches all classes to children in Ojibwe only. A similar program

13392-596: The same territory as Central Ojibwa , which he does not recognize. Two recent analyses of the relationships between the Ojibwe dialects are in agreement on the assignment of the strongly differentiated Ottawa dialect to a separate subgroup, and the assignment of Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin to another subgroup, and differ primarily with respect to the relationships between the less strongly differentiated dialects. Rhodes and Todd recognize several different dialectal subgroupings within Ojibwe: (a) Ottawa; (b) Severn and Algonquian; (c)

13516-483: The second and third grade levels. Ojibwe educators at these schools are constantly working with elders so as to design new ways to say lesser-used words in Ojibwe such as plastic or quotient . Because the Ojibwe language is traditionally oral, it is often difficult for educators to find adequate resources to develop the curriculum. Thus, through these school programs, the language is constantly evolving. Many of these Ojibwe language immersion schools are also considering

13640-482: The speakers of the neighboring dialects." The degree of mutual intelligibility between nonadjacent dialects varies considerably; recent research has shown that there is strong differentiation between the Ottawa dialect spoken in southern Ontario and northern Michigan; the Severn Ojibwa dialect spoken in northern Ontario and Manitoba; and the Algonquin dialect spoken in southwestern Quebec. Valentine notes that isolation

13764-540: The spiritual and commercial center of the nation, and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The Lake Superior Chippewa are numerous and contain many bands. A separate sub-nation, known as the Biitan-akiing-enabijig (Border Sitters), were located between the Ojibwe of the Lake Superior watershed and other nations. The Biitan-akiing-enabijig were divided into three principal Bands: In

13888-710: The term Ojibwemowin . The general term in Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe) is Anihshininiimowin , although Anishinaabemowin is widely recognized by Severn speakers. Some speakers of Saulteaux Ojibwe refer to their language as Nakawemowin . The Ottawa dialect is sometimes referred to as Daawaamwin , although the general designation is Nishnaabemwin , with the latter term also applied to Jibwemwin or Eastern Ojibwe . Other local terms are listed in Ojibwe dialects . English terms include Ojibwe , with variants including Ojibwa and Ojibway . The related term Chippewa

14012-415: The territorial governor of Minnesota, and Indian sub-agent John Watrous conspired on a plan to force the Ojibwa to Minnesota anyway, as the two men stood to gain personal economic and political benefits from removal. To force the Ojibwa to comply, Watrous announced he would pay future annuities only at Sandy Lake, Minnesota , instead of La Pointe, where they had been paid previously. This change resulted in

14136-459: The threat of violent revolt grew. Kechewaishke called on the services of his well-spoken sub-chief Oshoga, and son-in-law Benjamin G. Armstrong , a literate white interpreter married to his daughter. He drew up a petition that the 92-year-old Kechewaishke personally delivered to the president in Washington. After spring thaw in 1852, Kechewaishke, Oshaga, Armstrong, and four others set out from La Pointe for Washington, D.C. by birchbark canoe. Along

14260-455: The treaty, Kechewaishke dictated a letter to the government in Washington D.C. , saying he was "ashamed" of the way the treaty was conducted. He said that Stuart had refused to listen to any of the Ojibwa's objections, and asked to add a provision to ensure permanent Ojibwa reservations in Wisconsin. The interpretation of the 1837 and 1842 treaties remains ambiguous, as the US government claimed

14384-586: The treaty. Despite the impatience of the territorial governor, Henry Dodge , the negotiations were delayed for five days as the assembled bands waited for Kechewaishke to arrive. While other chiefs spoke about the terms of mineral rights and annuity amounts, Kechewaishke discussed treatment of mixed-blood traders, saying: I am an Indian and do not know the value of money, but the half-breeds do, for which reason we wish you pay them their share in money. You have good judgment in what you do, and if you do not act yourself, you will appoint someone else to divide it between

14508-526: The tribe. Kechewaishke, or Buffalo as he was known to Europeans, belonged to the Loon clan. The Loon Clan was said to have been rising in prominence in the mid-18th-century due to the efforts of Andaigweos ( Ojibwe : Aandegwiiyaas , "Crow's Meat"), Kechewaishke's grandfather. Andaigweos was born in the Shagawamikong region, son to a man described as "a Canadian Indian" (i.e. a Saulteaux from Sault Ste. Marie ,

14632-626: The unrelated Siouan language Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) also used Ojibwe when dealing with Europeans and others. Other reports indicate that agents of the American government at Green Bay, Wisconsin , spoke Ojibwe in their interactions with Menominee, with other reports indicating that "the Chippewa, Menominee, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Sac, and Fox tribes used Ojibwe in intertribal communication...." Some reports indicate that farther west, speakers of non-Algonquian languages such as Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Iowa , and Pawnee spoke Ojibwe as an "acquired language." In

14756-692: The way, they stopped in towns and mining camps along the Michigan shore of Lake Superior, securing hundreds of signatures in support of their cause. At Sault Ste. Marie , they were held by the US Indian agent, who told them that no unauthorized Ojibwa delegations could go to Washington and they had to turn back. The men pleaded the urgency of their case and traveled to Detroit by steamship. There another Indian agent tried to stop them. Once allowed to proceed, they sailed through Lake Erie to Buffalo, New York and then on to Albany and New York City . In New York City,

14880-693: The widely-used double vowel system, fortis consonants are written with voiceless symbols: p, t, k, ch, s, sh . Lenis consonants have normal duration and are typically voiced intervocalically. Although they may be devoiced at the end or beginning of a word, they are less vigorously articulated than fortis consonants, and are invariably unaspirated. In the double vowel system, lenis consonants are written with voiced symbols: b, d, g, j, z, zh . All dialects of Ojibwe have two nasal consonants /m/ and /n/ , one labialized velar approximant /w/ , one palatal approximant /j/ , and either /ʔ/ or /h/ . All dialects of Ojibwe have seven oral vowels . Vowel length

15004-706: Was about 10, Kechewaishke and his parents moved from La Pointe to the vicinity of what is now Buffalo, New York , and lived there until about he was about 12. The family relocated to the Mackinac Island area for a while before returning to La Pointe. In his youth, Kechewaishke was admired as a skilled hunter and athlete. Like many Anishinaabe people, Kechewaishke was also known by another Ojibwa name, Peshickee ( Bizhiki : "the Buffalo"). This has caused confusion in records of his life, in part because both names were very similar to those of other prominent contemporaries. Bizhiki

15128-713: Was given a reservation at Bad River around the Band's traditional wild ricing grounds on Lake Superior's south shore, and some reserved land for fishing grounds at Madeline Island's eastern tip. In Minnesota, the reservations for the Fond du Lac and the Grand Portage bands were established, with pending negotiations promised for the Bois Forte Band . In Michigan, reservations for the Lac Vieux Desert , Ontonagon and L'Anse bands were established. The St. Croix and Sokaogon bands left

15252-463: Was recognized as chief by his people because of his speaking and oratorical skills, which were highly valued in his culture. By the time the Ojibwa of Wisconsin and Minnesota started treaty negotiations with the US Government, Kechewaishke was recognized as one of the primary spokesmen for all the bands, not just for the Ojibwa from La Pointe. In 1825, Kechewaishke was one of 41 Ojibwa leaders to sign

15376-684: Was the name of a chief from the St. Croix Band , and also of a warrior of the Pillager Chippewa Band ( Beshekee ). Additionally, a leading member of the Caribou doodem and a son of Waubojeeg, in the Sault Ste. Marie area, was known by the name Waishikey ( Weshki ). Scholars have mistakenly attributed aspects of the lives of all three of these men to Kechewaishke. Kechewaishke had five wives and numerous children, many of whom became prominent Ojibwa leaders in

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