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62-547: Kroton , now Crotone , Italy, was an Achaean colony from c.  710 BC on the coast of the Gulf of Crotone, Calabria, Italia. Kroton may also refer to: Crotone Founded c.  710 BC as the Achaean colony of Kroton ( Ancient Greek : Κρότων or Ϙρότων ; Latin : Crotona ), it became a great Greek city, home of the renowned mathematician-philosopher Pythagoras amongst other famous citizens, and one of

124-737: A building in 2010 dating to the Republican age in Via Discesa Fosso indicated the possibility of locating of the Roman colony in the acropolis. The building had painted plaster in Pompeian style with tiled and marble floors. An important domus found in Discesa Fosso includes baths and indicates a Roman-era "neighbourhood" which may have been distinguished from the rest of the Roman town by its secluded position of absolute prestige. It seems that it also had

186-484: A logical fashion. Both these ideas are related to the core image of circular motion, and especially the circular character of time, as were seen in the revolutions of the heavenly bodies as they are related to the circular repetitions of events on earth, such as the seasonal changes orchestrated by the sun. The notion of circularity was further applied to such varied areas as geometry , astronomy , chronology , history and physiology . It in this context that Alcmaeon

248-583: A national archaeological museum, a municipal museum, a municipal art gallery, and a provincial museum of contemporary art, as well as the Antiquarium di Torre Nao. F.C. Crotone is a football club in Serie C . The team was promoted to top flight Serie A for the first time in its history for the 2016–17 season , and after one year in Serie B , was again promoted to play in Serie A for the 2020–21 season . Achei Crotone

310-593: A portal with a single architrave , surmounted by a stained glass window, depicting the Virgin, and two niches with statues, all topped by a triangular gable and side pinnacles . Crotone appears in the Philippine national epic Florante at Laura as the Kingdom of Krotona . The poem narrates this as the homeland of the protagonist Florante's mother, Princess Floresca. In Petronius' Satyricon , which survives in fragments,

372-556: A small service port for the domus, perhaps a breakwater built to protect the port from which the Krotonian aristocrats during the second Punic war, having descended from the upper part of the city, embarked for Locri. Perhaps it is the Krotonian port mentioned by Cicero that determined the location of the colony as overlapping with the Greek polis. Crotone enjoys a Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ). Crotone Airport (Sant'Anna Airport)

434-554: Is twinned with: 39°05′N 17°07′E  /  39.083°N 17.117°E  / 39.083; 17.117 Alcmaeon of Croton Alcmaeon of Croton ( / æ l k ˈ m iː ɒ n / ; Greek : Ἀλκμαίων ὁ Κροτωνιάτης , Alkmaiōn , gen .: Ἀλκμαίωνος; fl. 5th century BC) was an early Greek medical writer and philosopher-scientist. He has been described as one of the most eminent natural philosophers and medical theorists of antiquity and he has also been referred to as "a thinker of considerable originality and one of

496-625: Is an American football club in Italy's 3rd division. It was established in 1989 and is considered one of the most storied teams in Italy. Church of the Immaculate Conception : the original construction of the Cathedral dates back to the 9th century. Initially it was dedicated to St. Dionysius, and later, around 1462–1463, to the Assumption of Saint Mary into heaven. During the centuries, the church

558-433: Is attributed to him, though the original title may be different, as Alexandrian writers were known to have ascribed the title "On Nature" to a wide variety of works. According to Favorinus 's account, Alcmaeon has been the first who wrote such a treatise on natural philosophy ( φυσικὸν λόγον ), however this has been disputed, because Anaximander wrote before Alcmaeon. Accounts which attribute an Alcmaeon of Croton to be

620-497: Is believed to have been born c. 510 BC. Although he wrote primarily about medical topics, there is some suggestion that he was a philosopher of science, not a physician. He also practiced astrology and meteorology . Nothing more is known of the events of his life. During Alcmaeon's time, the medical school in Magna Graecia was regarded as the most famous; illnesses were studied in a scientific and experimental manner. Alcmaeon

682-543: Is often described as a pupil of Pythagoras , there are reasons to doubt whether he was a Pythagorean at all; his name seems to have crept into lists of Pythagoreans given us by later writers. Aristotle mentions him as nearly contemporary with Pythagoras, but distinguishes between the stoicheia ( στοιχεῖα ) of opposites, under which the Pythagoreans included all things; and the double principle of Alcmaeon, according to Aristotle, less extended, although he does not explain

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744-457: Is quoted as saying "that the reason why men die is they cannot join the beginning and the end". The soul, in its action on the body, imitates the eternal circular motions of the divine stars with life being dependent on the circular integration of all parts into one continuous whole. Because of the little evidence, there exists controversy to what extent Alcmaeon can be considered as a Presocratic cosmologist , or if at all. Although Alcmaeon

806-575: Is served by Italiatour.it and other charter airlines. Crotone also has a railway station, although much of the tourism traffic is served by the Salerno-Reggio Calabria highway and the National Road (called 106 Ionica) leading all the Jonic (eastern) coast from Taranto to Reggio Calabria . In recent times, Crotone Port has been used by visitors on yacht charter cruising vacations. Crotone hosts

868-413: Is the beginning of learning", attributed to an Spartan poet named Alcman. The equality (isonomia) of the powers (wet, dry, cold, hot, bitter, sweet, etc.) maintains health but that monarchy among them produces disease. Theophrastus in his De Sensu offers a summary of the physiological science of Alcmaeon, where his positions regarding the ability to understand being what separates man from animals,

930-679: The Blessed Virgin Mary by a group of lay people who had decided to give birth to a lay congregation in honour of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the Souls in Purgatory , which was also called La Congregazione dei Plebei ("The Congregation of the Plebeians"). The façade , which recalls in its features the sober and austere neoclassical style setting, is a harmonious and unifying element. It has

992-516: The 16th-century castle of Charles V , overlooking modern Crotone, serves as a reminder. Its successor, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was conquered by the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1860 and incorporated into the new Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Crotone's location between the ports of Taranto and Messina , as well as its proximity to a source of hydroelectric power, favoured industrial development during

1054-464: The 5th century BCE, is widely regarded as one of the founders of the medical tradition in ancient Greece and made some significant contributions to the fields of anatomy and physiology and the overall field of medicine as well. Alcmaeon's work had a large impact on the development of Western medicine and science. His ideas continue to influence our understanding of the human body and mind today. One of Alcmaeon's most significant contributions to medicine

1116-788: The Battery, and northwards beyond the river Esaro, in an area still unoccupied by the modern town. The urban layout has emerged with a sequence of superimpositions throughout the life of the colony, datable between the end of the 7th and start of the 6th century BC. Three large urban blocks have been identified, organised with an orthogonal network of narrow streets (stenopoi) and streets between individual houses (ambitus). Numerous houses, both of residential nature and mixed house-artisan workshops, have been excavated, as have furnaces and shops specialising in pottery products, areas of necropolis of Hellenistic date. The construction techniques were functional and economical, generally using roughly cut stone, typical of

1178-456: The Esaro river. On St. Lucia hill material had been reused which confirms that it had been built or rebuilt after of Dionysius' siege. The archaeological data give a city area of at least 617 hectares which may not have been entirely occupied by buildings and may not originally have been entirely surrounded by walls. A stretch near the river brought to light in 1978 was also described by Paolo Orsi at

1240-708: The Greeks at the Battle of Salamis , the only one from the Italian coast. Half of a stone anchor block bearing his name was found at Capo Cimiti and currently preserved in the Museum of Capo Colonna. It founded the colony of Terina on the Tyrrhenian coast in 480–470 BC. Shortly afterwards, however, a bloody revolt led by the oligarch Cylon , during which many Pythagoreans were massacred and Pythagoras himself had to flee to Metapontum, led to

1302-455: The Greeks, and among them Democedes , son of Calliphon , was the most prominent in the 6th century BC. Accordingly, he travelled around Greece and ended up working in the court of Polycrates , tyrant of Samos. After the tyrant was murdered, Democedes was captured by the Persians and brought to King Darius, curing him of a dislocated ankle. Democedes' fame was, according to Herodotus, the basis for

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1364-500: The Pertusola factory towards the sea. Urban excavations between from 1975 have considerably expanded knowledge of the history of the settlement. As on all sites where modern cities are built over ancient towns, archaeological research is limited. The data seems to confirm the contemporary occupation of the whole walled area by reasonably close nuclei, between the hill of the Castle and that of

1426-512: The Pythagoreans being driven out and a democracy established. At the same time, other similar governments also fell and there were massacres and persecutions of Pythagoreans in all the Italian poleis . Croton then experienced a period of decline. Around this time the Italiote league was founded to defend itself from the expansionist aims of Syracuse and from attacks by the Lucanians, with Croton as

1488-466: The archaic age. To prevent the deterioration of the lower part of the walls due to rain water, stone footings were additionally protected by tiles or pieces of pithoi (large pottery vessels). Prior to the construction of a new school in Acquabona di Crotone an excavation over a larger area has recently been possible. Two stenopoi about 5 m wide run across it on an alignment of + 30° E. The discovery of

1550-536: The beginning of the century. Also of notable importance are the sections on the "Vigna Nuova" hill and in the water collector of the industrial area of the Papaniciaro stream, where a large fragment was found with a double facing in opus quadratum and emplecton, dating to the mid-4th century BC. From excavations carried out from 1975 the line of the Hellenistic walls was completed going up Battery hill and descending by

1612-618: The cathedral but were not able to occupy the city. Over a hundred years later, Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor , mounted a campaign in southern Italy to reduce the power of the Byzantines. Later, Crotone was conquered by the Normans . In 1806, it was occupied and sacked by the British, and later by the French. Thereafter it shared the fate of the Kingdom of Naples , including the period of Spanish rule of which

1674-486: The celestial bodies were divine, and Aetius presents the argument for the soul's immortality due to its continuous autonomous motion. These ideas in themselves were not innovative, for the notion of the eternal self-caused motion of nature served the arguments of Anaximenes and the Pythagorians and the divinity of heavenly bodies was well accepted in popular religion , but Alcmaeon was unique in that he presented them in

1736-506: The city has undergone urban renewal and risen in quality-of-life rankings. The overall layout of the ancient wall circuit of Kroton was reconstructed by archaeology in recent decades. It descends from the St. Lucia hill to the nearby Carrara hill from where it headed north-west towards the Cimone Rapignese on which, at 40 m above sea level, traces of wall have been found, and from here it crossed

1798-548: The city was not recaptured until 205 or 204 BC after the Battles of Croton . In 194 BC, it became the site of a Roman colony. Little more is heard of it during the Republican and Imperial periods, though the action of one of the more significant surviving fragments of the Satyricon of Petronius is set in Croton, where he mentions the corrupt morals of its inhabitants. Around 550 AD,

1860-672: The city was unsuccessfully besieged by Totila , king of the Ostrogoths . At a later date it became a part of the Byzantine Empire . Around 841, the Republic of Venice sent a fleet of 60 galleys (each carrying 200 men) to assist the Byzantines in driving the Arabs from Crotone, but it failed. About 870, it was sacked by the Saracens , who put to death the bishop and many people who had taken refuge in

1922-458: The city. The walls of the city were 12 miles long and enclosed a vast area. Its inhabitants were famous for their physical strength and for the simple sobriety of their lives. From 588 BC onwards, Croton produced many generations of winners in the Olympics and the other Panhellenic Games , the most famous of whom was Milo of Croton . The physicians of Croton were considered the foremost among

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1984-459: The development of Western medicine as well. His emphasis on observation and dissection helped to establish a scientific approach to medicine that highlighted the importance of empirical evidence and experimentation . Alcmaeon's work on the brain and the senses also helped to establish the importance of understanding the underlying physiological workings of diseases, which created a foundation for later advances in medical science. Alcmaeon of Croton

2046-473: The development of ancient Greek philosophy. His understanding of the brain as the area where intelligence and consciousness were created challenged the beliefs about the nature of the soul and the mind at the time. Alcmaeon's work laid the foundation for later philosophical and scientific debates about the relationship between the body and the mind, and his ideas continue to influence our thinking about these issues today. Alcmaeon's work had an important impact on

2108-483: The first in ca. 733 in the company of Archias of Corinth at the head of an Achaean-Spartan venture (when they founded Syracuse ), but which did not result in a stable urban settlement. The second was in 720-709 at the head of an Achaean colonial expedition, hoping to settle in the Sybaris area. The third time in ca. 708 when, at the head of a similar expedition, he founded Kroton. Archaeology has shown that colonisation in

2170-407: The first to write animal fables , may be a reference to a poet with the same name. He also wrote several other medical and philosophical works, of which nothing but the titles and a few fragments have been preserved by Stobaeus , Plutarch , and Galen . Surviving fragments attributed to Alcmaeon include, "The earth is the mother of plants and the sun their father", and maybe also, "Experience

2232-460: The greatest philosophers, naturalists, and neuroscientists of all time." His work in biology has been described as remarkable, and his originality made him likely a pioneer. Because of difficulties dating Alcmaeon's birth, his importance has been neglected. Alcmaeon was born in Croton , Magna Graecia , and was the son of Peirithous. Alcmaeon is said by some to have been a pupil of Pythagoras , and he

2294-482: The hegemon of the league. The meeting place for the league was the Sanctuary of Hera Lacinia at Capo Collone 10 km away, which was also used as the federal treasury of the league. The decline was followed by general anarchy, not only in Croton but also in other cities. The intervention of Achaeans brought a truce to the anarchy and the colonies adopted the laws of their original homeland. This calm lasted until Dionysius ,

2356-509: The most flourishing cities of Magna Graecia reaching a population between 50,000 and 80,000 around 500 BC. During its early history Croton expanded its influence over the Bruttian peninsula founding possibly Caulonia in the second half of the 7th century BC. The victory of Locri and Rhegium over Croton in the battle of the Sagra in middle of the sixth century BC interrupted the expansion of

2418-516: The most important centres of Magna Graecia . It was known as Cotrone from the Middle Ages until 1928, when its name was changed to the current one. In 1992, it became the capital of the newly established Province of Crotone . The promontory of Kroton was inhabited by indigenous populations, perhaps Oenotrians and Japigi, in the Bronze Age and early Iron Age. Kroton's oikistes (founder)

2480-490: The narrator and his friends arrive at Croton, famous for its legacy hunters. The narrator's companion, the manic poet Eumolpus, poses as a childless, rich old man. Upon arrival to the city, Philomela, a citizen of Croton, seduces Eumolpus by means of her children. The extant portion of the Satyricon ends with Eumolpus explaining that the people of Croton must agree to eat his dead body if they wish to claim his inheritance. Crotone

2542-429: The nature of the eye. He mentions that Alcmaeon excised an animal eye to study the optic nerve. However, there is no evidence that Alcmaeon himself dissected the eye or the skull. Based on this observation, and more rudimentary, Alcmaeon described the senses, except for the touch sense. These observations contributed to the study of medicine by establishing the connection between the brain and the sense organs, and outlined

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2604-476: The paths of the optic nerves as well as stating that the brain is the organ of the mind. Many scholars believe that Plato referred to Alcmaeon's work, when writing in Phaedo about the senses and how we or animals think. He also stated that the eye contains both fire and water, with vision occurring once something is seen and reflected by the gleaming and translucent part of the eye. Alcmaeon said that sleep occurs by

2666-400: The period between the two World Wars. In the 1930s its population doubled. However, after the two main employers, Pertusola Sud and Montedison , collapsed by the late 1980s, Crotone was in economic crisis, with many residents losing their jobs and leaving to find work elsewhere. In 1996, the river Esaro flooded the city, which dealt a further blow to the city's morale. Since that low point,

2728-447: The precise difference. Since 1950 the scholarly consensus holds that Alcmaeon of Croton is a figure independent of the Pythagoreans. Other doctrines of Alcmaeon have been preserved. He said that the human soul was immortal and partook of the divine nature, because like the heavenly bodies it contained in itself a principle of motion. The eclipse of the moon, which was also eternal, he supposed to arise from its shape, which he said

2790-400: The prestige of Croton's physicians. Croton formed a league with Sybaris against Siris and in the war that ensued after 550 BC Siris was destroyed. Pythagoras founded his school at Croton c. 530 BC. Among his pupils were the early medical theorist Alcmaeon of Croton and the philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer Philolaus . The Pythagoreans acquired considerable influence with

2852-456: The seat of the mind was the head. He further disagreed with Empidocles regarding the identity between sensation and thought, and he drew a clear distinction between them. This served as a defining difference between animals who can only sense, and the superior man who can also think, a notion accepted and confirmed by Aristotle . Calcidius ' commentary on Plato 's Timaeus praises Alcmaeon, Callisthenes , and Herophilus for their work on

2914-517: The second half of the 8th century BC had an impact on the settlement organisation and on the economic and social structure of the indigenous communities: in the Kroton area most of the existing settlements disappeared, while grave goods from the Carrara necropolis highlight a widespread practice of mixed marriages between Greeks and indigenous women, since the first generation of settlers. It soon became one of

2976-533: The supreme council of one thousand by which the city was ruled. Sybaris started to become the rival of Croton under the influence of the Pythagoreans who disliked excess, until 510 BC when Sybaris was shaken by various political events leading to the rule of the tyrant Telys. Many aristocrats were forced to flee to Croton and when Telys asked them to hand over the Sybarite exiles, the Crotonians refused and Sybaris began

3038-538: The tyrant of Syracuse , aiming at hegemony in Magna Graecia, captured Croton in 379 BC and held it for twelve years. Croton was then occupied by the Bruttii , with the exception of the citadel, in which the chief inhabitants had taken refuge; these soon after surrendered and were allowed to withdraw to Locri. In 295 BC, Croton fell to another Syracusan tyrant, Agathocles . When Pyrrhus invaded Italy (280–278, 275 BC), it

3100-400: The war. Croton sent an army of 100,000 men commanded by the wrestler Milo against Sybaris and destroyed it. As a consequence, Croton became the capital of a confederation including the 25 city-states in the region of Sybaris, as shown by numerous coins minted between 480 and 460 BC. In 480 BC, Croton sent a ship led by the famous athlete Phayllos and armed at his own expense in support of

3162-410: The way in which each individual sense operates and the brain being the center of activity for thought and senses, are mentioned. Alcmaeon differed from his contemporaries in several ways. While Empedocles held that sensations resulted from interactions between likes with the residence of the mind being in the heart , Alcmaeon concluded that sensations were born out of interactions between unlikes and

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3224-520: The withdrawal of blood, away from the surface of the body, to larger blood-flowing vessels, and that one becomes awake again once the blood returns. And if the blood withdraws entirely, death occurs. It has been suggested that Hippocratic authors, and Aristotle , adopted Alcmaeon's views on sleep. There are also accounts of him about embryology, how a child develops, and analogies with animals and plants about human physiology. Based on Theophrastus, Cicero and Clement refer to Alcmaeon as believing that

3286-398: The word exsectio would apply equally well in either case; some modern scholars doubt Calcidius' word entirely. Alcmaeon also was the first to dwell on the internal causes of illnesses. It was he who first suggested that health was a state of equilibrium between opposing humors and that illnesses were because of problems in environment, nutrition and lifestyle. A book titled On Nature

3348-592: Was Myscellus , from the city of Rhypes in Achaea in the northern Peloponnese , after consulting the Delphic Oracle who announced: The Achaeans were motivated, like others of the Greek colonisation , by the lack of cultivatable land in their mountainous region and by population pressure. Although the Greek foundation of Kroton was thought to be 710 BC, it is likely that Myscellus made three founding expeditions to Kroton,

3410-403: Was a pioneer in the history of medicine and science. His work on the brain, the senses, and human anatomy allowed for later advances in these fields, and his emphasis on observation and experimentation helped to create a scientific approach to medicine that remains central to our understanding of the human body and mind today. Alcmaeon's ideas continue to influence our thinking about the conscious,

3472-461: Was considered by many an early pioneer and advocate of anatomical dissection and was said to be the first to identify Eustachian tubes . His celebrated discoveries in the field of dissection were noted in antiquity, but whether his knowledge in this branch of science was derived from the dissection of animals or of human bodies is disputed. Calcidius , on whose authority the fact rests, merely says " qui primus exsectionem aggredi est ausus ," and

3534-399: Was his understanding of the brain and the role that it played in human physiology. He was one of the first people to recognize the importance of the brain as the point of intelligence and consciousness (or soul ). Alcmaeon believed that the brain was the most important organ in the body and that it was responsible for controlling all of the body's functions. He also believed that the brain

3596-527: Was like a boat. All his doctrines which have come down to us relate to physics or medicine; and seem to have arisen partly out of the speculations of the Ionian School , with which rather than the Pythagorean, Aristotle appears to connect Alcmaeon, partly from the traditional lore of the earliest medical science. Alcmaeon of Croton, an ancient Greek philosopher , physician , and scientist who lived during

3658-407: Was particularly interested in the eyes and ears and made important discoveries about their structures and how they worked. He also recognized the importance of the heart in regards to the circulating of blood throughout the body, although his understanding of the circulatory system was not as advanced as that of later physicians. Alcmaeon's ideas about the brain and the senses had a huge impact on

3720-591: Was still a considerable city, with twelve miles (19 km) of walls, but after the Pyrrhic War , half the town was deserted. What was left of its population submitted to Rome in 277 BC. After the Battle of Cannae in the Second Punic War (216 BC), Croton was betrayed to the Brutii by a democratic leader named Aristomachus , who defected to the Roman side. Hannibal made it his winter quarters for three years, and

3782-402: Was subject to various restoration, although in the 16th century the bishop A. Lucifero undertook its complete reconstruction, using materials removed from the ancient temple of Hera Lacinia. The interior of the church has three naves divided by pillars. The Cathedral : in 1686, as attested by an existing marble plaque in the current church, on the old oratory a church was built and dedicated to

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3844-412: Was the site of the senses and that different areas of the brain were responsible for detecting different sensory experiences. Alcmaeon's work also had a significant impact on the study of anatomy . He was one of the first physicians to perform dissections on human cadavers , which allowed him to gain a better understanding of the structure and function of the human body and all of its parts. Alcmaeon

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