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111-420: Tvrtko II was the son of King Tvrtko I . His reigns took place during a very turbulent part of Bosnian history. He was first installed as a puppet king by the kingdom's leading noblemen, Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić and Sandalj Hranić Kosača , to replace his increasingly dependent uncle Ostoja . Five years later, he lost the support of the nobility and thus the crown as well. He was hardly politically active during

222-588: A lector in Peter's Đakovo residence were discovered. The Bosnian Church, meanwhile, survived throughout Tvrtko's reign but only became prominent in state affairs after his death. One hostile source even tried to link Tvrtko himself to the Church due to his tolerance of all local faiths, including Hum's Eastern Orthodoxy . At the start of his personal rule, the young Ban somehow considerably increased his power. Although he constantly emphasized his subservience and loyalty to

333-464: A stanak in August 1421. After the formal investiture he finally confirmed his predecessors' charters and privileges granted to Ragusan merchants. Tvrtko's second reign was marked by his quick resolution to restore royal authority and the king's pre-eminence among Bosnia's feudal rulers. With Hrvoje and Pavle gone, and Sandalj preoccupied by conflict with Pavle's sons, Tvrtko was able to significantly expand

444-701: A Bosnian noblewoman named Vukosava, and this view was taken for granted by subsequent writers. In the 19th century, Vjekoslav Klaić argued that Tvrtko II's mother was his father's wife, Dorothea of Bulgaria . Klaić cited as evidence Tvrtko I's charter of 1382, in which the King mentioned Queen Dorothea and an unnamed son to the government of the Republic of Ragusa . If Tvrtko II is the son his father mentioned in this charter, his birth would have had to have taken place between 1375 (Tvrtko I and Dorothea having married in December 1374) and

555-492: A Turkish victory, Ostoja expected that a Hungarian triumph would rid him of Turkish raiders and secure his position against both his rival and his ambitious magnates. The Battle of Doboj in August 1415 saw the disastrous defeat of Sigismund's army. Contrary to expectations, however, the Turks recognized Ostoja as legitimate king. Tvrtko lost his ground, while the united Bosnians for the first time shifted their allegiance from Hungary to

666-727: A beneficial trade treaty with the Republic of Venice in December 1422, and discussed a range of plans for joint military action against Sigismund in Dalmatia. He was obliged, however to renounce the Bosnian claim to Dalmatian cities under Venetian rule. His attempts to find a suitable Catholic bride from the Venetian Malatesta family through the mediation of Peter of Pag , Archbishop of Split , were promising, but never materialized. Tvrtko's association with Venice bothered not only Ragusa, but also

777-520: A considerably extended state, Tvrtko was not an overly ambitious conqueror as much as he was an able statesman. Tvrtko, he wrote, used force when necessary but otherwise took care to appear to Serbians as the legitimate heir rather than as a foreign subjugator and to the Croatians as the preferable ruler. Emphasizing his patience and diplomacy, Ćorović calls Tvrtko a man capable of making the most out of his opportunities. Puppet king A puppet ruler

888-660: A decisive victory over Tvrtko's troops: 170 minor noblemen were captured and killed in Dobor – tossed over the city walls. Tvrtko is said to have been captured as well, but this does not appear to be true, as he demanded the customary tribute from the Ragusans in February 1409. The hostilities continued until the end of November, with Tvrtko retreating southwards with his noblemen and resisting Hungarian attacks, which enabled Ostoja to reestablish control over Central Bosnia . By January 1409,

999-464: A long-standing tradition of granting political asylum to members of ruling families, and did not fail to accommodate Vuk when he sought sanctuary. The same year, while the Turks were raiding the neighbouring Despotate of Serbia , Tvrtko decided to reclaim Srebrenica, which had been seized by Sigismund in 1411 and granted to his ally, the Serbian ruler Stefan Lazarević . The local Ragusan merchants assisted

1110-542: A part of the country by the end of the month, including the areas of Donji Kraji, Rama (where he then resided), Hum, and Usora. In order to secure the loyalty of the noblemen he had subjugated, as well as to win over those still supporting Vuk, Tvrtko bestowed a number of grants; in August he invested Vukac Hrvatinić with the entire župa of Pliva for his part in the 1363 war with Hungary. After initially rapid success, Tvrtko's campaign slowed. Sanko Miltenović , ruler of eastern Hum, defected to Vuk in late 1366. Throughout

1221-498: A religious pretext for invading Bosnia. The death of the bishop of Bosnia — Peregrin Saxon , a supporter of both Stephen II and Tvrtko I and acknowledged by the latter as his "spiritual father" —led to the appointment of Peter Siklósi to the episcopal throne. Peter actively promoted the idea of launching a new crusade against Bosnia , earning him Tvrtko's hostility. Tvrtko even attempted to plot against Peter but failed when his letters to

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1332-423: A significant expansion on the coast, but it was of great importance to the Bosnian economy and the King's finances. The capture of Kotor earned Tvrtko the enmity of George I of Zeta's brother and successor, Balša II , who also desired the city. Nothing is known about Balša's military conflict with Tvrtko except that the latter asked Venice, whose trading opportunities were threatened by the clashes, to mediate with

1443-554: Is buried in Mile alongside his uncle Stephen II. Tvrtko I left at least one son, Tvrtko II , whose legitimacy is debated, and who was a minor and apparently not considered fit to succeed his father. Dabiša , a relative (possibly illegitimate half-brother) exiled by Tvrtko I for his part in the 1366 rebellion and reconciled with him in 1390, was elected king instead. Ostoja , the next king, may have been Tvrtko I's illegitimate son (or more likely another illegitimate half-brother). Tvrtko I

1554-644: Is considered one of the greatest medieval rulers of Bosnia, having "left behind a country larger, stronger, politically more influential and militarily more capable than the one he inherited." His political achievements were aided by the feudal anarchy in Serbia and Croatia, while the Ottomans were still not close enough to threaten him seriously. The Bosnian economy flourished, new settlements and trade centres appeared, and his subjects' living standards improved. Vladimir Ćorović noted that, compared with Dušan, who had also left

1665-579: Is known to have lived in 1414 near the Republic of Ragusa, on lands belonging to Pavle Radenović , the brother of Ostoja's wife Kujava . Another possibility is that he sought shelter with the Ottoman Turks . In early 1413, Hrvoje angered Sigismund by plundering Sandalj's lands. Their relationship deteriorated to the point when Hrvoje found it necessary to turn to the Turks for help. First Turkish troops brought terror to Bosnia in May 1414; in August they also brought

1776-450: Is not known. Already in the spring of 1383, Tvrtko started building a navy: he bought a galley from Venice, ordered two more to be built, and employed a Venetian patrician as his admiral with the consent of the republic. Around the same time, he erected a new town, Brštanik , near present-day Opuzen . In 1385, Tvrtko still formally recognized Hungarian supremacy, although it no longer had any practical meaning. He emphasized his loyalty to

1887-417: Is someone who holds a title of political authority , but is loyal to or controlled by outside persons or groups. When a foreign government wields such outside control, the puppet ruler's territory is referred to as a puppet state . Internal factors, such as non-elected officials, may also exert power over the puppet monarch. A figurehead monarch, as a source of legitimacy and perhaps divine reign , has been

1998-586: The Adriatic coast , from the river Neretva to the Bay of Kotor , which lacked any major settlements. The three major cities in the area were all controlled by Hungary: Drijeva (which Tvrtko was forced to cede to Louis in 1357), Ragusa , and Kotor . The War of Chioggia erupted between the old-time rival Republics of Venice and Genoa in 1378, and it soon involved Venice's neighbours. King Louis took Genoa's side, and Ragusa—subordinate to Hungary, and Venice's competitor in

2109-474: The Lord of Zeta , Đurađ I , Nicholas intended to attack Ragusa and Kotor . Tvrtko and Lazar Hrebljanović , lord of Moravian Serbia , both backed by Louis of Hungary, acted to protect the cities. Lazar, too, swore fealty to Louis, after which he and Tvrtko were given 1,000 horsemen to counter Nicholas, who was completely defeated in the autumn of 1373, his lands being divided between the victorious allies. Tvrtko took

2220-477: The Republic of Venice , an honour that guaranteed them sanctuary in Venice in case of necessity but also obligated Tvrtko to protect Venetian merchants. Various charters issued by the previous bans of Bosnia, and confirmed by Tvrtko on his accession, promised the same protection to Ragusan merchants. In late 1365, however, both republics complained to Tvrtko about the treatment of their merchants by his vassals. Evidently,

2331-629: The Travunians the takeover of Trebinje , Konavli , and Dračevica , making his final conquests of the Serbian lands. By that time, Serbia had been reduced to a patchwork of independent lordships. Uroš the Weak, the last of the Nemanjić dynasty , died in December 1371. His chosen co-ruler, Vukašin Mrnjavčević , left a son, Marko , who took up the royal title. Having been forced to accept Ottoman suzerainty, Marko

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2442-477: The dowry of Stephen's daughter Elizabeth , who had been married to Louis since 1353. In July, King Louis confirmed Tvrtko and his younger brother Vuk as rulers of Bosnia and Usora . Donji Kraji and Hum were purposely omitted from their title, with Usora likely having been granted as compensation. Two conditions were forced upon the Bosnians: one of the two Kotromanić brothers would be at Louis's court whenever

2553-486: The feast day of Saint Demetrius ). However, there is still no full consensus as to where, and by whom it was performed. The opinion that the Ragusan chronicler Mavro Orbini , when he wrote in 1601 that the coronation was performed by metropolitan bishop in the monastery of "Mileševa in town with the same name", meant the monastery was Mileševa and the person who performed coronation was its Orthodox metropolitan bishop ,

2664-426: The royal domain . The convenient death of King Stephen also somewhat neutralized the threat posed by his intriguing mother, Queen Kujava. The Ottomans found little time to interfere with Tvrtko's government in the following five years, giving him time to strengthen the kingdom's economy, with mines reaching the height of their productivity and the number of foreign merchants considerably increasing. In 1422 Tvrtko signed

2775-466: The "heretical" Bosnian Church . The head of the Bosnian Church was always favoured by Tvrtko, and exerted significant influence on the matters of state, serving as Tvrtko's adviser even in 1428, while Tvrtko was trying to present himself as a good Catholic. King Tvrtko I Stephen Tvrtko I ( Serbo-Croatian : Stjepan/Stefan Tvrtko / Стјепан/Стефан Твртко ; c. 1338 – 10 March 1391)

2886-443: The "rightful king". In the following skirmishes the Turks replaced Sigismund as the greatest external influence in the country, but proved to have no intention to actually restore Tvrtko on the throne. Pavle's support was not enough to achieve this goal. With Turkish raids against Bosnia and at times against his own regions of Croatia and Dalmatia continuing, Sigismund decided to take action and mobilize his army. While Tvrtko hoped for

2997-401: The 1427 succession agreement. Given that the succession went smoothly, it can be assumed that Tvrtko actively worked on securing Thomas's accession, probably in order to ensure that his patrimony would not pass to the detested Radivoj. Tvrtko II maintained himself on the Bosnian throne longer than any of the monarchs who followed Tvrtko I. He also did more to restore royal dignity and centralize

3108-544: The Adriatic—did so as well. The Venetians, having taken Kotor in August 1378, made an effort to have Tvrtko join the war on their side, which caused panic in Ragusa. Tvrtko, however, offered the Ragusans help in fighting Venice, which they initially refused. The death of George I of Zeta warranted Tvrtko's involvement in Serbian affairs, which reduced his ability to take an active part in the conflict. The Ragusans started calling for

3219-506: The Ban had lost control over his feudatories. The anarchy escalated, and in February of the following year, the magnates revolted against Tvrtko and dethroned him. Little is known about the circumstances under which Tvrtko was deposed. Accusing the magnates of treachery against "foremostly God" and himself, Tvrtko fled Bosnia with his mother. He was replaced by his younger brother, who had hitherto functioned as "junior ban". Vuk's personal role in

3330-502: The Bosnian claim to the Serbian throne was merely nominal. Tvrtko's engagement in the east allowed Sigismund's forces to reverse some of his gains in Dalmatia. Klis was briefly lost in July, the Dalmatian cities again refused to surrender, and Tvrtko was forced to relaunch raids. A series of battles and skirmishes from November to December resulted in a decisive Bosnian victory and the retreat of

3441-477: The Bosnian crown thus represents a phase of a much broader civil war between the supporters of Sigismund and Ladislaus. Following a few minor disputes with the maritime republics of Venice and Ragusa over Konavli and Pomorje , Tvrtko gained recognition as legitimate king from both states. By 1406, Ostoja was losing what little support he had left in Bosnia, with the nobility now unanimously favouring Tvrtko, but

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3552-555: The Bosnian state. Louis posed a more direct threat as well; he was determined to enlarge his royal domain , and throughout his realm he ardently reclaimed all lands that once belonged to the monarch. Taking advantage of the precarious situation early in Tvrtko's reign, Louis moved to claim most of Donji Kraji and western Hum up to the river Neretva , including the prosperous customs town of Drijeva . In 1357, he succeeded in compelling Tvrtko to come to Hungary and surrender these territories as

3663-492: The Bosnian town of Mile . This place is certainly the undisputed location of the coronations of Tvrtko I's successors, as well as the burial place of some of his predecessors. Writing to Ragusa shortly after his coronation, Tvrtko successfully claimed Saint Demetrius' income , which had been paid to the kings of Serbia since the 13th century. Although he presented himself as the heir to the Nemanjić crown, Tvrtko decided to assume

3774-614: The Hungarian army. In May 1390, the cities and the Dalmatian islands finally surrendered to Tvrtko, who then started calling himself "by the grace of God king of Rascia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Pomorje". Acting as king of Dalmatia and Croatia, Tvrtko appointed his supporters John of Palisna and John Horvat as his bans and hosted the Archbishop of Split Andrea Gualdo in Sutjeska . In

3885-589: The Hungarians to retreat. In Usora, the Srebrenik Fortress held out against a "massive attack" by the royal army, which suffered the embarrassment of losing the King's seal. The successful defense of Srebrenik marked Tvrtko's first victory against Hungary. The unity of the Bosnian magnates waned as soon as the Hungarians were defeated, weakening Tvrtko's position and that of a united Bosnia. In 1364, Tvrtko, his mother, and his brother were granted citizenship of

3996-644: The Italian House of Malatesta . The collapse of his alliance with Venice meant that the plan was never realized. Tvrtko eventually married the Hungarian noblewoman Dorothy Garai , but not before assuring the papacy of his commitment to the Roman Catholic Church . The wedding was held in Milodraž between 23 and 31 July 1428, and the marriage lasted until her death in September 1438. The sources do not mention that

4107-410: The King of Hungary. He appears to have evaded capture by Hungarian troops by fleeing to the mountains of northern Zachlumia . In December Ragusan officials wrote letters to him and his wife (of whom nothing is known) in response to his request of Saint Demetrius income ; at the time he still resided in Bosnia. After that Tvrtko faded into obscurity and had no part in Bosnian affairs for several years. He

4218-547: The King, Tvrtko started regarding the loyalty of the Donji Kraji noblemen to Louis as treachery against himself. In 1363, a conflict broke out between the two men. The cause is not clear, although Louis stated that his intention was to eradicate the Bosnian heretics. By April, the King had begun amassing an army; and in May, officials of the Republic of Ragusa ordered their merchants to leave Bosnia due to an imminent clash. An army led by Louis himself attacked Donji Kraji, where

4329-466: The Lord of Zeta. The mediation was thwarted by Balša's death in the 1385 Battle of Savra against the invading Ottomans. Balša's nephew and successor, George II , maintained Zeta's hostility toward Bosnia. The revolt against Elizabeth and Mary culminated in late 1385 when Mary was deposed in favour of her kinsman, King Charles III of Naples . Elizabeth had Charles assassinated the following February, and Mary

4440-471: The Mighty and the accession of his son Uroš the Weak in December 1355 was soon followed by the breakup of the once-powerful and threatening Serbian Empire . It disintegrated into autonomous lordships that could not resist Bosnia by themselves. This paved the way for Tvrtko to expand towards the east, but internal problems prevented him from seizing the opportunity immediately. A lordship on Bosnia's eastern border

4551-620: The Milanese ruler, Gian Galeazzo Visconti , for selling weaponry to the Ottomans in wake of the battle. The highest ranking among the casualties, which also included Bosnian noblemen, were Lazar and the Ottoman ruler Murad I . The outcome of the battle was difficult to ascertain, but Vlatko's letters from the battlefield convinced Tvrtko that the Christian alliance came out victorious. Tvrtko, in turn, informed various Christian states of his great triumph;

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4662-409: The Ottomans. After Pavle Radenović was assassinated in retribution for his support of Tvrtko, the latter again disappeared from spotlight. Ostoja's position became even stronger when he made peace with Pavle's sons and with Hrvoje's death the following year. Ostoja died in September 1418. Despite expectations that Tvrtko would take over, Ostoja's son Stephen was elected king. When the Turks broke into

4773-693: The Serbian regional lords were not considered suitable. They had only recently risen to prominence and lacked illustrious family backgrounds and formal titles to their lands; they were mere "lords". Tvrtko not only controlled a significant portion of Serbia but was a member of the dynasty which had ruled as bans of Bosnia from time immemorial and—most importantly—could boast descent from the Nemanjić dynasty. A genealogy published in Tvrtko's newly conquered Serbian lands emphasized his Nemanjić ancestry, derived from his paternal grandmother, Elizabeth , daughter of King Dragutin . A Serbian logothete named Blagoje, having found refuge at Tvrtko's court, attributed to Tvrtko

4884-716: The Serbs, and the project failed; Stefan's victorious troops went on to plunder Tvrtko's realm when the Turks retreated from their land. In 1425, Tvrtko realized that he needed a strong ally in the event of further Turkish attacks. Aware that he could not count on Venice, he decided to improve relations with Hungary, which resulted in a treaty the same or the following year. The Ottomans responded with severe attacks that forced Tvrtko to accept their suzerainty and to agree to paying an annual tribute. The Turks departed in 1426, and he became even more desperate to form an alliance with Hungary. Tvrtko's unfavourable position enabled Sigismund to demand

4995-429: The Turks, and thus slowly dismantled their alliance. Although the cooling of Tvrtko's relations with Venice suited Ragusa, another incident guaranteed that the city-state and the King would not be on friendly terms for some more time. In 1424, a kinsman of Tvrtko named Vuk Banić unsuccessfully attempted to usurp the throne with the help of Tvrtko's aunt, Queen Kujava, who wished to avenge her son's deposition. Ragusa had

5106-411: The Turks; the former resented losing their monopoly on trade, while the latter's poor relationship with Venice was the result of territorial dispute over Albania and Zeta . The Turks proceeded to raid Bosnia in the spring of 1424, just enough to make it clear to Tvrtko that close relations with Venice would not be tolerated. Tvrtko understood that Venice would not be able to provide him with help against

5217-502: The accession of Queen Mary in 1382 allowed Tvrtko to take advantage of the ensuing succession crisis in Hungary and Croatia. After bitter fighting, from 1385 to 1390, Tvrtko succeeded in conquering large parts of Dalmatia , and Croatia proper . Following the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, his tenuous claim to Serbia became a mere fiction, as the Serbian rulers he sought to subdue became vassals of

5328-519: The authorities of the Republic of Florence responded praising both the Kingdom of Bosnia and its king for achieving a "victory so glorious that the memory of it would never fade". The triumph, however, was hollow. Tvrtko's Serbian title lost what little actual significance it had when Lazar's successors accepted Ottoman suzerainty, while Vuk Branković turned to Tvrtko's enemy Sigismund. Since the Battle of Kosovo,

5439-584: The backbone of the Bosnian economy. These goods were transported over the Dinaric Alps to the seashore, where they were bought chiefly by the Republics of Ragusa and Venice. The maritime cities of Ragusa and Kotor also depended on Tvrtko's realm for food, a dependency the King leveraged to increase the initially low and, for the Bosnians, disadvantageous prices. Yet, Bosnia could not make economical use of its share of

5550-542: The basis of a new salt trading center. Initially named after Saint Stephen , the city came to be known as Novi (meaning "new"). Commerce started in August, when the first ships carrying salt arrived, but so did trouble. Kotor and the merchants from Dalmatia and the Italian Peninsula looked favourably on the development, but the Ragusans were very displeased at the prospect of losing their salt trade monopoly. They argued that Tvrtko, as king of Serbia, should respect

5661-607: The couple had any children, but archaeological excavations in the royal chapel in Bobovac during the second half of the 20th century confirmed the existence of a child's tomb located between the tombs of the royal couple, indicating that they might have had a child who died in infancy or early childhood. Tvrtko was a Roman Catholic, but only because it suited him to be one. He appreciated the Franciscans for their socio-political engagements in Bosnia, but no more than high-ranking officials of

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5772-848: The couple's alliance with Venice. A notable exception was Klis , which supported the rebellious nobleman John of Palisna . Tvrtko took control of the Klis Fortress in July 1387, which enabled him to launch attacks on Split . Although the Bosnian army laid waste to Split and Zadar areas, the cities refused to capitulate. Their officials were willing to honour King Tvrtko but insisted that Queen Mary and King Sigismund were their legitimate sovereigns. Ostrovica Fortress submitted to Tvrtko in November, followed by Trogir . The military forces of Tvrtko and his vassal Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić campaigned in Slavonia together with John and Paul Horvat . By 1388,

5883-460: The crown, but the chief royal residence of Bobovac and the Usoran town of Srebrenik were captured and restored to Ostoja. All major Bosnian noble families remained loyal to Tvrtko, while Ostoja functioned as Sigismund's puppet whose territory included little more than Bobovac. The fortress, however, housed the crown, which Tvrtko was not able to reach. Much like they intended, Tvrtko II's first reign

5994-525: The date the charter was issued. King Tvrtko I died unexpectedly in March 1391, shortly after Queen Dorothea. The Council of the Kingdom, composed of the country's most prominent noblemen, elected his elderly relative, Dabiša , as his successor, rather than the deceased King's son, who was too young at the time. Upon Dabiša's death in 1395, the noblemen elected his widow, Helen . Three years later, they ousted her in favour of Ostoja . Ostoja's exact relationship with

6105-870: The daughter of the Croatian lord George II Šubić of Bribir . Although Vladislav was still alive, Stephen's title passed directly to Tvrtko; the reason for Vladislav's exclusion from the Kotromanić succession is unclear. Tvrtko, however, was only about fifteen years old at the time, so his father governed as regent . Soon after his accession, Tvrtko travelled with his father throughout the realm to settle relations with his vassals . Jelena replaced Vladislav as regent upon his death in 1354. She immediately travelled to Hungary to obtain consent to Tvrtko's accession from King Louis I , his overlord. Following her return, Jelena held an assembly ( stanak ) in Mile , with mother and son confirming

6216-476: The death of King Louis I on 11 September 1382. Without a male heir, the Hungarian crown passed to Louis's 13-year-old daughter Mary and the reins of government to his widow, Tvrtko's cousin Elizabeth. The great unpopularity of the queens led to rebellions and presented an opportunity for Tvrtko, not only to reclaim Drijeva and other lands lost to Louis in 1357 but also to seize Kotor. When exactly or how this took place

6327-410: The deposed monarch, Tvrtko, and set him up as anti-king . His alliance with the Turks may be due to their mutual hostility towards Sigismund. Pavle Radenović immediately declared for Tvrtko, but no other major nobleman appears to have followed his example – not even Hrvoje. Ragusa tried to maintain cordial relations with both men, calling Tvrtko king out of fear of the Turks but addressing Ostoja as

6438-422: The destruction of Kotor, whose officials promised to renounce fealty to Venice and return to Louis. Kotor failed to fulfil this promise but instead promised fealty to Tvrtko, who laid claim to the city as part of his Nemanjić ancestors' heritage. The political climate was ideal since he was to take Kotor from his overlord's enemy. The Ragusans were furious, and an embargo ensued. Tvrtko defended Kotor from Ragusa but

6549-489: The devastation of Dalmatia by the Bosnian army had become so severe that the authorities of the cities pleaded with Sigismund to either help them or to allow them to save themselves by submitting without being labelled as traitors. Neither Sigismund's army nor an alliance of Dalmatian cities and noblemen was able to counter Tvrtko's advances. Split , Zadar , and Šibenik having lost all hope, Tvrtko called upon them to negotiate their surrender in March 1389. Each city asked to be

6660-517: The elder illegitimate son of the long-deceased Ostoja. In 1432, Stefan Lazarević's successor Đurađ , Sandalj and the Ottomans helped Radivoj lay claim to the throne and take control of much of the country. Tvrtko's only noteworthy support came from Hrvoje's nephew and successor, Juraj Vojsalić , and he thus managed to retain only the central and northwestern Bosnia. Tvrtko retreated to Visoko , but soon found that Sandalj had become too ill to support Radivoj's cause. Đurađ Branković, satisfied with annexing

6771-415: The election of Tvrtko II, who had been completely ignored in the previous royal elections. It is not known who advocated his accession, but he must have owed it to Hrvoje and Sandalj. The choice was likely helped by Tvrtko II's parentage, as well as the expectance that he would not hinder the nobility's autonomy. In June, Tvrtko's supporters defeated a Hungarian army and thus prevented Ostoja from reclaiming

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6882-407: The end of April or the beginning of May, a stanak in Mile was convoked in which the nobility deposed Ostoja, who fled to the court of the Hungarian king, Sigismund of Luxembourg . A new stanak was held to elect Ostoja's successor at the end of May. Ragusan authorities proposed Hrvoje or, alternatively, the exiled nobleman Pavle Radišić as the next king. Unexpectedly, the stanak concluded with

6993-422: The end of the year Tvrtko had completely ousted Stephen, who continued to advance his claim until the summer of 1421. He appears to have died soon after. The internal troubles forced the Ottomans to withdraw their troops from Bosnia, which enabled Tvrtko to strengthen his hold on the kingdom and for its economy to recover. Tvrtko's second accession had to be legitimized with a new coronation , which took place during

7104-426: The exclusive rights to salt trade granted by his Nemanjić predecessors to Ragusa, Kotor, Drijeva, and Sveti Srđ . During the dispute, Ragusa hindered Novi's commerce and assembled an alliance of Dalmatian cities against Bosnia and Venice. Tvrtko relented by November, and his new city failed to achieve his purpose. Tvrtko's yielding in the legal dispute with Ragusa may have been brought about by another major change:

7215-567: The fall of 1427, but also negotiating a Hungarian marriage. The chosen bride was Dorothy Garai , daughter of the Ban of Usora . Sandalj and the Zlatonosović family voiced their opposition by shunning the wedding festivities in 1428. Tvrtko eventually reconciled with Sandalj, but took action against the Zlatonosovićs and confiscated their land. Vuk never posed as much threat to Tvrtko as would Radivoj ,

7326-472: The first King of Bosnia . The identity of his mother, and thus the legitimacy of his birth, is disputed. The uncertainty also stems from the complex religious situation in medieval Bosnia , where it was often hard to discern between legitimate and illegitimate offspring. The 16th-century Ragusan historian Mavro Orbini , writing of Tuartco Scuro (Tvrtko the Plain), claimed that he was born to Tvrtko I's concubine,

7437-485: The following year, Tvrtko forced Vuk southwards, eventually compelling him to flee to Ragusa. Sanko, Vuk's last supporter, submitted to Tvrtko in late summer and was allowed to retain his holdings. Ragusan officials made an effort to procure peace between the feuding brothers, and in 1368, Vuk asked Pope Urban V to intervene with King Louis I on his behalf. Those efforts were futile; but by 1374, Tvrtko had reconciled with Vuk on very generous terms. The death of Dušan

7548-482: The former king's decision to remain in the country continued to trouble Tvrtko. Ragusans described the beginning of Tvrtko II's reign as more tumultuous than anything "since the Flood ", but he soon succeeded in uniting the country by bringing together his feuding vassals. Hungarian attacks on Bosnia took place annually, making Tvrtko's life "a constant hassle". The conflict culminated in September 1408, when Sigismund achieved

7659-411: The heir of Serbia's extinct Nemanjić dynasty . As the Kingdom of Bosnia continued to expand, Tvrtko's attention shifted to the Adriatic coast. He gained control of the entire Primorje region and the major maritime cities of the area, established new settlements and started building a navy, but never succeeded in subjugating the lords of the independent Serbian territories. The death of King Louis and

7770-557: The honorific. Tvrtko's right to kingship was derived from his right to the Serbian throne, and was likely recognized by Lazar Hrebljanović and Vuk Branković. Still, Tvrtko never established authority over the regional lords of Serbia. Tvrtko's new title was also approved by Louis and by his successor Mary . Venice and Ragusa consistently referred to Tvrtko as king of Rascia , Ragusa even complaining, in 1378, about Tvrtko's preoccupation with his new kingdom. Despite his cordial relations with its clergy, Tvrtko's claim to Serbia did not enjoy

7881-590: The kingdom in early 1420, Tvrtko once again accompanied them and installed himself as anti-king. Sandalj immediately declared for him. Fearing the Ottomans, Sandalj's example was soon followed by other noblemen. In June Tvrtko convoked a stanak , and Ragusa recognized him as king. He had support of almost all nobility in Visoko , including voivod Vukmir , mayor Dragiša, knez Juraj Vojsalić, knez Pribić, knez Radič Radojević, knez Batić Mirković, knez Juraj Dragičević, knez Petar Klešić, voivod Ivko, and voivod Pavao Jurjević. By

7992-697: The kings who were the puppets of the Mayor of Palace in the Frankish kingdom . Client kingdoms under the Roman Republic and Roman Empire and the British Empire 's colonial relationship with King Farouk of Egypt in the 1950s are examples of the second type. A puppet does not have to be a national ruler, or even a person. For example, Oscar K. Allen was widely recognized to be Huey Long 's puppet while serving as governor of Louisiana . The government of Manchukuo

8103-625: The lands Tvrtko had confiscated from the Zlatonosović family, also lost interest in Radivoj. The Ottomans, however, pursued Radivoj's claim and took possession of Bobovac in his name in 1434. After years of pleading for their help, Tvrtko finally saw Hungarians march into Bosnia in mid-1434. They recovered for him Jajce , Hodidjed , Bočac and the Komotin Castle , but he lost it all as soon as they retreated. In fact, he himself appears to have left with

8214-424: The last months of his reign, Tvrtko devoted himself to solidifying his position in Dalmatia and to plans for taking Zadar, the only Dalmatian city that had evaded his rule. He offered an extensive alliance to Venice, but it did not suit the republic's interests. Meanwhile, Tvrtko was also fostering relations with Albert III, Duke of Austria . By the late summer of 1390, a marriage was expected to be contracted between

8325-415: The last one to submit and even to be allowed to request Sigismund's assistance. Tvrtko granted their wish and decided that Split should be the last to submit by 15 June 1389. During his campaign in Dalmatia and Croatia , Tvrtko was also engaged in skirmishes in the east of his realm, preventing him from focusing all of his manpower on expansion westwards. The Kingdom of Bosnia was believed to be far from

8436-404: The living standards of his subjects. He was survived by at least one son, Tvrtko II , but was succeeded by Dabiša , under whom Tvrtko's burgeoning realm began to decay. Tvrtko was the elder son of Vladislav Kotromanić and Jelena Šubić and was likely born within a year of their marriage, which was celebrated in 1337. His father was the brother of the Bosnian ban , Stephen II , and his mother

8547-469: The news of King Ladislaus' intention to sell his rights to Dalmatia to Venice had reached Hrvoje, who had been promised the land as governor in Ladislaus' name. Hrvoje no longer had reason to support Ladislaus against Sigismund and made peace with the latter, followed by most Bosnian noblemen. Tvrtko and Sandalj remained in Ladislaus' camp, which led to a civil war. Ostoja seized the opportunity to try to reclaim

8658-463: The nobility was divided in its loyalties between Tvrtko and Louis. A month later an army led by the palatine of Hungary , Nicholas Kont , and the archbishop of Esztergom , Nicholas Apáti , struck Usora. Vlatko Vukoslavić deserted to Louis and surrendered to him the important fortress of Ključ , but Vukac Hrvatinić succeeded in defending the Soko Grad fortress in the župa of Pliva , forcing

8769-554: The other hand, seized the opportunity to take over the land that belonged to Ostoja's favourites, the Sanković family , thus making the Kosačas the greatest landowners in the southern part of the kingdom. When Hrvoje induced him to support King Ladislaus of Naples ' claim to the Hungarian throne, Tvrtko became even more of a thorn in Sigismund's side. The struggle between Ostoja and Tvrtko II for

8880-488: The other was in Bosnia, and they would make an effort to suppress the "heretical" Bosnian Church . Little is known about internal affairs in Bosnia between 1357 when Tvrtko started ruling on his own and 1363. His religious policy came into focus in this period, as the Avignon papacy became more insistent on curbing the Bosnian Church. This endangered Tvrtko, for although he was a Roman Catholic throughout his life, Louis now had

8991-447: The possessions and privileges of the noblemen of "all of Bosnia , Donji Kraji , Zagorje , and the Hum land ". The death of Tvrtko's maternal uncle Mladen III Šubić in 1348 led to a decline of the Šubić noble family and a long conflict over their lands. In May 1355, Jelena and Tvrtko marched with an army to Duvno in order to claim Tvrtko's share of her brother's patrimony. An agreement

9102-514: The preceding kings and Tvrtko II has been a matter of dispute, with many historians assuming that he was an illegitimate son of Tvrtko I. Dominik Mandić , however, showed that both Dabiša and Ostoja described Tvrtko I in charters as their brother. No records of Tvrtko II's life during this period survive. King Ostoja alienated the nobility by attempting to assert his independence from them. In March 1404, he fell out with his most powerful vassals, Hrvoje Vukčić Hrvatinić and Sandalj Hranić Kosača . At

9213-421: The queens, "his dearest sisters", and cited his oath of fealty to them. Mary and Elizabeth, however, had no power to enforce their suzerainty over him. In fact, they so respected his strength that they made concessions to win his favour: one of the concessions being their recognition of Tvrtko's possession of Kotor in the spring of 1385. The incorporation of the trade centres of Drijeva and Kotor did not result in

9324-487: The reach of the Ottomans during Tvrtko I's reign, shielded by a belt of independent Serbian statelets. George II of Zeta, however, purposely enabled the Turks to launch raids against Bosnia, first in 1386 (of which little is known) and again in 1388. In the second instance, the Ottoman and Zetan invaders, led by Lala Şahin Pasha , penetrated as far as Bileća . The Battle of Bileća , which took place in late August 1388, ended with

9435-403: The rebellion is uncertain. Tvrtko acted resolutely and efficiently. He and Jelena took refuge at the Hungarian royal court, where they were welcomed by Tvrtko's former enemy and overlord, King Louis. Apparently dissatisfied with the turn of events in Bosnia, Louis provided Tvrtko with aid (likely military) in reclaiming Bosnia. Tvrtko returned to Bosnia in March and reestablished control over

9546-644: The recently widowed Tvrtko and a member of the Austrian ruling family, the Habsburgs . Hungary remained the focus of Tvrtko's foreign policy, however. Although they did not recognize each other as kings, Tvrtko and Sigismund started negotiating peace in September. Sigismund was in a weaker position and likely ready to make concessions to Tvrtko when his ambassadors arrived at Tvrtko's court in January 1391. The negotiations were probably never concluded, as Tvrtko died on 10 March. He

9657-490: The recognition of the latter's father-in-law, Hermann II of Celje , as heir presumptive to the childless king. Hermann was the son of Tvrtko's aunt Catherine , but was first and foremost a Hungarian count whose kingship was very undesirable to Bosnian nobility. Vuk Banić again presented himself as pretender, and Tvrtko realized that the tide was turning against him. He decided to push the alliance with Hungarian even further, not only recognizing Hermann as his heir presumptive in

9768-452: The religious communities in his realm. After initial difficulties—the loss of large parts of Bosnia to his overlord, King Louis I of Hungary , and being briefly deposed by his magnates —Tvrtko's power grew considerably. He conquered some remnants of the neighbouring Serbian Empire in 1373, after the death of its last ruler and his distant relative, Uroš the Weak . In 1377, he had himself crowned king of Bosnia and Serbia , claiming to be

9879-425: The right to a "double crown": one for Bosnia, which his family had ruled since its foundation, and the other for the Serbian lands of his Nemanjić ancestors, who had "left the earthly realm for the heavenly kingdom". Arguing that Serbia had been "left without its pastor", Tvrtko set out to be crowned as its king. Tvrtko's coronation as king of Bosnia and Serbia was held in the fall of 1377 (probably 26 October,

9990-542: The royal title of his great-grandfather, rather than continue Dušan's unpopular claim to an imperial style, thus becoming " by the Grace of God king of the Serbs, Bosnia, Pomorje and the Western Areas ". In addition to the royal title, Tvrtko also adopted the symbolic name Stephen in order to associate himself with the Nemanjić kings; his successors followed suit. Tvrtko, at times, completely omitted his birth name and used only

10101-414: The second reign of Ostoja, but managed to depose and succeed Ostoja's son Stephen . Tvrtko's second reign was marked by repeated Turkish raids, which forced him to accept the Ottoman suzerainty , and the struggle for power with Radivoj , another son of Ostoja. Tvrtko was married twice, but died childless. He was succeeded by his chosen heir, Radivoj's brother Thomas . Tvrtko II was the son of Tvrtko I ,

10212-457: The state than any other, leaving a strong mark on Bosnia's politics, economy and culture. Stephen Tvrtko II was married during his first reign; his wife was mentioned by the Ragusans in 1409 as "the Queen, wife of King Tvrtko of Bosnia", but her name was not recorded. During his second reign, he considered it very important to marry a Catholic noblewoman and entertained the idea of choosing a bride from

10323-482: The support of the Orthodox Church, severely hindering Tvrtko's efforts. Having taken as much Serbian land as he could, King Tvrtko turned his attention to the coast. The rapid economic growth of Bosnia, having begun during the reign of Tvrtko's uncle, continued unabated even during the political upheavals that followed Tvrtko's accession. The export of metal ores and metalwork (mainly silver, copper and lead) formed

10434-503: The throne, but Sigismund too intended to have himself crowned King of Bosnia "in the solemn manner of Tvrtko I". Sigismund's claim to Bosnia, derived from his agreement with the Rusag in 1394, was recognized by Hrvoje, while Sandalj crossed over to Ostoja. Tvrtko remained on the throne until mid-1409, when Ostoja prevailed. Sigismund's claim became untenable, but Bosnians acknowledged his overlordship over Ostoja; only Tvrtko refused to submit to

10545-464: The troops on their way back to Hungary, as he is known to have resided at the court in Buda in 1435. Radivoj ceased being a threat when he lost the Ottoman support that year, while Sandalj's death presented Tvrtko with a new and more vital rebellious vassal in the form of Sandalj's nephew and successor, Stjepan Vukčić Kosača . Radivoj styled himself as King of Bosnia for the remainder of Tvrtko II's reign. He

10656-528: The upper Podrinje , Gacko , and a part of Polimlje with the Mileševa Monastery . This was the first significant expansion of Bosnia during Tvrtko's reign and gave him substantial influence over Serbian affairs. In 1374, Tvrtko married Dorothea , daughter of Tsar Ivan Stratsimir of Bulgaria . The marriage was likely arranged by Louis, who had kept Dorothea and her sister as honored hostages at his court to ensure Ivan Stratsimir's loyalty. The bride

10767-451: The used form of government in numerous circumstances and places throughout history. There are two basic forms of puppet monarchs: a figurehead monarch who is a puppet of another person or a group in the country who rules instead of the nominal ruler; and a puppet government under a foreign power. Examples of the first type are the Emperors who were the puppets of the shōguns of Japan and

10878-478: The victorious Ottoman Empire . The Ottoman Turks also launched their first attacks on Bosnia during Tvrtko's reign, but his army was able to repel them. Tvrtko's sudden death in 1391 prevented him from solidifying the Kotromanić hold on Croatian lands. Tvrtko is widely considered one of Bosnia's greatest medieval rulers, having enlarged the country's borders to their greatest extent, left a strong economy, and improved

10989-432: The victory of the Bosnian army, led by Duke Vlatko Vuković . 15 June 1389, the date by which Tvrtko had intended to complete his conquest of Dalmatia, was also the day when the Ottoman army met the forces of a coalition of Serbian states at the Battle of Kosovo . Tvrtko, feeling it is his duty as king of Serbia, ordered his army to leave Dalmatia and assist the lord's Lazar Hrebljanović and Vuk Branković . He resented

11100-623: Was Orthodox, but the marriage was celebrated in the Catholic rite by Tvrtko's old enemy Peter, bishop of Bosnia, to whom Tvrtko then awarded large tracts of land. Tvrtko thereby solidified his relations with the Roman Catholic Church and earned recognition from Pope Gregory XI . The division of Nicholas Altomanović's lands created friction between Tvrtko and Đurađ I Balšić since the latter seized coastal župas , which Tvrtko had expected to annex. In early 1377, Tvrtko successfully plotted with

11211-526: Was adopted among historians like Jiriček (in 1923), Ćorović (1925), Dinić (1932), Solovjev (1933). Such an opinion, still perpetuated only in Serbian historiography , contradict recent researches based on modern methodology elsewhere. Citing more recent archaeological and historical researches, Croatian and Bosnian historians agree that the coronation took place in the Franciscan Church of Saint Nicholas in

11322-523: Was betrayed in June 1379, when the city overthrew its Venetian governor and submitted again directly to Louis. The failure to seize Kotor, the damage to the Bosnian economy from the Ragusan embargo, and the need for easier access to maritime trade led Tvrtko to found the youngest medieval town on the eastern Adriatic coast. In early 1382, Tvrtko constructed a new fortress in the Bay of Kotor and decided that it should form

11433-402: Was help the dispossessed widow safely reach her native Albania. The ambitious Nicholas soon started inciting rebellions against Tvrtko; Sanko Miltenović rose against his lord again and was once more defeated and pardoned in 1369. Tvrtko and Nicholas made peace in August 1370, but the latter's belligerence soon earned him the enmity of all his neighbours. Entering into a coalition with Venice and

11544-475: Was marked by an absolute domination of Sandalj and Hrvoje over the entire kingdom. Tvrtko authorized Hrvoje to settle disputes and issue orders in his name, and for a while, as a puppet king , he had his court in Hrvoje's land near the river Sana . The King probably had no choice but to grant to Hrvoje Bosnia's most lucrative mining town, Srebrenica , in 1405, after which it never returned to royal domain. Sandalj, on

11655-862: Was nominally supported by the Turks and by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača; they could have easily deposed Tvrtko in his favour if they wished, but it appears that their only goal was to weaken and divide Bosnia for their future benefit. While Stjepan was trying to expand his territory at the expense of Zeta in 1443, Tvrtko took advantage of his absence and the Ottoman concern with the Crusade of Varna to attack his land, but Stjepan returned in time to defend it. Tvrtko died childless in November 1443, having expressed wish to be succeeded by his politically inactive and until then rather obscure cousin Thomas , Radivoj's younger brother and likewise an illegitimate son of Ostoja. Hermann II of Celje had died in 1435, and his heirs made no attempt to enforce

11766-472: Was not recognized as king by any of the Serbian magnates, effectively leaving the throne vacant. Serbia was divided between Marko (whose small realm extended no further than western Macedonia ), Lazar (the greatest lord), Vuk Branković (Lazar's son-in-law), George of Zeta, and Tvrtko of Bosnia. The idea of restoring the Serbian Empire nevertheless persisted. George discussed it in one of his charters, but

11877-541: Was reached with the vice- ban of Dalmatia by which Tvrtko was to inherit all the cities held by his maternal grandfather and a city which belonged to his aunt Katarina. Still, it is unknown whether he actually took possession of them. The state assembled by Tvrtko's uncle Stephen broke apart on Tvrtko's accession, much to the satisfaction of his overlord King Louis. The Hungarians were keen to encourage Stephen's vassals to act independently from Tvrtko, forcing Tvrtko to compete with Louis for their loyalty in order to rebuild

11988-556: Was restored to the throne. On 25 July, however, both women ended up imprisoned by the supporters of the murdered monarch's son, King Ladislaus of Naples . Civil war engulfed Mary's realm. Her betrothed, Sigismund , invaded Bohemia with the intent to liberate her and ascend her throne. The neighbouring countries took sides: Venice opted for the queens and Sigismund, but Tvrtko chose to support their opponents and Ladislaus's claim to Hungary, thus tacitly renouncing vassalage that had in any case been only nominal since c. 1370. Elizabeth

12099-437: Was strangled in prison, while Sigismund's coronation as King of Hungary in March 1387 and subsequent liberation of Mary prompted Tvrtko to act more resolutely. From Ragusa, still loyal to Queen Mary, exacted a promise of support against everyone but the Queen. From then on, he was free to attack Dalmatia , ostensibly in the name of the king of Naples. Dalmatian cities remained loyal to Mary and Sigismund, not least thanks to

12210-479: Was that of Vojislav Vojinović . When Vojislav attacked Ragusa in 1361, the republic appealed to Tvrtko for help, but to no avail. Vojislav's widow Gojislava, ruling on behalf of their minor sons, provided Tvrtko with passage through the family's land during his struggle with Vuk, and Tvrtko remained cordial with the family. He was, however, unable to defend her from her nephew Nicholas Altomanović , who, by November 1368, had seized her sons' lands. All Tvrtko could do

12321-448: Was the first king of Bosnia . A member of the House of Kotromanić , he succeeded his uncle Stephen II as the ban of Bosnia in 1353. As he was a minor at the time, Tvrtko's father, Vladislav , briefly ruled as regent , followed by Tvrtko's mother, Jelena . Early in his personal rule, Tvrtko quarrelled with his country's Roman Catholic clergy but later enjoyed cordial relations with all

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