Kidara I (Late Brahmi script : Ki-da-ra ) fl. 350–390 CE) was the first major ruler of the Kidarite Kingdom , which replaced the Indo-Sasanians in northwestern India , in the areas of Kushanshahr , Gandhara , Kashmir and Punjab .
135-536: Kidara himself was a nomadic ruler who invaded the areas of Tukharistan and Gandhara hitherto ruled by the Indo-Sasanians . It is thought the Kidarites had initially invaded Sogdiana and Bactria from the north circa 300 CE. His people may have been pushed out from the northern areas of Bactria by migrating Hephthalites . Kidara's ethnicity is unclear, but he may himself have been a Chionite , and he belongs to
270-663: A Parthian force in Syria led by general Pharnapates was defeated by Ventidius at the Battle of Amanus Pass . As a result, Pacorus I temporarily withdrew from Syria. When he returned in the spring of 38 BC, he faced Ventidius at the Battle of Mount Gindarus , northeast of Antioch. Pacorus was killed during the battle, and his forces retreated across the Euphrates. His death spurred a succession crisis in which Orodes II chose Phraates IV ( r . c. 38–2 BC) as his new heir. Upon assuming
405-418: A Parthian invasion while Antony's rival Octavian attacked his forces to the west. After the defeat and suicides of Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BC, Parthian ally Artaxias II reassumed the throne of Armenia. Following the defeat and deaths of Antony and Cleopatra of Ptolemaic Egypt after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Octavian consolidated his political power and in 27 BC was named Augustus by
540-574: A Persian from Balkh known as Saman Khuda left Zoroastrianism for Islam while living under the Umayyads. His children founded the Samanid Empire (875–999 AD). Persian became the official language and had a higher status than Bactrian, because it was the language of Muslim rulers. It eventually replaced the latter as the common language due to the preferential treatment as well as colonization. Several important trade routes from India and China (including
675-533: A baggage train of about 1,000 camels, the Parthian army provided the horse archers with a constant supply of arrows. The horse archers employed the " Parthian shot " tactic: feigning retreat to draw enemy out, then turning and shooting at them when exposed. This tactic, executed with heavy composite bows on the flat plain, devastated Crassus' infantry. With some 20,000 Romans dead, approximately 10,000 captured, and roughly another 10,000 escaping west, Crassus fled into
810-556: A failed siege of Hatra during his withdrawal. His retreat was—in his intentions—temporary, because he wanted to renew the attack on Parthia in 118 AD and "make the subjection of the Parthians a reality," but Trajan died suddenly in August 117 AD. During his campaign, Trajan was granted the title Parthicus by the Senate and coins were minted proclaiming the conquest of Parthia. However, only
945-462: A great accomplishment in his Res Gestae Divi Augusti . When Phraataces took the throne as Phraates V ( r . c. 2 BC – 4 AD), Musa ruled alongside him, and according to Josephus , married him. The Parthian nobility, disapproving of the notion of a king with non-Arsacid blood, forced the pair into exile in Roman territory. Phraates' successor Orodes III of Parthia lasted just two years on
1080-414: A greater part of the empire. Meanwhile, the Roman emperor Caracalla ( r . 211–217 AD) deposed the kings of Osroene and Armenia to make them Roman provinces once more. He marched into Mesopotamia under the pretext of marrying one of Artabanus' daughters, but the marriage was not allowed. Consequently Caracalla made war on Parthia, conquering Arbil and sacking the Parthian tombs there. Caracalla
1215-610: A language known later as Bactrian – an Iranian language . (The Tokhari and their language should not be confused with the Tocharian people who lived in the Tarim Basin between the 3rd and 9th centuries AD, or the Tocharian languages that form another branch of Indo-European languages .) The name Daxia was used in the Shiji ("Records of the Grand Historian") by Sima Qian . Based on
1350-625: A major role in Central Asian history. At certain times the political limits of Bactria stretched far beyond the geographic frame of the Bactrian plain. The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, also known as the "Oxus civilization") is the modern archaeological designation for a Bronze Age archaeological culture of Central Asia , dated to c. 2200 –1700 BC, located in present-day eastern Turkmenistan , northern Afghanistan , southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan , centred on
1485-414: A marriage alliance between the crown prince Pacorus I of Parthia (d. 38 BC) and Artavasdes' sister. Surena, with an army entirely on horseback, rode to meet Crassus. Surena's 1,000 cataphracts (armed with lances) and 9,000 horse archers were outnumbered roughly four to one by Crassus' army, comprising seven Roman legions and auxiliaries including mounted Gauls and light infantry. Using
SECTION 10
#17328594991451620-523: A period coined in scholarship as the " Parthian Dark Age ," due to the lack of clear information on the events of this period in the empire, except a series of, apparently overlapping, reigns. It is only with the beginning of the reign of Orodes II in c. 57 BC , that the line of Parthian rulers can again be reliably traced. This system of split monarchy weakened Parthia, allowing Tigranes II of Armenia to annex Parthian territory in western Mesopotamia. This land would not be restored to Parthia until
1755-470: A plot by Pharasmanes I of Iberia to place his brother Mithridates on the throne of Armenia by assassinating the Parthian ally King Arsaces of Armenia. Artabanus II tried and failed to restore Parthian control of Armenia, prompting an aristocratic revolt that forced him to flee to Scythia . The Romans released a hostage prince, Tiridates III of Parthia , to rule the region as an ally of Rome. Shortly before his death, Artabanus managed to force Tiridates from
1890-708: A rebellion in Egypt. Despite losing his Roman support, Mithridates managed to conquer Babylonia, and minted coins at Seleucia until 54 BC. In that year, Orodes' general, known only as Surena after his noble family's clan name, recaptured Seleucia, and Mithridates was executed. Marcus Licinius Crassus , one of the triumvirs , who was now proconsul of Syria, invaded Parthia in 53 BC in belated support of Mithridates. As his army marched to Carrhae (modern Harran , southeastern Turkey), Orodes II invaded Armenia, cutting off support from Rome's ally Artavasdes II of Armenia ( r . 53–34 BC). Orodes persuaded Artavasdes to
2025-426: A revolt against the Parthian governor of Babylonia. After defeating the latter, the two were granted the right to govern the region by Artabanus II, who feared further rebellion elsewhere. Anilai's Parthian wife poisoned Asinai out of fear he would attack Anilai over his marriage to a gentile . Following this, Anilai became embroiled in an armed conflict with a son-in-law of Artabanus, who eventually defeated him. With
2160-953: A similar fate fighting nomads in the east. He claims Artabanus was killed by the Tokhari (identified as the Yuezhi), although Bivar believes Justin conflated them with the Saka. Mithridates II (r. c. 124–91 BC) later recovered the lands lost to the Saka in Sakastan . Following the Seleucid withdrawal from Mesopotamia, the Parthian governor of Babylonia, Himerus, was ordered by the Arsacid court to conquer Characene , then ruled by Hyspaosines from Charax Spasinu . When this failed, Hyspaosines invaded Babylonia in 127 BC and occupied Seleucia. Yet by 122 BC, Mithridates II forced Hyspaosines out of Babylonia and made
2295-607: A trap with the promise of a marriage alliance. He was taken captive in 34 BC, paraded in Antony's mock Roman triumph in Alexandria , Egypt, and eventually executed by Cleopatra VII of the Ptolemaic Kingdom . Antony attempted to strike an alliance with Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, whose relations with Phraates IV had recently soured. This was abandoned when Antony and his forces withdrew from Armenia in 33 BC; they escaped
2430-425: A war in Syria against the tribal leader Laodice and her Seleucid ally Antiochus X Eusebes ( r . 95–92? BC), killing the latter. When one of the last Seleucid monarchs, Demetrius III Eucaerus , attempted to besiege Beroea (modern Aleppo ), Parthia sent military aid to the inhabitants and Demetrius was defeated. Following the rule of Mithridates II, his son Gotarzes I succeeded him. He reigned during
2565-653: Is only known through external sources. These include mainly Greek and Roman histories , but also Chinese histories , prompted by the Han Chinese desire to form alliances against the Xiongnu . Parthian artwork is a means of understanding aspects of society and culture that are otherwise absent in textual sources. Before Arsaces I founded the Arsacid dynasty, he was chieftain of the Parni , an ancient Central Asian tribe of Iranian peoples and one of several nomadic tribes within
2700-562: The Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea ) in Ptolemy 's Geography . After the Iberian king Pharasmanes I had his son Rhadamistus ( r . 51–55 AD) invade Armenia to depose the Roman client king Mithridates, Vologases I of Parthia ( r . c. 51–77 AD) planned to invade and place his brother, the later Tiridates I of Armenia , on the throne. Rhadamistus
2835-605: The Achaemenid Empire ; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals , although the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps . The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa to Ctesiphon along
SECTION 20
#17328594991452970-570: The Amu Darya (ancient Oxus River) to the north and the Hindu Kush mountain range to the south and east. On its western side, the region was bordered by the great Carmanian desert and the plain of Margiana . The Amu Darya and smaller rivers such as (from west to east) the Shirin Tagab River , Sari Pul River , Balkh River and Kunduz River have been used for irrigation for millennia. The land
3105-655: The Arsacid Empire ( / ˈ ɑːr s ə s ɪ d / ), was a major Iranian political and cultural power centered in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I , who led the Parni tribe in conquering the region of Parthia in Iran 's northeast, then a satrapy (province) under Andragoras , who was rebelling against the Seleucid Empire . Mithridates I ( r. c. 171 – 132 BC) greatly expanded
3240-634: The Arsacid dynasty of Iberia , and for many centuries afterwards in Caucasian Albania through the Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania . When Vardanes II of Parthia rebelled against his father Vologases I in 55 AD, Vologases withdrew his forces from Armenia. Rome quickly attempted to fill the political vacuum left behind. In the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63 AD, the commander Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo achieved some military successes against
3375-555: The Greek language for administrative purposes, and the local Bactrian language was also Hellenized, as suggested by its adoption of the Greek alphabet and Greek loanwords. The Bactrian king Euthydemus I and his son Demetrius I crossed the Hindu Kush mountains and began the conquest of the Indus valley . For a short time, they wielded great power: a great Greek empire seemed to have arisen far in
3510-463: The Indus River . Whereas Hecatompylos had served as the first Parthian capital, Mithridates I established royal residences at Seleucia, Ecbatana, Ctesiphon and his newly founded city, Mithradatkert ( Nisa ), where the tombs of the Arsacid kings were built and maintained. Ecbatana became the main summertime residence for the Arsacid royalty. Ctesiphon may not have become the official capital until
3645-510: The Roman Senate , becoming the first Roman emperor . Around this time, Tiridates II of Parthia briefly overthrew Phraates IV, who was able to quickly reestablish his rule with the aid of Scythian nomads. Tiridates fled to the Romans, taking one of Phraates' sons with him. In negotiations conducted in 20 BC, Phraates arranged for the release of his kidnapped son. In return, the Romans received
3780-453: The Seleucid Empire and founded a number of Greek towns . The Greek language became dominant for some time there. The paradox that Greek presence was more prominent in Bactria than in areas far closer to Greece can possibly be explained by past deportations of Greeks to Bactria. When Alexander's troops entered Bactria they discovered communities of Greeks who appeared to have been deported to
3915-619: The Silk Road ) passed through Bactria and, as early as the Bronze Age , this had allowed the accumulation of vast amounts of wealth by the mostly nomadic population. The first proto-urban civilization in the area arose during the 2nd millennium BC . Control of these lucrative trade routes, however, attracted foreign interest, and in the 6th century BC the Bactrians were conquered by the Persians , and in
4050-690: The Silk Roads . Kujula Kadphises , the xihou (prince) of the Yuezhi, united the region in the early 1st century and laid the foundations for the powerful, but short-lived, Kushan Empire . In the 3rd century AD, Tukhara was under the rule of the Kushanshas (Indo-Sasanians). The form Tokharistan – the suffix -stan means "place of" in Persian – appeared for the first time in the 4th century, in Buddhist texts, such as
4185-628: The Third Syrian War (246–241 BC), also allowed Diodotus I to rebel and form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in Central Asia. The latter's successor, Diodotus II , formed an alliance with Arsaces I against the Seleucids, but Arsaces was temporarily driven from Parthia by the forces of Seleucus II Callinicus ( r. 246 – 225 BC ). After spending some time in exile among
Kidara I - Misplaced Pages Continue
4320-656: The Tigris (south of Baghdad ), although several other sites also served as capitals. The earliest enemies of the Parthians were the Seleucids in the west and the Scythians in the north. However, as Parthia expanded westward, they came into conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia , and eventually the late Roman Republic . Rome and Parthia competed with each other to establish the kings of Armenia as their tributaries . The Parthians destroyed
4455-792: The Vibhasa-sastra . Tokhara was known in Chinese sources as Tuhuluo (吐呼羅) which is first mentioned during the Northern Wei era. In the Tang dynasty, the name is transcribed as Tuhuoluo (土豁羅). Other Chinese names are Doushaluo 兜沙羅, Douquluo 兜佉羅 or Duhuoluo 覩貨羅. During the 5th century AD, Bactria was controlled by the Xionites and the Hephthalites , but was subsequently reconquered by the Sassanid Empire. By
4590-622: The Xiongnu dislodged the nomadic Yuezhi from their homelands in what is now Gansu province in Northwest China ; the Yuezhi then migrated west into Bactria and displaced the Saka (Scythian) tribes. The Saka were forced to move further west, where they invaded the Parthian Empire's northeastern borders. Mithridates I was thus forced to retire to Hyrcania after his conquest of Mesopotamia. Some of
4725-723: The Yuezhi , themselves ancestors of the Kushans . Kidara having established himself in Tukharistan and Gandara, took the title of Kushanshah which until that time had been used by the rulers of the Indo-Sasanian kingdom. He thus founded the eponymous new dynasty of the Kidarites in northwestern India. The Kidarites also claimed to have been successors of the Kushans , possibly due to their ethnic proximity. Kidara struck both Sasanian-style gold and silver coins (imitating his immediate predecessor in
4860-408: The art , architecture , religious beliefs, and regalia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian , Hellenistic , and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture , though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions . The Arsacid rulers were titled " King of Kings ", claiming inheritance of
4995-439: The breastplate scene on his statue Augustus of Prima Porta . Along with the prince, Augustus also gave Phraates IV an Italian slave-girl, who later became Queen Musa of Parthia . To ensure that her child Phraataces would inherit the throne without incident, Musa convinced Phraates IV to give his other sons to Augustus as hostages. Again, Augustus used this as propaganda depicting the submission of Parthia to Rome, listing it as
5130-458: The diplomatic venture of Zhang Qian into Central Asia during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han ( r . 141–87 BC), the Han Empire of China sent a delegation to Mithridates II's court in 121 BC. The Han embassy opened official trade relations with Parthia via the Silk Road yet did not achieve a desired military alliance against the confederation of the Xiongnu. The Parthian Empire
5265-566: The revolting Ionians and send them to Bactria. Persia subsequently conscripted Greek men from these settlements in Bactria into their military, as did Alexander later. Alexander conquered Sogdiana . In the south, beyond the Oxus, he met strong resistance, but ultimately conquered the region through both military force and diplomacy, marrying Roxana , daughter of the defeated Satrap of Bactria, Oxyartes . He founded two Greek cities in Bactria, including his easternmost, Alexandria Eschate (Alexandria
5400-516: The " sixteen perfect Iranian lands " that the supreme deity, Ahura Mazda , had created. It was once a small and independent kingdom struggling to exist against nomadic Turanians . One of the early centres of Zoroastrianism, and capital of the legendary Kayanian dynasty , Bactria is mentioned in the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great as one of the satrapies of the Achaemenid Empire ; it
5535-582: The 1st century BC, when Strabo described how "the Asii, Pasiani, Tokhari, and Sakarauli" had taken part in the "destruction of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom". Ptolemy subsequently mentioned the central role of the Tokhari among other tribes in Bactria. As Tukhara or Tokhara it included areas that were later part of Surxondaryo Region in Uzbekistan, southern Tajikistan and northern Afghanistan. The Tokhari spoke
Kidara I - Misplaced Pages Continue
5670-520: The 3rd century, and the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom was formed. The Sasanians lost Bactria in the 4th century, but reconquered it in the 6th century. Bactrian (natively known as ariao , 'Iranian'), an Eastern Iranian language , was the common language of Bactria and surroundings areas in ancient and early medieval times. The Islamization of Bactria began with the Muslim conquest of Iran in
5805-486: The 4th century BC by Alexander the Great . These conquests marked the end of Bactrian independence. From around 304 BC the area formed part of the Seleucid Empire , and from around 250 BC it was the centre of a Greco-Bactrian kingdom , ruled by the descendants of Greeks who had settled there following the conquest of Alexander the Great . The Greco-Bactrians, also known in Sanskrit as Yavanas , worked in cooperation with
5940-547: The 4th-century AD historians Eutropius and Festus allege that he attempted to establish a Roman province in lower Mesopotamia. Trajan's successor Hadrian ( r . 117–138 AD) reaffirmed the Roman-Parthian border at the Euphrates, choosing not to invade Mesopotamia due to Rome's now limited military resources. Parthamaspates fled after the Parthians revolted against him, yet the Romans made him king of Osroene . Osroes I died during his conflict with Vologases III,
6075-491: The 7th century. The capital city of Bactra was centre of an Iranian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and New Persian as an independent literary language first emerged in this region. The Samanid Empire was formed in Eastern Iran by the descendants of Saman Khuda , a Persian from Bactria, beginning the spread of the Persian language in the region and the decline of the Bactrian language. The modern English name of
6210-624: The Armenian countryside. At the head of his army, Surena approached Crassus, offering a parley , which Crassus accepted. However, he was killed when one of his junior officers, suspecting a trap, attempted to stop him from riding into Surena's camp. Crassus' defeat at Carrhae was one of the worst military defeats of Roman history. Parthia's victory cemented its reputation as a formidable if not equal power with Rome. With his camp followers, war captives, and precious Roman booty, Surena traveled some 700 km (430 mi) back to Seleucia where his victory
6345-581: The Arsacid court focused on securing the western border, primarily against Rome. A year following Mithridates II's subjugation of Armenia, Lucius Cornelius Sulla , the Roman proconsul of Cilicia , convened with the Parthian diplomat Orobazus at the Euphrates river. The two agreed that the river would serve as the border between Parthia and Rome, although several historians have argued that Sulla only had authority to communicate these terms back to Rome. Despite this agreement, in 93 or 92 BC Parthia fought
6480-514: The Arsacid dynasty lived on through branches of the family that ruled Armenia , Caucasian Iberia , and Caucasian Albania . Native Parthian sources, written in Parthian , Greek and other languages, are scarce when compared to Sasanian and even earlier Achaemenid sources. Aside from scattered cuneiform tablets, fragmentary ostraca , rock inscriptions, drachma coins, and the chance survival of some parchment documents, much of Parthian history
6615-432: The East. But this empire was torn by internal dissension and continual usurpations. When Demetrius advanced far east of the Indus River, one of his generals, Eucratides , made himself king of Bactria, and soon in every province there arose new usurpers, who proclaimed themselves kings and fought against each other. For example Eucratides is known to have battled another king named Demetrius of India, probably Demetrius II ,
6750-541: The Furthest). After Alexander's death, Diodorus Siculus tells us that Philip received dominion over Bactria, but Justin names Amyntas to that role. At the Treaty of Triparadisus , both Diodorus Siculus and Arrian agree that the satrap Stasanor gained control over Bactria. Eventually, Alexander's empire was divided up among the generals in Alexander's army. Bactria became a part of the Seleucid Empire , named after its founder, Seleucus I . The Macedonians , especially Seleucus I and his son Antiochus I , established
6885-405: The Great (d. 530 BC), founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Relations between Parthia and Greco-Bactria deteriorated after the death of Diodotus II, when forces under Mithridates I captured two eparchies of the latter kingdom, then under Eucratides I ( r . c. 170–145 BC). Turning his sights on the Seleucid realm, Mithridates I invaded Media and occupied Ecbatana in 148 or 147 BC;
SECTION 50
#17328594991457020-427: The Greek account. According to some writers, Bactria was the homeland ( Airyanem Vaejah ) of Indo-Iranians who moved south-west into Iran and the north-west of the South Asian subcontinent around 2500–2000 BC. Later, it became the northern province of the Achaemenid Empire in Central Asia . It was in these regions, where the fertile soil of the mountainous country is surrounded by the Turan Depression , that
7155-515: The Greek minority. In the Indus valley , this went even further. The Indo-Greek king Menander I (known as Milinda in South Asia ), recognized as a great conqueror, converted to Buddhism . His successors managed to cling to power until the last known Indo-Greek ruler, a king named Strato II , who ruled in the Punjab region until around 55 BC. Other sources, however, place the end of Strato II's reign as late as 10 AD. Daxia , Ta-Hsia , or Ta-Hia ( Chinese : 大夏 ; pinyin : Dàxià )
7290-481: The Jewish regime removed, the native Babylonians began to harass the local Jewish community , forcing them to emigrate to Seleucia. When that city rebelled against Parthian rule in 35–36 AD, the Jews were expelled again, this time by the local Greeks and Aramaeans . The exiled Jews fled to Ctesiphon, Nehardea, and Nisibis . Although at peace with Parthia, Rome still interfered in its affairs. The Roman emperor Tiberius (r. 14–37 AD) became involved in
7425-432: The Kushāns and Hepthalites in the 1st–6th centuries AD. Over the course of time, the eastern Iranian dialect that was used by the ancient Tajiks eventually gave way to Persian, a western dialect spoken in Iran and Afghanistan. 36°45′29″N 66°53′56″E / 36.7581°N 66.8989°E / 36.7581; 66.8989 Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire ( / ˈ p ɑːr θ i ən / ), also known as
7560-399: The Parthian Empire brought West Asian and sometimes Roman luxury glasswares to China. The merchants of Sogdia , speaking an Eastern Iranian language , served as the primary middlemen of this vital silk trade between Parthia and Han China . The Yuezhi Kushan Empire in northern India largely guaranteed the security of Parthia's eastern border. Thus, from the mid-1st century BC onwards,
7695-553: The Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC. Bivar claims that these two states considered each other political equals. After the Greek philosopher Apollonius of Tyana visited the court of Vardanes I ( r . c. 40–47 AD) in 42 AD, Vardanes provided him with the protection of a caravan as he traveled to Indo-Parthia. When Apollonius reached Indo-Parthia's capital Taxila , his caravan leader read Vardanes' official letter, perhaps written in Parthian, to an Indian official who treated Apollonius with great hospitality. Following
7830-431: The Parthian throne. Phraates I ruled Parthia without further Seleucid interference. Phraates I is recorded as expanding Parthia's control past the Gates of Alexander and occupied Apamea Ragiana . The locations of these are unknown. Yet the greatest expansion of Parthian power and territory took place during the reign of his brother and successor Mithridates I (r. c. 171–132 BC), whom Katouzian compares to Cyrus
7965-468: The Parthians and their Jewish ally Antigonus II Mattathias (r. 40–37 BC); the latter was made king of Judea while Herod fled to his fort at Masada . Despite these successes, the Parthians were soon driven out of the Levant by a Roman counteroffensive. Publius Ventidius Bassus , an officer under Mark Antony, defeated and then executed Labienus at the Battle of the Cilician Gates (in modern Mersin Province , Turkey) in 39 BC. Shortly afterward,
8100-409: The Parthians in Mesopotamia. Despite early successes, the Seleucids were defeated and Demetrius himself was captured by Parthian forces and taken to Hyrcania. There Mithridates I treated his captive with great hospitality; he even married his daughter Rhodogune of Parthia to Demetrius. Antiochus VII Sidetes ( r . 138–129 BC), a brother of Demetrius, assumed the Seleucid throne and married
8235-455: The Parthians pushed for peace, which Antiochus refused to accept unless the Arsacids relinquished all lands to him except Parthia proper, paid heavy tribute, and released Demetrius from captivity. Arsaces released Demetrius and sent him to Syria , but refused the other demands. By spring 129 BC, the Medes were in open revolt against Antiochus, whose army had exhausted the resources of the countryside during winter. While attempting to put down
SECTION 60
#17328594991458370-487: The Parthians while installing Tigranes VI of Armenia as a Roman client. However, Corbulo's successor Lucius Caesennius Paetus was soundly defeated by Parthian forces and fled Armenia. Following a peace treaty, Tiridates I traveled to Naples and Rome in 63 AD. At both sites the Roman emperor Nero ( r . 54–68 AD) ceremoniously crowned him king of Armenia by placing the royal diadem on his head. A long period of peace between Parthia and Rome ensued, with only
8505-421: The Parthians would have been relieved at the failed efforts by the Han Empire to open diplomatic relations with Rome, especially after Ban Chao's military victories against the Xiongnu in eastern Central Asia . However, Chinese records maintain that a Roman embassy , perhaps only a group of Roman merchants , arrived at the Han capital Luoyang by way of Jiaozhi (northern Vietnam ) in 166 AD, during
8640-454: The Persian city of Susa. When Sanatruces II of Parthia gathered forces in eastern Parthia to challenge the Romans, his cousin Parthamaspates of Parthia betrayed and killed him: Trajan crowned him the new king of Parthia. Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east. On Trajan's return north, the Babylonian settlements revolted against the Roman garrisons. Trajan was forced to retreat from Mesopotamia in 117 AD, overseeing
8775-483: The Roman consul Lucius Afranius forced the Parthians out by either military or diplomatic means. Phraates III was assassinated by his sons Orodes II of Parthia and Mithridates IV of Parthia , after which Orodes turned on Mithridates, forcing him to flee from Media to Roman Syria . Aulus Gabinius , the Roman proconsul of Syria, marched in support of Mithridates to the Euphrates, but had to turn back to aid Ptolemy XII Auletes ( r . 80–58; 55–51 BC) against
8910-475: The Romans at first used foreign allies (especially Nabataeans ), but later established a permanent auxilia force to complement their heavy legionary infantry. The Romans eventually maintained regiments of horse archers ( sagittarii ) and even mail-armored cataphracts in their eastern provinces. Yet the Romans had no discernible grand strategy in dealing with Parthia and gained very little territory from these invasions. The primary motivations for war were
9045-501: The Saka were enlisted in Phraates' forces against Antiochus. However, they arrived too late to engage in the conflict. When Phraates refused to pay their wages, the Saka revolted, which he tried to put down with the aid of former Seleucid soldiers, yet they too abandoned Phraates and joined sides with the Saka. Phraates II marched against this combined force, but he was killed in battle. The Roman historian Justin reports that his successor Artabanus I ( r . c. 128–124 BC) shared
9180-466: The Seleucids—particularly from Antiochus III the Great , who was ultimately defeated by the Romans (190 BC). The Greco-Bactrians were so powerful that they were able to expand their territory as far as South Asia : As for Bactria, a part of it lies alongside Aria towards the north, though most of it lies above Aria and to the east of it. And much of it produces everything except oil. The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of
9315-464: The Sogdians and Bactrians did not differ much from the nomads in their modes of life and customs, although the Bactrians were a little more civilised; however, of these, as of the others, Onesicritus does not report their best traits, saying, for instance, that those who have become helpless because of old age or sickness are thrown out alive as prey to dogs kept expressly for this purpose, which in their native tongue are called "undertakers," and that while
9450-469: The Younger once again fled, this time to the Roman commander Pompey . He promised Pompey that he would act as a guide through Armenia, but, when Tigranes II submitted to Rome as a client king , Tigranes the Younger was brought to Rome as a hostage. Phraates demanded Pompey return Tigranes the Younger to him, but Pompey refused. In retaliation, Phraates launched an invasion into Corduene (southeastern Turkey) where, according to two conflicting Roman accounts,
9585-490: The advancement of the personal glory and political position of the emperor, as well as defending Roman honor against perceived slights such as Parthian interference in the affairs of Rome's client states. Hostilities between Rome and Parthia were renewed when Osroes I of Parthia ( r . c. 109–128 AD) deposed the Armenian king Sanatruk and replaced him with Axidares , son of Pacorus II, without consulting Rome. The Roman emperor Trajan ( r . 98–117 AD) had
9720-493: The aid of Phraates III ( r . c. 71–58). Phraates did not send aid to either, and after the fall of Tigranocerta he reaffirmed with Lucullus the Euphrates as the boundary between Parthia and Rome. Tigranes the Younger, son of Tigranes II of Armenia, failed to usurp the Armenian throne from his father. He fled to Phraates III and convinced him to march against Armenia's new capital at Artaxata . When this siege failed, Tigranes
9855-537: The army of Marcus Licinius Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC, and in 40–39 BC, Parthian forces captured the whole of the Levant except Tyre from the Romans ; Mark Antony led a Roman counterattack . Several Roman emperors invaded Mesopotamia in the Roman–Parthian Wars of the next few centuries, capturing the cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. Frequent civil wars between Parthian contenders to
9990-536: The capital of which was Merv , in today's Turkmenistan. The early Greek historian Ctesias , c. 400 BC (followed by Diodorus Siculus ), alleged that the legendary Assyrian king Ninus had defeated a Bactrian king named Oxyartes in c. 2140 BC , or some 1000 years before the Trojan War . Since the decipherment of cuneiform script in the 19th century, however, which enabled actual Assyrian records to be read, historians have ascribed little value to
10125-630: The civil war against Julius Caesar and even sent troops to support the anti-Caesarian forces at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. Quintus Labienus , a general loyal to Cassius and Brutus , sided with Parthia against the Second Triumvirate in 40 BC; the following year he invaded Syria alongside Pacorus I. The triumvir Mark Antony was unable to lead the Roman defense against Parthia due to his departure to Italy, where he amassed his forces to confront his rival Octavian and eventually conducted negotiations with him at Brundisium. After Syria
10260-629: The confederation of the Dahae . The Parni most likely spoke an eastern Iranian language , in contrast to the northwestern Iranian language spoken at the time in Parthia . The latter was a northeastern province, first under the Achaemenid Empire , and then the Seleucid Empire . After conquering the region, the Parni adopted Parthian as the official court language, speaking it alongside Middle Persian , Aramaic , Greek , Babylonian , Sogdian and other languages in
10395-705: The court of Pacorus II at Hecatompylos before departing towards Rome. He traveled as far west as the Persian Gulf , where Parthian authorities convinced him that an arduous sea voyage around the Arabian Peninsula was the only means to reach Rome. Discouraged by this, Gan Ying returned to the Han court and provided Emperor He of Han ( r . 88–105 AD) with a detailed report on the Roman Empire based on oral accounts of his Parthian hosts. William Watson speculates that
10530-539: The direct descendants of the Iranian peoples whose continuous presence in Central Asia and northern Afghanistan is attested from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The ancestors of the Tajiks constituted the core of the ancient population of Khwārezm (Khorezm) and Bactria, which formed part of Transoxania (Sogdiana). They were included in the empires of Persia and Alexander the Great, and they intermingled with such later invaders as
10665-620: The empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates , in what is now central-eastern Turkey, to present-day Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and the Han dynasty of China , became a center of trade and commerce. The Parthians largely adopted
10800-471: The fertility of the country that they became masters, not only of Bactria and beyond, but also of India, as Apollodorus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander...." The last Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles I lost control of Bactria to nomadic invaders near the end of the 2nd century BC, at which point Greek political power ceased in Bactria, but Greek cultural influence continued for many more centuries. The Greco-Bactrians used
10935-600: The general category of the Huns or Huna . Already during the 4th century Sasanian Emperor Shapur II had fought against Chionite invaders led by king Grumbates , and ultimately passed an alliance with them, using their military in the campaign against the Romans in the siege of the fortress of Amida (now Diyarbakır , Turkey ). Chinese sources explain however that the Kidarites are the Lesser Yuezhi , which would make them relatives of
11070-421: The intention of seizing the capital Praaspa, the location of which is now unknown. However, Phraates IV ambushed Antony's rear detachment, destroying a giant battering ram meant for the siege of Praaspa; after this, Artavasdes II abandoned Antony's forces. The Parthians pursued and harassed Antony's army as it fled to Armenia. Eventually, the greatly weakened force reached Syria. Antony lured Artavasdes II into
11205-501: The invasion of Alans into Parthia's eastern territories around 72 AD mentioned by Roman historians. Whereas Augustus and Nero had chosen a cautious military policy when confronting Parthia, later Roman emperors invaded and attempted to conquer the eastern Fertile Crescent , the heart of the Parthian Empire along the Tigris and Euphrates . The heightened aggression can be explained in part by Rome's military reforms. To match Parthia's strength in missile troops and mounted warriors,
11340-485: The invasion of Mesopotamia by Avidius Cassius in 164 AD. The Romans captured and burnt Seleucia and Ctesiphon to the ground, yet they were forced to retreat once the Roman soldiers contracted a deadly disease (possibly smallpox ) that soon ravaged the Roman world. Although they withdrew, from this point forward the city of Dura-Europos remained in Roman hands. When Roman emperor Septimius Severus ( r . 193–211 AD) invaded Mesopotamia in 197 AD during
11475-527: The kings of Characene vassals under Parthian suzerainty . After Mithridates II extended Parthian control further west, occupying Dura-Europos in 113 BC, he became embroiled in a conflict with the Kingdom of Armenia . His forces defeated and deposed Artavasdes I of Armenia in 97 BC, taking his son Tigranes hostage, who would later become Tigranes II "the Great" of Armenia ( r . c. 95–55 BC). The Indo-Parthian Kingdom , located in modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan made an alliance with
11610-505: The land outside the walls of the metropolis of the Bactrians looks clean, yet most of the land inside the walls is full of human bones; but that Alexander broke up the custom." The Bactrians spoke Bactrian , a north-eastern Iranian language. Bactrian became extinct, replaced by north-eastern Iranian languages such as Munji , Yidgha , Ishkashimi , and Pashto . The Encyclopaedia Iranica states: Bactrian thus occupies an intermediary position between Pashto and Yidgha - Munji on
11745-450: The latter succeeded by Vologases IV of Parthia ( r . c. 147–191 AD) who ushered in a period of peace and stability. However, the Roman–Parthian War of 161–166 AD began when Vologases invaded Armenia and Syria, retaking Edessa. Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r . 161–180 AD) had co-ruler Lucius Verus ( r . 161–169 AD) guard Syria while Marcus Statius Priscus invaded Armenia in 163 AD, followed by
11880-598: The latter ultimately being defeated according to the historian Justin . Most of them we know only by their coins, a great many of which are found in Afghanistan . By these wars, the dominant position of the Greeks was undermined even more quickly than would otherwise have been the case. After Demetrius and Eucratides, the kings abandoned the Attic standard of coinage and introduced a native standard, no doubt to gain support from outside
12015-519: The latter's wife Cleopatra Thea . After defeating Diodotus Tryphon, Antiochus initiated a campaign in 130 BC to retake Mesopotamia, now under the rule of Phraates II ( r . c. 132–127 BC). The Parthian general Indates was defeated along the Great Zab , followed by a local uprising where the Parthian governor of Babylonia was killed. Antiochus conquered Babylonia and occupied Susa, where he minted coins. After advancing his army into Media,
12150-413: The lost legionary standards taken at Carrhae in 53 BC, as well as any surviving prisoners of war. The Parthians viewed this exchange as a small price to pay to regain the prince. Augustus hailed the return of the standards as a political victory over Parthia; this propaganda was celebrated in the minting of new coins, the building of a new temple to house the standards, and even in fine art such as
12285-857: The mid-7th century AD, Islam under the Rashidun Caliphate had come to rule much of the Middle East and western areas of Central Asia. In 663 AD, the Umayyad Caliphate attacked the Buddhist Shahi dynasty ruling in Tokharistan. The Umayyad forces captured the area around Balkh , including the Buddhist monastery at Nava Vihara , causing the Shahis to retreat to the Kabul Valley. In the 8th century AD,
12420-466: The multilingual territories they would conquer. Why the Arsacid court retroactively chose 247 BC as the first year of the Arsacid era is uncertain. A. D. H. Bivar concludes that this was the year the Seleucids lost control of Parthia to Andragoras , the appointed satrap who rebelled against them. Hence, Arsaces I "backdated his regnal years " to the moment when Seleucid control over Parthia ceased. However, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis asserts that this
12555-510: The native Bactrian aristocracy. By the early 2nd century BC the Greco-Bactrians had created an impressive empire that stretched southwards to include north-west India. By about 135 BC, however, this kingdom had been overrun by invading Yuezhi tribes, an invasion that later brought about the rise of the powerful Kushan Empire . Bactrians were recorded in Strabo's Geography : "Now in early times
12690-406: The next Parthian nominee for the throne, Parthamasiris, killed in 114 AD, instead making Armenia a Roman province. His forces, led by Lusius Quietus , also captured Nisibis; its occupation was essential to securing all the major routes across the northern Mesopotamian plain. The following year, Trajan invaded Mesopotamia and met little resistance from only Meharaspes of Adiabene, since Osroes
12825-469: The nomadic Apasiacae tribe, Arsaces I led a counterattack and recaptured Parthia. Seleucus II's successor, Antiochus III the Great ( r. 222 – 187 BC ), was unable to immediately retaliate because his troops were engaged in putting down the rebellion of Molon in Media . Antiochus III launched a massive campaign to retake Parthia and Bactria in 210 or 209 BC. Despite some victories he
12960-556: The north, beginning with the Sakas (160 BC). The Sakas were overthrown in turn by the Da Yuezhi ("Greater Yuezhi") during subsequent decades. The Yuezhi had conquered Bactria by the time of the visit of the Chinese envoy Zhang Qian (circa 127 BC), who had been sent by the Han emperor to investigate lands to the west of China. The first mention of these events in European literature appeared in
13095-635: The one hand, Sogdian , Choresmian , and Parthian on the other: it is thus in its natural and rightful place in Bactria. The principal religions of the area before the Islamic invasion were Zoroastrianism and Buddhism . Contemporary Tajiks are the descendants of ancient Eastern Iranian inhabitants of Central Asia, in particular, the Sogdians and the Bactrians, and possibly other groups, with an admixture of Western Iranian Persians and non-Iranian peoples. The Encyclopædia Britannica states: The Tajiks are
13230-408: The possessions of Daxia and Anxi Parthia are large countries, full of rare things, with a population living in fixed abodes and given to occupations somewhat identical with those of the people of Han , but with weak armies, and placing great value on the rich produce of China. These contacts immediately led to the dispatch of multiple embassies from the Chinese, which helped to develop trade along
13365-686: The prophet Zoroaster was said to have been born and gained his first adherents. Avestan , the language of the oldest portions of the Zoroastrian Avesta , was one of the Old Iranian languages , and is the oldest attested member of the Eastern Iranian languages . Ernst Herzfeld suggested that Bactria belonged to the Medes before its annexation to the Achaemenid Empire by Cyrus the Great in sixth century BC , after which it and Margiana formed
13500-545: The region Varahran I ) and Kushan-style gold coins, before issuing coins in his own name. Tukharistan Bactria ( / ˈ b æ k t r i ə / ; Bactrian : βαχλο , Bakhlo ), or Bactriana , was an ancient Iranian civilization in Central Asia based in the area south of the Oxus River (modern Amu Darya ) and north of the mountains of the Hindu Kush , an area within the north of modern Afghanistan . Bactria
13635-462: The region by the Persians in previous centuries. Considerable difficulties faced by the Seleucid kings and the attacks of Pharaoh Ptolemy II Philadelphus gave the satrap of Bactria, Diodotus I , the opportunity to declare independence about 245 BC and conquer Sogdia . He was the founder of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . Diodotus and his successors were able to maintain themselves against the attacks of
13770-537: The region had been destabilized by a recent Seleucid suppression of a rebellion there led by Timarchus . This victory was followed by the Parthian conquest of Babylonia in Mesopotamia , where Mithridates I had coins minted at Seleucia in 141 BC and held an official investiture ceremony. While Mithridates I retired to Hyrcania, his forces subdued the kingdoms of Elymais and Characene and occupied Susa . By this time, Parthian authority extended as far east as
13905-932: The region is Bactria. Historically, the region was first mentioned in Avestan as Bakhdi in Old Persian . This later developed into Bāxtriš in Middle Persian and Baxl in New Persian . The modern name is derived from the Ancient Greek : Βακτριανή ( Romanized Greek term: Baktrianē ), which is the Hellenized version of the Bactrian endonym . Other cognates include βαχλο ( Romanized : Bakhlo ). بلخ ( Romanized : Balx ), Chinese 大夏 ( pinyin : Dàxià ), Latin Bactriana. The region
14040-471: The reign of Darius I , the inhabitants of the Greek city of Barca , in Cyrenaica , were deported to Bactria for refusing to surrender assassins. In addition, Xerxes also settled the "Branchidae" in Bactria; they were the descendants of Greek priests who had once lived near Didyma (western Asia Minor) and betrayed the temple to him. Herodotus also records a Persian commander threatening to enslave daughters of
14175-460: The reign of Gotarzes I ( r . c. 90–80 BC). It became the site of the royal coronation ceremony and the representational city of the Arsacids, according to Brosius. The Seleucids were unable to retaliate immediately as general Diodotus Tryphon led a rebellion at the capital Antioch in 142 BC. However, by 140 BC Demetrius II Nicator was able to launch a counter-invasion against
14310-481: The reign of Sinatruces ( r . c. 78–69 BC). Following the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War , Mithridates VI of Pontus ( r . 119–63 BC), an ally of Tigranes II of Armenia, requested aid from Parthia against Rome, but Sinatruces refused help. When the Roman commander Lucullus marched against the Armenian capital Tigranocerta in 69 BC, Mithridates VI and Tigranes II requested
14445-508: The reign of Vologases V of Parthia ( r . c. 191–208 AD), the Romans once again marched down the Euphrates and captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon. After assuming the title Parthicus Maximus , he retreated in late 198 AD, failing as Trajan once did to capture Hatra during a siege. Around 212 AD, soon after Vologases VI of Parthia ( r . c. 208–222 AD) took the throne, his brother Artabanus IV of Parthia (d. 224 AD) rebelled against him and gained control over
14580-488: The reigns of Marcus Aurelius ( r . 161–180 AD) and Emperor Huan of Han ( r . 146–168 AD). Although it could be coincidental, Antonine Roman golden medallions dated to the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and his predecessor Antoninus Pius have been discovered at Oc Eo , Vietnam (among other Roman artefacts in the Mekong Delta ), a site that is one of the suggested locations for the port city of " Cattigara " along
14715-454: The reports of Zhang Qian, the Shiji describe Daxia as an important urban civilization of about one million people, living in walled cities under small city kings or magistrates. Daxia was an affluent country with rich markets, trading in an incredible variety of objects, coming from as far as Southern China. By the time Zhang Qian visited, there was no longer a major king, and the Bactrians were under
14850-405: The revolts, the main Parthian force swept into the region and killed Antiochus at the Battle of Ecbatana in 129 BC. His body was sent back to Syria in a silver coffin; his son Seleucus was made a Parthian hostage and a daughter joined Phraates' harem . While the Parthians regained the territories lost in the west, another threat arose in the east. In 177–176 BC the nomadic confederation of
14985-690: The satrap of Bactria, Diodotus I ; thus began the history of the Greco-Bactrian , and later the Indo-Greek , Kingdoms. By the second century BC, Bactria was conquered by the Parthian Empire , and, in the early first century, the Kushan Empire was formed by the Yuezhi within Bactrian territories. Shapur I , the second Sasanian King of Kings of Iran , conquered western parts of the Kushan Empire in
15120-423: The suzerainty of the Yuezhi. Zhang Qian depicted a rather sophisticated but demoralised people who were afraid of war. Following these reports, the Chinese emperor Wu Di was informed of the level of sophistication of the urban civilizations of Ferghana , Bactria and Parthia , and became interested in developing commercial relationship with them: The Son of Heaven on hearing all this reasoned thus: Dayuan and
15255-607: The throne proved more dangerous to the Empire's stability than foreign invasion, and Parthian power evaporated when Ardashir I , ruler of Istakhr in Persis , revolted against the Arsacids and killed their last ruler, Artabanus IV , in 224 AD. Ardashir established the Sasanian Empire , which ruled Iran and much of the Near East until the Muslim conquests of the 7th century AD, although
15390-429: The throne using troops from Hyrcania. After Artabanus' death in 38 AD, a long civil war ensued between the rightful successor Vardanes I and his brother Gotarzes II . After Vardanes was assassinated during a hunting expedition, the Parthian nobility appealed to Roman emperor Claudius ( r . 41–54 AD) in 49 AD to release the hostage prince Meherdates to challenge Gotarzes. This backfired when Meherdates
15525-572: The throne, Phraates IV eliminated rival claimants by killing and exiling his own brothers. One of them, Monaeses, fled to Antony and persuaded him to invade Parthia . Antony defeated Parthia's Judaean ally Antigonus in 37 BC, installing Herod as a client king in his place. The following year, when Antony marched to Theodosiopolis , Artavasdes II of Armenia once again switched alliances by sending Antony additional troops. Antony invaded Media Atropatene (modern Iranian Azerbaijan ), then ruled by Parthia's ally Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene , with
15660-573: The throne, and was followed by Vonones I , who had adopted many Roman mannerisms during time in Rome. The Parthian nobility, angered by Vonones' sympathies for the Romans, backed a rival claimant, Artabanus II of Parthia ( r . c. 10–38 AD), who eventually defeated Vonones and drove him into exile in Roman Syria. During the reign of Artabanus II, two Jewish commoners and brothers, Anilai and Asinai from Nehardea (near modern Fallujah , Iraq), led
15795-402: The twelfth satrapy of Persia. After Darius III had been defeated by Alexander the Great , the satrap of Bactria, Bessus , attempted to organize a national resistance but was captured by other warlords and delivered to Alexander. He was then tortured and killed. Under Persian rule, many Greeks were deported to Bactria, so that their communities and language became common in the area. During
15930-533: The upper Amu Darya (known to the ancient Greeks as the Oxus River), an area covering ancient Bactria. Its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi (1976). Bactria was the Greek name for Old Persian Bāxtriš (from native * Bāxçiš ) (named for its capital Bactra, modern Balkh ), in what is now northern Afghanistan, and Margiana was the Greek name for the Persian satrapy of Margu ,
16065-538: Was a special satrapy, ruled by a crown prince or an intended heir. Bactria was the centre of Iranian resistance against the Greek Macedonian invaders after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in the 4th century BC, but eventually fell to Alexander the Great . After the death of Alexander, Bactria was annexed by his general, Seleucus I . The Seleucids lost the region after the declaration of independence by
16200-434: Was assassinated the next year on the road to Carrhae by his soldiers. At the Battle of Nisibis , the Parthians were able to defeat the Romans, but both sides suffered heavy losses. After this debacle, the Parthians made a settlement with Macrinus ( r . 217–218) where the Romans paid Parthia over two-hundred million denarii with additional gifts. The Parthian Empire, weakened by internal strife and wars with Rome,
16335-544: Was betrayed by the governor of Edessa and Izates bar Monobaz of Adiabene ; he was captured and sent to Gotarzes, where he was allowed to live after having his ears mutilated, an act that disqualified him from inheriting the throne. In 97 AD, the Chinese general Ban Chao , the Protector-General of the Western Regions , sent his emissary Gan Ying on a diplomatic mission to reach the Roman Empire. Gan visited
16470-502: Was celebrated. However, fearing his ambitions even for the Arsacid throne, Orodes had Surena executed shortly thereafter. Emboldened by the victory over Crassus, the Parthians attempted to capture Roman-held territories in Western Asia . Crown prince Pacorus I and his commander Osaces raided Syria as far as Antioch in 51 BC, but were repulsed by Gaius Cassius Longinus , who ambushed and killed Osaces. The Arsacids sided with Pompey in
16605-400: Was engaged in a civil war to the east with Vologases III of Parthia . Trajan spent the winter of 115–116 at Antioch, but resumed his campaign in the spring. Marching down the Euphrates, he captured Dura-Europos, the capital Ctesiphon and Seleucia, and even subjugated Characene, where he watched ships depart to India from the Persian Gulf . In the last months of 116 AD, Trajan captured
16740-626: Was enriched by taxing the Eurasian caravan trade in silk , the most highly priced luxury good imported by the Romans . Pearls were also a highly valued import from China, while the Chinese purchased Parthian spices, perfumes, and fruits. Exotic animals were also given as gifts from the Arsacid to Han courts; in 87 AD Pacorus II of Parthia sent lions and Persian gazelles to Emperor Zhang of Han ( r . 75–88 AD). Besides silk, Parthian goods purchased by Roman merchants included iron from India , spices , and fine leather. Caravans traveling through
16875-516: Was eventually driven from power, and, beginning with the reign of Tiridates, Parthia would retain firm control over Armenia—with brief interruptions—through the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia . Even after the fall of the Parthian Empire, the Arsacid line lived on through the Armenian kings. However, not only did the Arsacid line continue through the Armenians, it also continued through the Georgian kings with
17010-493: Was later made from the 2nd-century BC onwards by the Parthians, which represented them as descendants of the Achaemenid king of kings, Artaxerxes II of Persia ( r. 404 – 358 BC ). For a time, Arsaces I consolidated his position in Parthia and Hyrcania by taking advantage of the invasion of Seleucid territory in the west by Ptolemy III Euergetes ( r . 246–222 BC) of Egypt . This conflict with Ptolemy,
17145-584: Was mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts as बाह्लीक or Bāhlīka . Wilhelm Eilers proposed that the region was named after the Balkh River (in Greek transliteration Βάκτρος ) from underlying Bāxtri- , itself meaning 'she who divides', from the Proto-Indo-European root * bhag- 'to divide' (whence also Avestan bag- and Old Indic bháj- ). Bactria is the geographic location Bactrian camels are named after. The Bactrian plain lay between
17280-444: Was noted for its fertility and its ability to produce most ancient Greek agricultural products, with the notable exception of olives. According to Pierre Leriche: Bactria, the territory of which Bactra was the capital, originally consisted of the area south of the Āmū Daryā with its string of agricultural oases dependent on water taken from the rivers of Balḵ (Bactra), Tashkurgan, Kondūz, Sar-e Pol, and Šīrīn Tagāō. This region played
17415-538: Was occupied by Pacorus' army, Labienus split from the main Parthian force to invade Anatolia while Pacorus and his commander Barzapharnes invaded the Roman Levant . They subdued all settlements along the Mediterranean coast as far south as Ptolemais (modern Acre, Israel ), with the lone exception of Tyre . In Judea , the pro-Roman Jewish forces of high priest Hyrcanus II , Phasael , and Herod were defeated by
17550-446: Was simply the year Arsaces was made chief of the Parni tribe. Homa Katouzian and Gene Ralph Garthwaite claim it was the year Arsaces conquered Parthia and expelled the Seleucid authorities, yet Curtis and Maria Brosius state that Andragoras was not overthrown by the Arsacids until 238 BC. It is unclear who immediately succeeded Arsaces I. Bivar and Katouzian affirm that it was his brother Tiridates I of Parthia , who in turn
17685-479: Was soon to be followed by the Sasanian Empire . Indeed, shortly afterward, Ardashir I , the local Iranian ruler of Persis (modern Fars Province , Iran) from Istakhr began subjugating the surrounding territories in defiance of Arsacid rule. He confronted Artabanus IV at the Battle of Hormozdgān on 28 April 224 AD, perhaps at a site near Isfahan , defeating him and establishing the Sasanian Empire. There
17820-727: Was strategically located south of Sogdia and the western part of the Pamir Mountains . The extensive mountain ranges acted as protective "walls" on three sides, with the Pamir on the north and the Hindu Kush on south forming a junction with the Karakoram range towards the east. Called "beautiful Bactria, crowned with flags" by the Avesta , the region is considered, in the Zoroastrian faith, to be one of
17955-517: Was succeeded by his son Arsaces II of Parthia in 211 BC. Yet Curtis and Brosius state that Arsaces II was the immediate successor of Arsaces I, with Curtis claiming the succession took place in 211 BC, and Brosius in 217 BC. Bivar insists that 138 BC, the last regnal year of Mithridates I, is "the first precisely established regnal date of Parthian history." Due to these and other discrepancies, Bivar outlines two distinct royal chronologies accepted by historians. A fictitious claim
18090-496: Was the name given in antiquity by the Han Chinese to Tukhara or Tokhara : the central part of Bactria. The name "Daxia" appears in Chinese from the 3rd century BC to designate a little-known kingdom located somewhere west of China. This was possibly a consequence of the first contacts between China and the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom . During the 2nd century BC, the Greco-Bactrians were conquered by nomadic Indo-European tribes from
18225-616: Was unsuccessful, but did negotiate a peace settlement with Arsaces II. The latter was granted the title of king ( Greek : basileus ) in return for his submission to Antiochus III as his superior. The Seleucids were unable to further intervene in Parthian affairs following increasing encroachment by the Roman Republic and the Seleucid defeat at Magnesia in 190 BC. Priapatius ( r. c. 191 – 176 BC ) succeeded Arsaces II, and Phraates I ( r. c. 176 – 171 BC ) eventually ascended
#144855