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106-491: In 120 BC, Mithridates V , the king of Pontus was poisoned by unknown figures. The conspirators were probably working for his wife Laodice . In his will Mithridates V left the kingdom to the joint rule of Laodice, Mithridates VI and Mithridates Chrestus . Both of her sons were underage and Laodice retained all power as regent. Laodice in her regency favored her second son (Chrestus was probably more pliable). During her regency 120–116 BC (perhaps even 113 BC), Mithridates VI escaped

212-473: A cave. Like Sertorius himself, Marius at some point had lost an eye; when Lucullus gave the order to track down enemy survivors, he specified that no one-eyed men should be killed, so that he could personally oversee the renegade's death: "Lucullus wished Marius to die under the most shameful insults." Orosius reports that he atoned for his rebellious spirit with penalties he earned. While Lucullus and Cotta prepared to invade Pontus, Mithridates gained control of

318-642: A charge against the Armenian horses and won a great victory at the Battle of Tigranocerta . Tigranes fled north while Lucullus destroyed his new capital city and dismantled his holdings in the south by granting independence to Sophene and returning Syria to the Seleucid king Antiochus XIII Asiaticus . In 68   BC Lucullus invaded northern Armenia, ravaging the country and capturing Nisibis , but Tigranes avoided battle. Meanwhile, Mithridates invaded Pontus, and in 67 he defeated

424-497: A corps of 120,000 troops armed "in the Roman fashion" and "drilled in the Roman phalanx formation". These units imitated Roman legions , although it is disputed to what degree they achieved this. The navy was organized in a similar fashion as the army. While the kingdom itself provided the main contingent of ships, a small portion represented the Greek cities. The crewmen either came from

530-553: A decisive victory, scattering the Roman-led forces. His victorious forces were welcomed throughout Asia Minor. The following year, 88 BC, Mithridates orchestrated a massacre of Roman and Italian settlers remaining in several Anatolian cities, essentially wiping out the Roman presence in the region. 80,000 people are said to have perished in this massacre. The episode is known as the Asiatic Vespers . The Romans responded by organising

636-457: A large Roman force near Zela . Lucullus, now in command of tired and discontented troops, withdrew to Pontus, then to Galatia. He was replaced by two new consuls arriving from Italy with fresh legions, Marcius Rex and Acilius Glabrio . Mithridates now recovered Pontus while Tigranes invaded Cappadocia. In response to increasing pirate activity in the eastern Mediterranean, the senate granted Pompey extensive proconsular Imperium throughout

742-489: A large invasion force (this time sending their own legions) to defeat him and remove him from power. The First Mithridatic War , fought between 88 BC and 84 BC, saw Lucius Cornelius Sulla force Mithridates out of Greece proper. After being victorious in several battles Sulla, being declared an outlaw by his political opponents in Rome, hurriedly concluded peace talks with Mithridates. As Sulla returned to Italy Lucius Licinius Murena

848-512: A major battle took place on a plain near Zela ( the Battle of Zela ); the Romans were defeated, leaving 7,000 dead, including 24 tribunes and 150 centurions . As a result, Mithridates was back in control of Pontus. During the winter of 68–67 BC, at Nisibis, Lucullus's authority over his army was seriously undermined by the efforts of his young brother-in-law Publius Clodius Pulcher , apparently acting in

954-535: A peaceful, pro-Roman policy. He sent aid to the Roman ally Attalus II Philadelphus of Pergamon against Prusias II of Bithynia in 155. His successor, Mithridates V of Pontus Euergetes, remained a friend of Rome and in 149 BC sent ships and a small force of auxiliaries to aid Rome in the Third Punic War. He also sent troops for the war against Eumenes III (Aristonicus), who had usurped the Pergamene throne after

1060-546: A personal profit of this war and told him to continue it on his own. Since his army refused to campaign against Mithridates, Lucullus withdrew to Galatia leaving Mithridates to consolidate his power and rebuild his army in Pontus. In 66 BC, the Senate sent Pompey (who had been lobbying for the command against Mithridates) to succeed Lucullus. The lull allowed Mithridates and Tigranes to retake part of their respective kingdoms. Early in 66

1166-609: A siege. Lucullus was camped somewhere along the Sangarius river in Bithynia when he received news of Cotta's defeat. His soldiers urged him to leave Cotta to his own folly and march on undefended Pontus with its rich potential for loot. Lucullus ignored them and headed toward Chalcedon. Marcus Marius , a Roman rebel cooperating with Mithridates, blocked and confronted him. They faced off at Otroea near Nicaea (present-day Iznik ). Although Lucullus commanded 30,000 infantry and 2,500 cavalry, he

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1272-542: A small army from Colchis to Crimea and attempted to raise yet another army to take on the Romans but failed to do so. In 63 BC, he withdrew to the citadel in Panticapaeum . His eldest son, Machares , now king of Cimmerian Bosporus , whose kingdom had been reorganized by the Romans, was unwilling to aid his father. Mithridates had Machares murdered and took the throne of the Bosporan Kingdom, intent on retaking Pontus from

1378-625: A strong ally of Athens and revolted against Artaxerxes , but was betrayed by his son Mithridates II of Cius . Mithridates   II remained as ruler after Alexander's conquests and was a vassal to Antigonus I Monophthalmus , who briefly ruled Asia Minor after the Partition of Triparadisus . Mithridates was killed by Antigonus in 302   BC under suspicion that he was working with his enemy Cassander . Antigonus planned to kill Mithridates' son, also called Mithridates (later named Ktistes, 'founder') but Demetrius   I warned him and he escaped to

1484-408: Is possible that Mithridates inherited part of Paphlagonia after the death of its King, Pylaemenes. Mithridates   V married his daughter Laodice to the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes VI of Cappadocia , and he also went on to invade Cappadocia, though the details of this war are unknown. Hellenization continued under Mithridates   V. He was the first king to widely recruit Greek mercenaries in

1590-781: The Albanians who tried to overrun his camps and the Iberians whom he defeated at the battle of the Pelorus . After defeating the Albanians and Iberians he advanced into Colchis as far as Phasis , where he met up with Servilius, the admiral of his Euxine fleet. From Phasis, Pompey marched east again for he had heard the Iberians were gathering their army again, he caught them at the river Abas where he decisively defeated them (see: battle of Abas ). After his defeat by Pompey in 65 BC, Mithridates VI fled with

1696-588: The Battle of Orchomenus in 85   BC but was once again defeated and suffered heavy losses. As a result of the losses and the unrest they stirred in Asia Minor, as well as the presence of the Roman army now campaigning in Bithynia, Mithridates was forced to accept a peace deal. Mithridates and Sulla met in 85   BC at Dardanus . Sulla decreed that Mithridates had to surrender Roman Asia and return Bithynia and Cappadocia to their former kings. He also had to pay 2,000 talents and provide ships. Mithridates would retain

1802-820: The Boeotian League except Thespiae . Finally, in 87 BC, Lucius Cornelius Sulla set out from Italy with five legions. He marched through Boeotia , which quickly surrendered, and began laying siege to Athens and the Piraeus (the Athenian port city, no longer connected by the Long Walls ). Athens fell in March 86   BC, and the city was sacked. After stiff resistance, Archelaus, the Pontic general in Piraeus, left by sea, and Sulla utterly destroyed

1908-564: The Cimmerian Bosporus . Pompey marched against Tigranes, whose kingdom and authority were now severely weakened. Tigranes then sued for peace and met with Pompey to plead a cessation of hostilities. The Armenian Kingdom became an allied client state of Rome. From Armenia, Pompey marched north against the Caucasian tribes and kingdoms who still supported Mithridates. In 65 BC, Pompey had set out in pursuit of Mithridates, meeting opposition from

2014-592: The Kingdom of Pontus . Mithridates V was of Greek Macedonian and Persian ancestry . He was the son of the King Pharnaces I and Queen Nysa , while his sister was Nysa of Cappadocia . His mother is believed to have died during childbirth, while giving birth to either him or his sister. He was born and raised in the Kingdom of Pontus. Mithridates V succeeded his paternal aunt Laodice and paternal uncle Mithridates IV on

2120-903: The Pontic steppe with the Scythian King Palacus . The most important cities and people of the Crimea , the Tauric Chersonesus and the Bosporan Kingdom readily surrendered their independence in return for Mithridates' protection against the Scythians, their ancient enemies. The Scythians and their allies the Rhoxolanoi suffered heavy losses at the hands of the Pontic general Diophantus and accepted Mithridates as their overlord. The young king then turned his attention to Asia Minor, where Roman power

2226-703: The Tauric Chersonesus now appealed for his aid against the Scythians in the north. Mithridates sent 6,000 men under General Diophantus. After various campaigns in the north of the Crimea he controlled all of the Chersonesus. Mithridates also developed trade links with cities on the western Black Sea coast. At the time, Rome was fighting the Jugurthine and Cimbric wars. Mithridates and Nicomedes of Bithynia both invaded Paphlagonia and divided it amongst themselves. A Roman embassy

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2332-622: The 3rd century BC. The Kingdom of Pontus was divided into two distinct areas: the coastal region and the Pontic interior. The coastal region bordering the Black Sea was separated from the mountainous inland area by the Pontic Alps , which run parallel to the coast. The river valleys of Pontus also ran parallel to the coast and were quite fertile, supporting cattle herds, millet , and fruit trees, including cherry , apple , and pear . ( Cherry and Cerasus are probably cognates .) The coastal region

2438-487: The Aegean, he was honored at Delos, and he depicted himself as Apollo on his coins. Mithridates was assassinated at Sinope in 121/0, the details of which are unclear. Because both the sons of Mithridates V, Mithridates   VI and Mithridates Chrestus , were still children, Pontus now came under the regency of his wife Laodice. She favored Chrestus, and Mithridates   VI escaped the Pontic court. Legend would later say this

2544-649: The Armenian king demanding he hand over Mithridates. Since handing over his father-in-law would make him look like nothing more than a puppet of Rome, Tigranes had no other choice than to refuse and prepare for war. In the spring of 69 BC Lucullus marched his army from Cappadocia across the Euphrates into Greater Armenia (the Armenian Empire's heartland) and the Roman-Armenian War began. Tigranes sent one of his nobles, Mithrobarzanes, with 2,000–3,000 cavalry to expel

2650-718: The East, Cotta returned to Rome in 70 BC, where he at first was widely acclaimed for his victory at Heraclea. However, around 67 BC he was accused of appropriation of war booty by Gaius Papirius Carbo. He was convicted of the offence and expelled from the Senate . After the Battle of Cabira Mithridates fled to his son-in-law Tigranes II the king of the Armenian Empire . Lucullus, busy mopping up resistance in Pontus and Armenia Minor (also part of Mithridates's former dominions), sent his brother-in-law Appius Claudius Pulcher as an emissary to

2756-495: The Great of Armenia, to invade Cappadocia, which he did, and Ariobarzanes fled to Rome. Mithridates then deposed Nicomedes   IV from Bithynia, placing Socrates Chrestus on the throne. A Roman army under Manius Aquillius arrived in Asia Minor in 90   BC, prompting Mithridates and Tigranes to withdraw. Cappadocia and Bithynia were restored to their respective monarchs, but then faced large debts to Rome due to their bribes for

2862-581: The Great, who conquered Colchis , Cappadocia , Bithynia , the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos , and for a brief time the Roman province of Asia . After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic Wars , Pontus was defeated. The kingdom had three cultural strands, which often fused together: Greek (mostly on the coast), Persian, and Anatolian, with Greek becoming the official language in

2968-641: The Greek God Apollo in great veneration. A bilingual inscription dedicated to him is displayed at the Capitoline Museums in Rome . Mithridates V was buried in the royal tombs of his ancestors at Amasya . Mithridates V married the Greek Seleucid Princess Laodice VI , who was the daughter of Antiochus IV Epiphanes and Laodice IV . Mithridates V and Laodice VI were related, thus he

3074-704: The Mediterranean in 67   BC. Pompey eliminated the pirates, and in 66 he was assigned command in Asia Minor to deal with Pontus. Pompey organized his forces, close to 45,000 legionaries, including Lucullus' troops, and signed an alliance with the Parthians , who attacked and kept Tigranes busy in the east. Mithridates massed his army, some 30,000 men and 2,000–3,000 cavalry, in the heights of Dasteira in lesser Armenia. Pompey fought to encircle him with earthworks for six weeks, but Mithridates eventually retreated north. Pompey pursued and managed to catch his forces by surprise in

3180-580: The Pontian throne, but the circumstance of his accession is uncertain. Mithridates V continued the alliance with Rome started by his predecessors. He supported them with some ships and a small auxiliary force during the Third Punic War and at a subsequent period rendered them useful assistance in the war against the King of Pergamon , Eumenes III (131–129 BC). For his services on this occasion, Mithridates V

3286-477: The Pontic coast, Cotta began besieging Heraclea itself, which took him two years to complete, sacking the city in 71 BC. During this time he was forced to dismiss one of his quaestors , Publius Oppius, charging him with bribery and conspiracy. Lucullus himself consolidated Roman control over Pontus. First returning to the siege of Amisus. With Mithridates out of his reach Lucullus set about consolidating his hold on Pontus. Amisus , an important Greek city in Pontus,

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3392-463: The Pontic threat. The only other possible general for such an important command, Pompey , was in Hispania to help Metellus Pius crush the revolt led by Sertorius. Lucullus was sent to govern Cilicia and Cotta to Bithynia . According to Appian and Plutarch Lucullus had 30,000 infantry and 1,600–2,500 cavalry while Mithridates was rumoured to have as many as 300,000 men in his force. The original plan

3498-442: The Roman senators, and Nicomedes   IV was eventually convinced by Aquillius to attack Pontus in order to repay the debts. He plundered as far as Amastris , and returned with much loot. Mithridates invaded Cappadocia once again, and Rome declared war. In the summer of 89 BC, Mithridates invaded Bithynia and defeated Nicomedes and Aquillius in battle. He moved swiftly into Roman Asia and resistance crumbled; by 88 he had obtained

3604-405: The Roman supply line to Cappadocia in the south, but they suffered heavy casualties. Mithridates, still unwilling to fight a decisive engagement, now began a retreat to Lesser Armenia , where he expected aid from his ally Tigranes the Great. Because of his now weakened cavalry, the retreat turned into an all-out rout, and most of the Pontic army was destroyed or captured. These events led Machares ,

3710-473: The Romans because they detested Mithridates. They were keen to see the Roman legions pass through Galatia without plundering it. Once Lucullus was in the Pontic heartland and he let his troops plunder the rich and fertile area. Mithridates could do nothing to stop the despoiling of his lands for he had to rebuild his army. He eventually assembled 40,000 men (4,000 cavalry) near Cabira and waited for Lucullus. Upon entering Pontus, Lucullus lay siege to Themiscyra ,

3816-564: The Romans off Chalcedon and laid siege to Cyzicus . Lucullus marched from Phrygia with his five legions and forced Mithridates to retreat to Pontus. In 72   BC Lucullus invaded Pontus through Galatia and marched north following the river Halys to the north coast, he besieged Amisus , which withstood until 70   BC. In 71 he marched through the Iris and Lycus river valleys and established his base in Cabeira . Mithridates sent his cavalry to cut

3922-459: The Romans, with the help of some turncoats, were able to establish a counter-siege, trapping Mithridates' army on the Cyzicus peninsula . During the siege Mithridates sent his cavalry away, with the sick and the wounded, but they were ambushed and slaughtered at the river Rhyndacus. In the middle of a snowstorm, Lucullus met these forces with ten cohorts and attacked them in mid-crossing on both sides of

4028-563: The Romans. His younger son, Pharnaces II , backed by a disgruntled and war weary populace, led a rebellion against his father. This betrayal, after the decisive defeat in battle, hurt Mithridates more than any other and seeing his loss of authority he attempted suicide by poison. The attempt failed as he had gained immunity to various poisons from taking tiny doses of all available poisons throughout his life to guard against assassination. According to Appian 's Roman History , he then ordered his Gallic bodyguard and friend, Bituitus, to kill him by

4134-462: The Romans. Lucullus' army annihilated the Armenian host, despite odds of about more than two to one against him. This was the famous battle of Tigranocerta . It was fought on the same (pre-Julian) calendar date as the Roman disaster at Arausio 36 years earlier, the day before the Nones of October according to the reckoning of the time (or October 6), which is Julian October 16, 69 BC. Tigranes then retired to

4240-514: The Romans. Mithridates plotted to overthrow him, but his attempts failed and Nicomedes IV, instigated by his Roman advisors, declared war on Pontus. Rome itself was involved in the Social War , a civil war with its Italian allies. Thus, in all of Roman Asia Province there were few Roman troops available. The Romans therefore mustered a great number of Asian levies and combined with Nicomedes' army they invaded Mithridates' kingdom in 89 BC. Mithridates won

4346-605: The Second and Third wars of Rome and the Pontic Kingdom (81–75 BC) is discussed under the Kingdom of Pontus . There it can be seen how the long piracy wars were a development out of the First Mithridatic War and especially of the alliance between Mithridates VI and Sertorius , which in joining those two threats into a unity much larger than its parts had the serious potential of overturning Roman power. The immediate cause of

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4452-458: The Seleucid Empire. The sources are silent on Pontus for the years following the death of Mithridates   II, when his son Mithridates   III ruled (c.   220–198/88). Pharnaces I of Pontus was much more successful in his expansion of the kingdom at the expense of the Greek coastal cities. He joined in a war with Prusias I of Bithynia against Eumenes of Pergamon in 188 BC, but

4558-562: The Third War was the bequest to Rome by King Nicomedes IV of Bithynia of his kingdom upon his death (74 BC). Mithridates, who had been rebuilding his forces, launched an invasion of Bithynia. Having launched an attack at the same time as a revolt by Sertorius swept through the Spanish provinces, Mithridates was initially virtually unopposed. The Senate responded by sending the consuls Lucius Licinius Lucullus and Marcus Aurelius Cotta to deal with

4664-575: The accession of his son Mithridates VI, which is assigned to the year 120 BC, signaling the end of the reign of Mithridates V. Mithridates V was assassinated around 120 BC in Sinope , poisoned by unknown persons at a lavish banquet which he held. Mithridates V was a great benefactor to the Hellenic culture which shows on surviving coinage and honorific inscriptions stating his donations in Athens and Delos and held

4770-486: The army of Pontus adopted the Macedonian phalanx ; it fielded a corps of Chalkaspides ('bronze-shields'), for example against Sulla at the Battle of Chaeronea , while at the same battle 15,000 phalangites were recruited from freed slaves . Pontus also fielded various cavalry units, including cataphracts . In addition to normal cavalry Pontus also fielded scythed chariots . Under Mithridates VI Pontus also fielded

4876-413: The assistance of Rome. The Romans twice interfered in the conflict on behalf of Nicomedes (95–92 BC), leaving Mithridates, should he wish to continue the expansion of his kingdom, with little choice other than to engage in a future Roman-Pontic war. By this time Mithridates had resolved to expel the Romans from Asia. The next ruler of Bithynia , Nicomedes IV of Bithynia , was a figurehead manipulated by

4982-458: The autumn of 88 Mithridates also placed Rhodes under siege, but he failed to take it. In Athens , anti-Roman elements were emboldened by the news and soon formed an alliance with Mithridates. A joint Pontic–Athenian naval expedition took Delos in 88   BC, and granted the city to Athens. Many Greek city-states now joined Mithridates, including Sparta , the Achaean League , and most of

5088-466: The city to no avail; it was strongly fortified, with two walls of brick and a moat. But in the winter of 68/67 BC, during a terrible storm – when the defenders relaxed their guard – Lucullus launched a surprise attack and captured the city and its treasury. It made no difference, Mithridates and Tigranes stuck to their strategy and refused to march against Lucullus; Tigranes was in the process of taking back southern Armenia and Mithridates invaded Pontus. In

5194-557: The client Kingdom of Pontus, Colchis, and Cilicia until Polemon   II was forced to abdicate the Pontic throne by Nero in AD ;62. Although the Pontic kings claimed descent from the Persian royal house, they generally acted as Hellenistic kings and portrayed themselves as such in their coins, mimicking Alexander's royal stater . The army of the Pontic Kingdom had a varied ethnic composition, as it recruited its soldiers from all over

5300-438: The command of the legate Sornatius was attacked by the Pontic cavalry. The Roman infantry stood their ground and held off the attack inflicting terrible losses on the Pontic horsemen. When a second supply convoy, also heavily armed, under the command of the legate Marcus Fabius Hadrianus made for Lucullus's camp Mithridates decided to use a combined arms (infantry and cavalry) attack. A force of 4,000 cavalry and infantry fell upon

5406-759: The consul Lucullus took over Cilicia , Mithridates faced Roman commanders on two fronts. The Cilician pirates had not been completely defeated, and Mithridates signed an alliance with them. He was also allied with the government of Quintus Sertorius in Spain and with his help reorganized some of his troops in the Roman legionary pattern with short stabbing swords. The Third Mithridatic war broke out when Nicomedes   IV of Bithynia died without heirs in 75 and left his kingdom to Rome. In 74   BC Rome mobilized its armies in Asia Minor, probably provoked by some move made by Mithridates, but our sources are not clear on this. In 73 Mithridates invaded Bithynia, and his fleet defeated

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5512-430: The convoy, unfortunately for Mithridates, the Romans realized the narrow valley at the scene limited the effectiveness of their opponents' cavalry and they counter-attacked wiping out half the attacking force. With the Romans re-supplied and his attack-force decimated (c. 2000 casualties) Mithridates decided to retreat. During the preparations for the retreat a panic broke out among his troops, Lucullus became aware of what

5618-515: The court of his mother and went into hiding. He returned between 116 and 113 BC and was able to remove his mother and his brother from the Pontic throne, thus becoming the sole ruler of Pontus. Mithridates entertained ambitions of making his state the dominant power in the east of Asia Minor and the Black Sea region. He first subjugated Colchis , a region east of the Black Sea, and prior to 164 BC, an independent kingdom. He then clashed for supremacy on

5724-496: The death of Attalus III . After Rome received the Kingdom of Pergamon in the will of Attalus   III in the absence of an heir, they turned part of it into the province of Asia, while giving the rest to loyal allied kings. For his loyalty Mithridates was awarded the region of Phrygia Major. The kingdom of Cappadocia received Lycaonia . Because of this it seems reasonable to assume that Pontus had some degree of control over Galatia , since Phrygia does not border Pontus directly. It

5830-600: The east with six horsemen. Mithridates first went to the city of Cimiata in Paphlagonia and later to Amasya in Cappadocia. He ruled from 302 to 266   BC, fought against Seleucus I and, in 281 (or 280) BC, declared himself king ( basileus ) of a state in northern Cappadocia and eastern Paphlagonia. He further expanded his kingdom to the river Sangrius in the west. His son Ariobarzanes captured Amastris in 279, its first important Black sea port. Mithridates also allied with

5936-529: The far east. In the summer of 68 BC Lucullus marched against Tigranes and crossed the Anti-Taurus range heading for the old Armenian capital Artaxata. Once again, Tigranes was provoked to attack, and in a major battle at the Aratsani River, Lucullus defeated the Armenian army. Soon he left this campaign, and when winter came on early in the Armenian tablelands, his troops mutinied, refusing to go further, and he

6042-478: The heights overlooking Cabira. This was a secure and very defensible position, but its location meant the Romans were cut off from their recent conquests in Pontus and their supply lines now had to come north from Cappadocia , a Roman ally, to the south of Pontus. Since Mithridates dominated the countryside, Lucullus had to send out heavily armed convoys to get supplies. One of those supply convoys, escorted by no less than ten cohorts of infantry (3,000–5,000 men), under

6148-400: The interests and pay of Pompey the Great , who was eager to succeed Lucullus in the eastern command. Lucullus was able to persuade his army to march back to Asia Minor to protect Roman interests there, but they refused to march against Mithridates. They were tired of constant campaigning for little profit. They threw their purses at Lucullus's feet and accused him that he was the only one making

6254-500: The invader. Mithrobarzanes charged the Romans while they were setting up their camp, but was met by a 3,500-strong sentry force and his horsemen were routed. He perished in the attempt. Lucullus began a siege of the new Armenian imperial capital of Tigranocerta in the Arzenene district. Tigranes, with his main host, returned from mopping up a Seleucid rebellion in Syria, and sought battle with

6360-450: The kingdom. The standing army included Armenians , Bastarnae , Bithynians , Cappadocians , Galatians , Heniochoi , Iazyges , Koralloi , Leucosyrians , Phrygians , Sarmatians , Scythians , Tauri , and Thracians , as well as soldiers from other areas around the Black Sea. The Greeks who served in the military were not part of the standing army, but rather fought as citizens of their respective cities. Like many Hellenistic armies ,

6466-613: The latter more so with the coastal region. By the time of Mithridates   VI Eupator, Greek was the official language of the Kingdom, though Anatolian languages continued to be spoken in the interior. The region of Pontus was originally part of the Persian satrapy of Cappadocia (Katpatuka). The Persian dynasty which was to found this kingdom had, during the 4th century BC, ruled the Greek city of Cius (or Kios) in Mysia , with its first known member being Mithridates of Cius. His son Ariobarzanes   II became satrap of Phrygia . He became

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6572-568: The legendary home of the Amazons , on the River Thermodon . Lucullus's forces erected siege towers and dug great tunnel passages underneath the walls. These tunnels were so large that significant battles were later fought within them. The Themiscyrans are said to have introduced bears, other large animals, and even swarms of bees into the subterranean passages to fight off Lucullus's men. After careful manoeuvering, Lucullus occupied an old fortress on

6678-419: The newly arrived Galatians and defeated a force sent against him by Ptolemy I . Ptolemy had been expanding his territory in Asia Minor since the beginning of the First Syrian war against Antiochus in the mid-270s and was allied with Mithridates' enemy, Heraclea Pontica . We know little of Ariobarzanes' short reign, except that when he died his son Mithridates   II (c.   250—189) became king and

6784-429: The night, and the Pontic army suffered heavy casualties. After the battle, Pompey founded the city of Nicopolis. Mithridates fled to Colchis, and later to his son Machares in the Crimea in 65   BC. Pompey now headed east into Armenia, where Tigranes submitted to him, placing his royal diadem at his feet. Pompey took most of Tigranes' empire in the east but allowed him to remain as king of Armenia. Meanwhile, Mithridates

6890-468: The northern regions of his kingdom to gather another army and defend his hereditary capital of Artaxata. Meanwhile, Lucullus moved off south-eastwards to the kingdom of the Kurds ( Korduene ) on the frontiers of the Armenian and Parthian empires. During the winter of 69–68 BC both sides opened negotiations with the Parthian king, Arsaces XVI, who was presently defending himself against a major onslaught from his rival Phraates III coming from Bactria and

6996-400: The port city. Meanwhile, Mithridates had sent his son Arcathias with a large army via Thrace into Greece. Sulla now headed north, seeking the fertile plains of Boeotia to supply his army. At the Battle of Chaeronea , Sulla inflicted severe casualties on Archelaus, who nevertheless retreated and continued to raid Greece with the Pontic fleet. Archelaus regrouped and attacked a second time at

7102-409: The province of Asia in Anatolia, and it had also rescinded the region of Phrygia Major from Pontus during the reign of Laodice. Mithridates began his expansion by inheriting Lesser Armenia from King Antipater (precise date unknown, c.115–106) and by conquering the Kingdom of Colchis . Colchis was an important region in Black Sea trade – rich with gold, wax, hemp, and honey. The cities of

7208-454: The region by sending troops; Mithridates swiftly invaded, placing his nephew Ariarathes VII of Cappadocia on the throne of Cappadocia. War soon broke out between the two, and Mithridates invaded with a large Pontic army, but Ariarathes   VII was murdered in 101   BC before any battle was fought. Mithridates then installed his eight-year-old son, Ariarathes IX of Cappadocia as king, with Gordius as regent. In 97 Cappadocia rebelled, but

7314-434: The rest back to sea. Lucullus sunk or captured 32 ships of the royal fleet provided by Mithradates and additional transport vessels. Dionysios committed suicide, but Alexandros was captured and held for display in Lucullus's anticipated triumph . Among the dead were a number of men who had been on Sulla's proscription lists . Marius at first escaped, possibly from a sinking ship, since he was later found ashore taking refuge in

7420-487: The rest of his holdings and become an ally of Rome. The treaty agreed with Sulla was not to last. From 83 to 82   BC Mithridates fought against and defeated Licinius Murena , who had been left by Sulla to organize the province of Asia. The so-called Second Mithridatic war ended without any territorial gains by either side. The Romans now began securing the coastal region of Lycia and Pamphylia from pirates and established control over Pisidia and Lycaonia . When in 74

7526-459: The right time (when Callimachus let his defenders take a rest) and took Amisus, but not without regret; his soldiers ransacked the city and turned it into a ruin. Lucullus, a great admirer of Greek culture, lamented that Sulla had been blessed because he was able to save Athens, while the gods had ordained the fate of Lucius Mummius Achaicus , the destroyer of Corinth , for him. After Amisus Lucullus besieged Sinope , Pontus' main port city, which

7632-443: The river Lycus and Iris. The major city of the interior was Amasia , the early Pontic capital, where the Pontic kings had their palace and royal tombs. Besides Amasia and a few other cities, the interior was dominated mainly by small villages. The kingdom of Pontus was divided into districts named Eparchies. The division between coast and interior was also cultural. The coast was mainly Greek and focused on sea trade. The interior

7738-577: The river Granicus). Eventually, of the 300,000 who had set out for Bithynia, only 20,000 effective troops remained. The siege of Cyzicus and the subsequent retreat could be considered an unmitigated disaster. Marcus Marius, having survived the Cyzicus campaign, had taken to the sea. Along with Mithridates's admirals Alexandros the Paphlagonian and Dionysios Eunuchos ("the Eunuch "), he was placed in joint command of 50 ships and 10,000 handpicked men, among them, in

7844-563: The river. Plutarch and Appian record 15,000 men and 6,000 horses as being captured during the battle. The disaster at the Rhyndacus combined with the famine and a plague which had struck his main army forced Mithridates to completely abandon his position, sailing north while his army marched overland. Lucullus pursued the army and defeated them at the confluence of the Aesepus and Granicus Rivers , slaughtering many (20,000 were killed while crossing

7950-511: The royal house being identified with the Persian god Ahuramazda of the Achaemenid dynasty; both Apollo and Mithras were worshipped by the Kings. Indeed, the name used by the majority of the Pontic kings was Mithridates, which means "given by Mithras". Pontic culture represented a synthesis between Iranian, Anatolian and Greek elements, with the former two mostly associated with the interior parts, and

8056-499: The sight, and separated. This marvel, as they say, occurred in Phrygia , at a place called Otryae . No battle occurred. For Marius, delay posed a logistical problem. He had only a few days of supplies for his troops. Lucullus learned of the shortage through prisoner interrogations and decided to wait him out. Marius was forced to move on without the fight he had sought. While Mithridates was besieging Cyzicus, Lucullus and his army arrived;

8162-628: The son of Mithridates and ruler of the Crimean Bosporus, to seek an alliance with Rome. Mithridates fled to Armenia. In the summer of 69 Lucullus invaded Armenian territory, marching with 12,000 men through Cappadocia into Sophene . His target was Tigranocerta , the new capital of Tigranes's empire. Tigranes retreated to gather his forces. Lucullus laid siege to the city, and Tigranes returned with his army, including large numbers of heavily armored cavalrymen, termed Cataphracts , vastly outnumbering Lucullus' force. Despite this, Lucullus led his men in

8268-411: The spring of 67 BC, while Lucullus was laying siege to Nisibis, Mithridates suddenly returned to Pontus. The Romans had not expected Mithridates to strike at them in Pontus and he caught several small Roman detachments unaware. The legate Gaius Valerius Triarius who was nearby bringing two legions to reinforce Lucullus took command of all Roman forces in Pontus. After several skirmishes and small battles,

8374-519: The strategically important city of Heraclea Pontica and garrisoned it with 4,000 men. Hearing of the situation at Heraclea, Lucullus and Cotta decided that Cotta would march on Heraclea while Lucullus would move through the Galatian highlands and invade Pontus from there. In 72 BC, while Cotta moved against Heraclea and Triarius managed naval affairs, Lucullus marched his army through Galatia and into Pontus. The Galatians were only too happy to supply

8480-409: The surrender of most of the newly created province. He was welcomed in many cities, where the residents chafed under Roman tax farming . In 88 Mithridates also ordered the massacre of at least 80,000 Romans and Italians in what became known as the ' Asiatic Vespers '. Many Greek cities in Asia Minor happily carried out the orders; this ensured that they could no longer return to an alliance with Rome. In

8586-470: The sword: Mithridates' body was buried in either Sinope or Amaseia , on the orders of Pompey. RE = Real-Encyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft , eds. Pauly, Wissowa, Kroll Mithridates V Euergetes Mithridates or Mithradates V Euergetes ( Ancient Greek : Μιθριδάτης ὁ Eὐεργέτης , which means "Mithridates the Benefactor"; died c. 120 BC) was a prince and the seventh king of

8692-532: The tribune Gaius Manilius proposed that Pompey should assume supreme command of the war against Mithridates and Tigranes. He should take control from the provincial governors in Asia Minor, have the power to appoint legates himself and the authority to make war and peace and to conclude treaties on his own discretion. The law, the Lex Manilia , was approved by the Senate and the People and Pompey officially took command of

8798-558: The two made peace in 183 after Bithynia suffered a series of reversals. He took Sinope in 182   BC and although the Rhodians complained to Rome about this, nothing was done. Pharnaces also took the coastal cities of Cotyora , Pharnacia , and Trapezus in the east, effectively gaining control of most of the northern Anatolian coastline. Despite Roman attempts to keep the peace, Pharnaces fought against Eumenes of Pergamon and Ariarathes of Cappadocia. While initially successful, it seems he

8904-492: The uprising was swiftly put down by Mithridates. Afterwards, Mithridates and Nicomedes   III both sent embassies to Rome. The Roman Senate decreed that Mithridates had to withdraw from Cappadocia and Nicomedes from Paphlagonia. Mithridates obliged, and the Romans installed Ariobarzanes in Cappadocia. In 91/90   BC, while Rome was busy in the Social War in Italy, Mithridates encouraged his new ally and son-in-law, King Tigranes

9010-641: The walls of Chalcedon. Sixty-four Roman ships had been captured or burnt, and Cotta had lost three thousand men. There Cotta was forced to remain until Lucullus could come to his rescue. Having made his way to Nicomedia , Cotta watched in frustration as Mithridates marched on taking Nicaea , Lampsacus , Nicomedia and Apameia, all major cities in the region. Only nearby Cyzicus held to the Roman cause, probably because many of its citizens (serving in Cotta's army as auxiliaries ) had died fighting against Mithridates at Chalcedon. The Pontic army marched on Cyzicus and began

9116-496: The war in the east. On the approach of Pompey, Mithridates retreated into the centre of his kingdom trying to stretch and cut off the Roman supply lines but this strategy did not work (Pompey excelled at logistics). Eventually Pompey cornered and defeated the king at the river Lycus (see: battle of Lycus ). As Tigranes II of Armenia, his son-in-law, refused to receive him into his dominions ( Greater Armenia ), Mithridates fled to Colchis , and hence made his way to his own dominions in

9222-622: The words of Mommsen , "the flower of the Roman emigrants." Their intention seems to have been to sail east into the Aegean , but Lucullus mounted an attack against them. He captured a detachment of 13 ships between the island of Tenedos and the mainland harbor of the Achaeans . The main Pontic force, however, had drawn their ships to shore at a site difficult of approach, the small island of Neae between Lemnos and Scyros ; Lucullus then sent infantry by land across Neae to their rear, killing many and forcing

9328-619: Was a Hellenistic kingdom centered in the historical region of Pontus in modern-day Turkey , and ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian origin, which may have been directly related to Darius the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty . The kingdom was proclaimed by Mithridates I in 281   BC and lasted until its conquest by the Roman Republic in 63   BC. The Kingdom of Pontus reached its largest extent under Mithridates VI

9434-537: Was also holding out against the Romans. There was significant resistance; the garrison was doing well in defending the coastal city on water as well as land. Lucullus kept up the pressure and finally the defenders gave up, they burned their heavier ships while escaping on lighter vessels. Lucullus granted the city its freedom because the real resistance had not come from the Sinopians themselves but from Cilician troops Mithridates had garrisoned there. While Lucullus stayed in

9540-421: Was also made into a client kingdom. Pharnaces   II later made an attempt at reconquering Pontus. During the civil war of Caesar and Pompey, he invaded Asia Minor (48   BC), taking Colchis, lesser Armenia, Pontus, and Cappadocia and defeating a Roman army at Nicopolis. Caesar responded swiftly and defeated him at Zela , where he uttered the famous phrase ' Veni, vidi, vici '. Pontic kings continued to rule

9646-661: Was attacked by the Galatians. Mithridates   II received aid from Heraclea Pontica , who was also at war with the Galatians at this time. Mithridates went on to support Antiochus Hierax against his brother Seleucus   II Callinicus. Seleucus was defeated in Anatolia by Hierax, Mithridates, and the Galatians. Mithridates also attacked Sinope in 220 but failed to take the city. He married Seleucus   II's sister and gave his daughter in marriage to Antiochus   III, to obtain recognition for his new kingdom and create strong ties with

9752-541: Was connected to the Seleucid dynasty . Laodice bore Mithridates V eight children: Laodice of Cappadocia , Mithridates VI , Mithridates Chrestus , Laodice , Nysa (sometimes spelt as Nyssa), Roxana and Statira. Roxana and Statira were compelled to kill themselves with poison after the fall of Pontus in 63 BC. Nysa was taken prisoner by the Romans and made to march in the triumphs of two Roman generals. Kingdom of Pontus Pontus ( Ancient Greek : Πόντος Pontos )

9858-467: Was daunted by the size of the opposing army and reluctant to engage. The arrival of an omen, as reported by Plutarch, was thus fortuitous: But presently, as they were on the point of joining battle, with no apparent change of weather, but all on a sudden, the sky burst asunder, and a huge, flame-like body was seen to fall between the two armies. In shape, it was most like a wine-jar ( pithos ) , and in colour, like molten silver. Both sides were astonished at

9964-543: Was dominated by Greek cities such as Amastris and Sinope, which became the Pontic capital after its capture. The coast was rich in timber, fishing, and olives. Pontus was also rich in iron and silver , which were mined near the coast south of Pharnacia ; steel from the Chalybian mountains became quite famous in Greece. There were also copper , lead , zinc and arsenic . The Pontic interior also had fertile river valleys such as

10070-548: Was forced to withdraw southwards back into Arzenene. From there he proceeded back down through Korduene into old Assyria (Northern Mesopotamia ) and in the late autumn and early winter besieged Nisibis , the main Armenian fortress city and treasury in Northern Mesopotamia. The Armenian garrison at Nisibis was under the command of Tigranes's brother Gouras and the Greek defence expert Callimachus. At first Lucullus besieged

10176-435: Was happening, mustered his army, and attacked Mithridates's camp; at this point the Pontic army broke and disintegrated. After the Battle of Cabira, Mithridates fled Pontus, he went to Armenia seeking his son-in-law king Tigranes' support. Joined by Lucullus at Nicomedia in 73 BC, Cotta was assigned the task of securing Lucullus' rear by taking Heraclea Pontica, which Mithridates had reinforced with 4,000 troops. After reducing

10282-467: Was left in charge of Roman forces in Anatolia. The lenient peace treaty, which was never ratified by the Senate, allowed Mithridates VI to restore his forces. Murena attacked Mithridates in 83 BC, provoking the Second Mithridatic War from 83 BC to 81 BC. Mithridates defeated Murena's two green legions at the Battle of Halys in 82 BC before peace was again declared by treaty. The period between

10388-612: Was occupied by the Anatolian Cappadocians and Paphlagonians ruled by an Iranian aristocracy that went back to the Persian empire. The interior also had powerful temples with large estates. The gods of the Kingdom were mostly syncretic, with features of local gods along with Persian and Greek deities. Major gods included the Persian Ahuramazda , who was termed Zeus Stratios; the moon god Men Pharnacou; and Ma (interpreted as Cybele). Sun gods were particularly popular, with

10494-409: Was on the rise. He contrived to partition Paphlagonia and Galatia with King Nicomedes III of Bithynia . Yet it soon became clear to Mithridates that Nicomedes was steering his country into an anti-Pontic alliance with the expanding Roman Republic. When Mithridates fell out with Nicomedes over control of Cappadocia , and defeated him in a series of battles, the latter was constrained to openly enlist

10600-513: Was organizing a defense of the Crimea when his son Pharnaces led the army in revolt; Mithridates was forced to commit suicide or was assassinated. Most of the western half of Pontus and the Greek cities of the coast, including Sinope, were annexed by Rome directly as part of the Roman province of Bithynia et Pontus . The interior and eastern coast remained an independent client kingdom. The Bosporan Kingdom also remained independent under Pharnaces II of Pontus as an ally and friend of Rome. Colchis

10706-582: Was overmatched by 179 when he was forced to sign a treaty. He had to give up all lands he had obtained in Galatia , and Paphlagonia and the city of Tium, but he kept Sinope. Seeking to extend his influence to the north, Pharnaces allied with the cities in the Chersonesus and with other Black Sea cities such as Odessus on the Bulgarian coast. Pharnaces' brother, Mithridates   IV Philopator Philadelphus adopted

10812-541: Was rewarded by the Roman consul Manius Aquillius with the province of Phrygia . However, the acts of the Roman consul were rescinded by the Roman Senate on the grounds of bribery, but it appears that he maintained his possession of Phrygia until his death. Mithridates V also increased the power of Pontus by the marriage of his eldest child, his daughter Laodice to King Ariarathes VI . The end of his reign can only be approximately determined based on statements concerning

10918-534: Was sent, but it accomplished nothing. Mithridates also took a part of Galatia that had previously been part of his father's kingdom and intervened in Cappadocia, where his sister Laodice was queen. In 116 the king of Cappadocia, Ariarathes   VI, was murdered by the Cappadocian noble Gordius at the behest of Mithridates, and Laodice ruled as regent over the sons of Ariarathes until 102   BC. After Nicomedes III of Bithynia married Laodice, he tried to intervene in

11024-465: Was still holding out against Murena whom Lucullus had put in charge of the siege. Mithridates had sent the Greek Callimachus, a master of siege warfare, to Amisus to help with its defence. Callimachus created a number of mechanical defensive devices which gave the Romans a lot of hardships. Lucullus took over from Murena and proved his tactical genius once again by launching an attack at precisely

11130-419: Was that Cotta should tie down Mithridates' fleet, while Lucullus attacked by land. Cotta was therefore ordered to station his fleet at Chalcedon , while Lucullus marched through Phrygia with the intention of invading Pontus. Lucullus had not advanced far when news came through that Mithridates had made a rapid march westward, attacked and defeated Cotta at the Battle of Chalcedon , and forced him to flee behind

11236-492: Was the time he traveled through Asia Minor, building his resistance to poisons and learning all of the languages of his subjects. He returned in 113   BC to depose his mother; she was thrown into prison, and he eventually had his brother killed. Mithridates VI Eupator, 'the Good Father', followed a decisive anti-Roman agenda, extolling Greek and Iranian culture against ever-expanding Roman influence. Rome had recently created

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