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103-879: Saint Thomas Christian denominations Syro-Malabar Catholic , Syro-Malankara Catholic , Latin Catholic Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church , Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church Malabar Independent Syrian Church Chaldean Syrian Mar Thoma Syrian , St. Thomas Evangelical Protestant denominations Andhra Evangelical Lutheran , Assemblies Jehovah Shammah , Christian Revival Church , Church of North India , Church of South India , Garo Baptist , Indian Brethren , Indian Pentecostal Church of God , Church of God (Full Gospel) , North Bank Baptist Christian , Northern Evangelical Lutheran , Methodist Church , Presbyterian , The Pentecostal Mission , Seventh-day Adventist , United Evangelical Lutheran The Kerala Brethren are

206-468: A Dominican , followed in 1321–22. He reported to Rome , apparently from somewhere on the west coast of India, that he had given Christian burial to four martyred monks. Jordanus, between 1324 and 1328 (if not earlier), probably visited Kulam and selected it as for his future work. He was appointed a bishop in 1328 and nominated by Pope John XXII in his bull Venerabili Fratri Jordano to the see of Columbum or Kulam ( Quilon ) on 21 August 1329. This diocese

309-472: A reformation movement under Abraham Malpan due to influence of British Anglican missionaries in the 1800s. The Mar Thoma Church employs a reformed variant of the liturgical West Syriac Rite. The St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India is an evangelical faction that split off from the Marthoma Church in 1961. CSI Syrian Christians are a minority faction of Malankara Syrian Christians , who joined

412-618: A book about his travels titled The Travels of Joseph the Indian which was widely disseminated across Europe. Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka The Tamils in Sri Lanka can be divided into two groups, the Sri Lankan Tamils , who are native to the island of Sri Lanka and the Indian Tamils or Hill Country Tamils , who are descendants of bonded labourers sent from Tamil Nadu to Sri Lanka in

515-693: A case for historical continuity with the First-Century converts of the Apostle Thomas, claiming that for several centuries Christians on the Malabar coast (modern Kerala) followed what Brethren believe to have been the New Testament model of church organisation and worship, with no clergy, and that clericalism began to creep in only after 345 AD, when seventy-two families belonging to seven Jewish clans followed Thomas of Cana from Iraq to Kodungalloor , which

618-408: A concern of parliamentary politicians. The plantation workers were thus forgotten from 1948 to 1964. They were unable to profit by any progressive legislation. The housing, health and education of the plantation workers was neglected. Infant mortality was highest in the country. Although since the introduction of universal franchise in 1931, strong traditions of social welfare in Sri Lanka have given

721-577: A greater interest in the health, housing and general well-being of the labourers. Hence estate schools were nationalized and brought into the general educational system. With the grant of the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA), many schools were built. This helped the slight growth of literacy rates . With the increased unemployment, plantation sector youths looked for other avenues. A considerable number of Indian Tamil girls are employed in garment factories. Some work in

824-435: A place is decided to be settled, the settlers would institute, under a banyan or bo tree, a triangular shaped stone or figure of a deity, plant a weapon of a popularly worshipped god such as a spear, trident or sword and worshipped these. The main deities worshipped are, in order of popularity, the goddess Mariamman , Murugan and his consorts, Valli and Theivanai, Pillayar , Siva , Parvathi , Vishnu and Laxmi , and

927-414: A previous gang of workers or clear land to establish new ones. Many died during their first few months of employment. They were instrumental in the establishment of tea , rubber , coffee and coconut plantations. They formed the bulk of the labour force of the plantation sector. The community was a closed community confining themselves to the plantations, while actively contributed and contributes to

1030-580: A religious group, they refer to themselves as Mar Thoma Khristianis or in English as Saint Thomas Christians , based on their religious tradition of Syriac Christianity . However, from a religious angle, the Saint Thomas Christians of today belong to various denominations as a result of a series of developments including Portuguese persecution (a landmark split leading to a public Oath known as Coonen Cross Oath ), reformative activities during

1133-531: A separate identity They had regular visitors from their home land. Some of their priests and bishops visited them. But these visiting bishops had no authority over Saint Thomas Christians. The Church is mentioned by Cosmas Indicopleustes (about 535). He notes that, "There are Christians and believers in Taprobane ( Sri Lanka ), in Malabar where pepper grows there is a Christian church. At a place known as Kalyan, there

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1236-741: A subset of the Open Brethren movement. In the South Indian State of Kerala , four Syrian Christian ( Nasrani ) men who came from traditional churches were baptised in 1898. Many Indian Christians believe that the Apostle Thomas brought the Christian message to India in 52AD. In the words of an Indian hymn, "...It was his mission to espouse India to the One-Begotten...." Some Indian Brethren disclaim their missionary origins, instead making

1339-415: Is a bishop sent from Persia.". St. Gregory of Tours , before 590, reports that Theodore, a pilgrim who had gone to Gaul, told him that in that part of India where the corpus (bones) of St. Thomas had first rested, there stood a monastery and a church of striking dimensions and elaborately adorned, adding: "After a long interval of time these remains had been removed thence to the city of Edessa." As per

1442-607: Is also a trading community of Indian Tamils who were not part of the plantation economy. As soon as these migrant workers were brought to Mannar , the port at which they landed on their arrival by boat from South India, they were moved via Kurunegala to camps in the town of Matale . There they were quarantined for a period of a week or more, examined for infectious diseases such as small pox , cholera or typhoid and vaccinated against those diseases before they were sent to Kandy , from where they were dispersed to locations where they would either work on estates already established by

1545-749: Is now in Kerala. Thomas of Cana, they claim, brought in bishops and deacons , changing the practices of the Kerala Christians. This interpretation of history is not widely shared by non-Brethren Christians, however. The modern Brethren movement was introduced into India in 1833 by Anthony Norris Groves , a dentist turned missionary who was one of the original Plymouth Brethren pioneers in Ireland . The Brethren movement began to take root in Kerala when Mathai Upadeshi, who had been an ( Anglican ) CMS evangelist from Tirunelveli , arrived in 1872. Another early preacher

1648-459: Is the small cross at Kottayam dated 7th century. In 829 CE, the Udayamperoor (Diamper) church was built. A priest (or bishop) from Persia Abo came to Kadamattom. With the help of a widow and her son, he built a small hut and lived there. He called the boy Poulose. Abo taught him Syriac and later ordained him as a deacon. After this deacon Poulose disappeared for twelve years. It is said that he

1751-753: The Anglican Church in 1836, and eventually became part of the Church of South India in 1947, after Indian independence . The C.S.I. is in full communion with the Mar Thoma Syrian Church. By the 20th century, various Syrian Christians joined Pentecostal and other evangelical denominations like the Kerala Brethren , Indian Pentecostal Church of God , Assemblies of God , among others. They are known as Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians . Their traditions go back to first-century Christian thought, and

1854-642: The Church of the East , which was also established by Thomas the apostle according to early Christian writings. The Primate or Metropolitan of Persia consecrated bishops for the Indian Church, which brought it indirectly under the control of Seleucia . The Church of the East traces its origins to the See of Seleucia-Ctesiphon , said to be founded by Thomas the Apostle . Other founding figures are Mari and Addai as evidenced in

1957-741: The Doctrine of Addai and the Holy Qurbana of Addai and Mari . This is the original Christian church in what was once Parthia : eastern Iraq and Iran. The See of Seleucia-Ctesiphon developing within the Persian Empire, at the east of the Christian world, rapidly took a different course from other Eastern Christians. The First Council of Nicaea , held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey ), convoked by

2060-657: The Middle East as housemaids. There is net migration towards urban areas as well as foreign countries. Prior to the commencement of the Sri Lankan civil war many had migrated to the Northern Province. Now the plantation communities have the Plantation Human Development Trust, developed to protect their rights and ensure adequate facilities are provided such as crèches and toilets. Other NGOs work towards

2163-514: The Nattukotai Chettiars introduced the worship of Murugan in his form as Lord Kathiresan at Matale and was to subsequently build the Kathiresan temple at Matale. The annual festival of this temple is celebrated in the month of July. Devotees of the plantation sector walk from the tea estates and hometowns they live in to Kathirkamam , a place considered sacred by both Buddhists and Hindus, in

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2266-732: The Nuwara Eliya District, 153 in Kandy region and 62 in Matale in 2001. Religious schools or araa nerri padasaligal are conducted throughout the Central Province and registered schools of such nature are, Nuwara Eliya 22, Kandy 54 and Matale 11. A considerable number of Hindu associations and institutions have been established and are functioning actively. There is a serious effort at conversions to other religions as well. Many have converted to Christianity and Islam . Hindu organizations such as

2369-576: The Thiruvithamcode Arappally in Kanyakumari district. The Apostle also preached in other parts of India . The visit of the Apostle Thomas to these places and to Mylapore on the East coast of India can be read in the Ramban Songs of Thomas Ramban , set into 'moc', 1500. He was martyred in 72 at Little Mount, a little distant from St. Thomas Mount , and was buried at San Thome , near

2472-476: The United National Party (UNP). The first prime minister , D.S. Senanayake of the conservative UNP, reacting to the possibilities of losing power to leftist political parties, commenced the task of weakening the leftist parties and their associate organizations. Indian Tamil labour had overwhelmingly supported these organizations. According to opposition parties he was also influenced by segments of

2575-490: The Vishva Hindu Parishad try to stem the tide of conversions. Based on the cultivation of cash crops, labour is the dominant sector in the country's economy. It is a major earner of foreign exchange and the largest employer. Cheap labour is one of the essential ingredients of its success. Hence these immigrants were bonded and underpaid. In 1921 workers were empowered to break these bonds of indebtedness tying them to

2678-417: The social status system according to their professions with special privileges for trade granted by the benevolent kings who ruled the area. After the 8th century when Hindu Kingdoms came to sway, Christians were expected to strictly abide by stringent rules pertaining to caste and religion. This became a matter of survival. This is why St. Thomas Christians had such a strong sense of caste and tradition, being

2781-681: The 16th century witnessed the Portuguese colonial overtures to bring St Thomas Christians into the Latin Catholic Church , administered by their Padroado , leading to the first of several rifts ( schisms ) in the community. The attempts of the Portuguese culminated in the Synod of Diamper in 1599 and was resisted by local Christians through the Coonan Cross Oath protest in 1653. This led to

2884-505: The 1940s the trade union movement had galvanized the plantation workers into a militant working class. They joined hands with the Lanka Sama Samaja (or Trotskyist ) Party, which carried the message of a working-class struggle for liberation from the exploitation by the mainly-British plantation companies. Sri Lanka became independent in 1948 and the community believes that it became the first community marked out for discrimination by

2987-453: The 19th century to work in tea plantations. Many came as laborers to work in the plantations, but few of them came as business people. Most of the recruits came as they were recruited by the head man in their villages, mostly by high caste Tamils. Sri Lankan Tamils mostly live in the Northern and Eastern Provinces and in the capital of Colombo , whereas Hill Country Tamils largely live in

3090-511: The 1st century. They are also known as "Nasranis" as well. The Syriac term "Nasrani" is still used by St. Thomas Christians in Kerala. It is part of the Eastern Christianity institution. Historically, this community formed a part of the Church of the East, served by metropolitan bishops and a local archdeacon . By the 15th century, the Church of the East had declined drastically, and

3193-518: The 2012 Census 61.5% or 412,685 Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka also spoke Sinhala and 13.0% or 87,435 Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka also spoke English. The social structure of the plantations resembles the South Indian rural social structure. The community is generally bound by the caste system. In a plantation, the tea factory is the centre of activities and it stands in the central part of the plantation. The office adjoins this and these are surrounded by

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3296-643: The Apostles foreigners? Granting that Judea was the country of Peter, what had Saul to do with the Gentiles, Luke with Achaia, Andrew with Epirus, Thomas with India, Mark with Italy?." Ambrose (340–397) writes "When the Lord Jesus said to the Apostles, go and teach all nations, even the kingdoms that had been shut off by the barbaric mountains lay open to them as India to Thomas, as Persia to Mathew." There are other passages in ancient liturgies and martyrologies which refer to

3399-687: The British colonial government, and that the Kandyan peasants had been driven from their traditional lands and those injustices would be compounded if the Indian workers were legitimized. Governor Stanley, by an order in council introduced restrictions on the citizenship of Indian workers to make the Donoughmore proposals acceptable to the Ceylonese leaders. Thus the first state council of 1931, which consisted of many Tamil and Sinhalese members, agreed to not to enfranchise

3502-688: The East Bishop during the 1870s. The Assyrian Church is one of the descendant churches of the Church of the East. Thus it forms the continuation of the traditional church of Saint Thomas Christians in India. Oriental Protestant denominations include the Mar Thoma Syrian Church and the St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India . The Marthoma Syrian Church were a part of the Malankara Church that went through

3605-838: The East Syriac liturgy of the historic Church of the East. The Oriental Orthodox faction includes the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church , resulting from a split within the Malankara Church in 1912 over whether the church should be autocephalous or rather under the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch . As such, the Malankara Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox Church independent of

3708-633: The Elder and the author of Periplus of the Erythraean sea, Muziris in Kerala could be reached in 40 days' time from the Egyptian coast purely depending on the southwest monsoon winds. The Sangam works Puranaooru and Akananooru have many lines which speak of the Roman vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to the Kerala ports of the great Chera kings in search of pepper and other spices, which had enormous demand in

3811-827: The Holy See in Rome. This includes the aforementioned Syro-Malabar Church as well as the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church , the latter arising from an Oriental Orthodox faction that entered into communion with Rome in 1930 under Bishop Geevarghese Ivanios (d. 1953). As such the Malankara Catholic Church employs the West Syriac liturgy of the Syriac Orthodox Church, while the Syro-Malabar Church employs

3914-516: The Island... this condition will be of particular importance in its application to the Indian immigrant population. Secondly, we consider that the registration of voters should not be compulsory or automatic but should be restricted to those who apply for it. However, the very concept of universal franchise was anathema to most of the political leaders of that era. Ponnambalam Ramanathan , a highly respected leader, opposed universal franchise as he felt that

4017-679: The Jews at "Maliyankara" on the sea coast. Jews were living in Kerala from the time of Solomon. Later, large numbers of them arrived in 586 BC and 72 AD. Malabari Jewish tradition hold these facts. Its traditionally believed that during his stay in Kerala , the Apostle baptized the Jews and some of the wise men who adored the Infant Jesus . The Apostle established seven "and a half" churches in Malabar at Kodungalloor ( Muziris ), Paravur , Palayoor , Kokkamangalam , Niranam , Nilackal , Kollam , and

4120-756: The Marxist groups as well as by the pro-Sri Lankan Tamil Federal Party , it branded Ponnambalam a "traitor", and Senanayake a "Sinhalese extremist". S. J. V. Chelvanayakam , the leader of the Tamil Arasu Katchi, contested the citizenship act before the Supreme Court, and then in the Privy Council in England, on grounds of discrimination towards minorities but the decision concluded that the citizenship act stipulated conditions well in line with those of European states. As

4223-428: The Marxist parties and their associate organizations. Thus the newly independent first cabinet introduced the Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948, the Indian-Pakistani Citizenship act of 1949 and amended the parliamentary elections act. The requirements of "ten years of residence for married persons, and seven years for unmarried persons", stipulations in the 1949 act were in line with the legislation used by European nations at

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4326-408: The Nasranis. The First Council of Nicaea , held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey ), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first Ecumenical council of the Christian Church, and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed . Many historians have written that ‘’Mar John, the Bishop of Great India’’ attended

4429-407: The Patriarch of Antioch, whereas the Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church is an integral part of the Syriac Orthodox Church and is headed by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch. The Iraq -based Assyrian Church of the East 's archdiocese includes the Chaldean Syrian Church based in Thrissur . They were a minority faction within the Syro-Malabar Church, which split off and joined with the Church of

4532-554: The Persian Church suffered severe persecutions. The persecuted Christians and even bishops, at least on two occasions, sought an asylum in Malabar. The Rock crosses of Kerala found at St.Thomas Mount and throughout Malabar coast has inscriptions in Pahlavi and Syriac . It is dated from before the 8th Century. In 825, the arrival of two bishops are documented, Sapor and Prodh. Le Quien says that "these bishops were Chaldaeans and had come to Quilon soon after its foundation. They were men illustrious for their sanctity, and their memory

4635-416: The Portuguese, organized themselves as the independent Malankara Church, entered into a new communion with the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch , and they inherited the West Syriac Rite from the Syriac Orthodox Church, which employs the Liturgy of Saint James , an ancient rite of the Church of Antioch , replacing the old East Syriac Rite liturgy. The Eastern Catholic faction is in full communion with

4738-418: The Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first Ecumenical council of the Christian Church, and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed . It is documented that John, the Bishop of Great India attended the council. The prelate signs himself as "John the Persian presiding over the Churches in the whole of Persia and Great India." Some centuries following,

4841-468: The Sinhalese and accept Sri Lankan leadership in the trade union movement. In the general election of 1977 they were able to elect 11 candidates. This helped the emergence of the plantation people as a political force, but they were faced with communal violence in 1977 , 1983 and in 2000. In 1984–85, to stop India's intervention in Sri Lankan affairs, the UNP government granted citizenship right to all stateless persons. The late Savumiamoorthy Thondaman

4944-423: The Sinhalese nationalist groups led by S. W. R. D Bandaranaike , the Kandyan Sinhalese, Senanayake had to find a compromise formula. The 1947 elections had returned six representatives from the Ceylon Indian Congress (CIC), based on the votes of the franchised Indian workers and Hill Country Tamils. Although this worried the Kandyans, the main reason for Senanayake and others to review their attitude to Indian workers

5047-587: The South of Sri Lanka, where Murugan is worshipped in the form of Skanda. Deepavali , Pongal and Tamil New Year are commonly celebrated as festivals. Each caste has its own deity based on caste predecessors and are worshipped as guardian angels, such as the Kallar caste had Nallananpillai Perumal as their guardian angel to whom vows and sacrifices are made. Deities such as Madasamy, Muniandi , Kali , Madurai Veeran , Sangili Karuppan, Vaalraja, Vairavar , Veerabathran, Sudalai Madan , and Roda Mini are also worshipped. There were 104 registered Hindu temples in

5150-425: The Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP) in the 1960 elections; after the victory of the SLFP he was appointed to the House of Representatives as a nominated member of Parliament. However, he opposed the 1964 Sirima-Shastri Indo-Ceylon citizenship act. After the victory of the UNP in 1965, S. Thondaman was named as appointed member of Parliament by the UNP. The J.R.Jayawardene government that came to power in 1977 rectified

5253-468: The Sri Lankan and Indian governments in the 1960s, around 40% of Hill Country Tamils were granted Sri Lankan nationality and many of the remainder were repatriated to India. However, the ethnic conflict has led to the growth of a greater sense of common Tamil identity, and the two groups are now more supportive of each other. By the 1990s most Indian Tamils had received Sri Lankan citizenship and some were not granted Sri Lankan citizenship until 2003, during

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5356-417: The West. The lure of spices attracted traders from the Middle East and Europe to the many trading ports of Keralaputera (Kerala) — Tyndis, ( Ponnani ), Muziris , near Kodungallur, Niranam, Bacare, Belitha, and Comari ( Kanyakumari ) long before the time of Christ. Thomas the Apostle in one of these ships, arrived at Muziris in 52, from E’zion-ge’ber on the Red Sea. He started his gospel mission among

5459-439: The caste system was an integral part of the Hindu way of life, and led a delegation to London seeking to legally enshrine the caste hierarchy, and dethrone universal franchise. The Kandyan Sinhalese also objected to the enfranchisement of the Indian estate workers as they feared that their electoral base would be diluted by a large influx of Indian Tamil votes. They also argued that the tea estates were built on land confiscated by

5562-500: The central highlands. The Hill Country Tamils and Ceylon Tamils historically have seen themselves as separate communities, particularly due to the nativity of the island, and due to caste level differences as well. In 1949, the United National Party (UNP) government stripped the Indian Tamils of their nationality, including their right to vote. Prominent Tamil political leaders such as S. J. V. Chelvanayakam and his Tamil opposition party opposed this move. Under an agreement between

5665-420: The council. Church life bore characteristics of a church which had its origin and growth outside the Graeco-Roman world . There was no centralized administrative structure on a monarchical pattern. The territorial administrative system which developed after the diocesan pattern within the eastern and western Roman empires did not exist in the Indian Church. "They have the uncorrupted Testament Which they believe

5768-487: The economic well-being of Sri Lanka but the socio-economic indicators of the community was among the worst in the country. The community in general was isolated, living in ghettos within the central region as well as linguistically isolated from the majority Sinhalese villagers who live in the valleys. They were captive labour whose life in its entirety was decided by their employers. Any social relationships or cultural ties were only among themselves or with South India . In

5871-406: The estates. The minimum wages ordinance was extended to plantation labour in 1927 marginally raising the wages that had not changed since the 19th century. This daily wages was 41 Cts. in 1933. Owing to trade union activities it was raised to Rs 17/83 in 1983, Rs 72/24 in 1993 and became Rs 101 in 1998. The wages of female workers was less than males but has been equalized since 1984. Even though there

5974-414: The existing shortcomings of the Indian citizenship act and granted citizenship to all Indian estate workers (see below). Even at that time, Thondaman was the leader of the Ceylon Workers Congress , the party of the Hill Country Tamils, and had become a skilful player of minority-party politics. He had avoided joining with the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) resolutions of 1974, which had continued with

6077-475: The fall was the repatriation of Indian citizens to India. Another fact is that many Indian Tamils, after acquiring Sri Lankan citizenship, declared themselves as Sri Lankan Tamils. Some Tamils who migrated to urban areas and also to the north and the east also followed this same example. Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka predominantly speak Tamil , however depending on where they live in the country, they may also additionally speak Sinhala and or English . According to

6180-542: The first row of line rooms. They perform respectable jobs such as factory work and grinding of tea as minor labour work. Even though they belong to the labour category they are influential among conductors, tea makers, kanganies (or supervisors) and other officials. The workers considered low caste live in the dwellings that are away from the centre and these dwellings are called distant or lower lines . This group consists of Pallar , Paraiyars , Sakkiliar , washers and barbers. The yard sweepers and changers of clothes are in

6283-401: The forty-second of his "Carmina Nisibina" that the Apostle was put to death in India, and that his remains were subsequently buried in Edessa , brought there by a merchant. St. Ephraem in a hymn about the relics of St. Thomas at Edessa depicts Satan exclaiming, "The Apostle whom I killed in India comes to meet me in Edessa." Gregory Nazianzen , (329–389), in a homily says; "What! were not

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6386-476: The goddess of wisdom Saraswati . In 1981 about 90 percent of the Indian Tamils were Hindus. They have little contact with Buddhism , and they worship the Hindu pantheon of gods. Their religious myths, stories of saints , literature, and rituals are distinct from the cultural sources of the Sinhalese. Furthermore, a minority of the Indian Tamils- 7.6 percent are converts to Christianity , with their own places of worship and separate cultural lives. In this way,

6489-573: The great of Wessex in England sent donations to the Christians in Malabar. Marco Polo visited Malabar on his return journey from China . He wrote about the people whom he saw in Malabar, this way. "The people are idolaters, though there are some Christians and Jews among them. They speak a language of their own. The king is tributary to none." The two Rock crosses of Kerala are found at Kottayam, one each at Kadamattam, Muttuchira and at St.Thomas Mount, in Mylapore. and throughout Malabar coast has inscriptions in Pahlavi and Syriac. The earliest

6592-461: The harbingers of the destruction of this community, which had evolved into a composite group with a distinct culture of its own. In the 1950s and 1960s this community was clamouring for education and recognition of its distinctive culture. This brought in the emergence of a community consciousness and the artisan of a distinct community. An educated middle class made up of teachers, trade unionists and other professional began to make its appearance. There

6695-399: The holy book." In short, the St. Thomas Christians of Kerala have blended well with the ecclesiastical world of the Eastern Churches and with the changing socio-cultural environment of their homeland. Thus, the Malabar Church was Hindu or Indian in culture , Christian in religion , and Judeo-Syriac-Oriental in terms of origin and worship. According to the 1st century annals of Pliny

6798-434: The holy see of St.Thomas the Apostle". The life-style of the Saint Thomas Christians might be stated as "Indian in culture, Christian in faith and Oriental in worship". Socially and culturally these Saint Thomas Christians remain as a part of the wider Indian community. They keep their Indian social customs, names and practices relating to birth, marriage, and death. They have Biblical names ( Mar Thoma Christian names ). At

6901-399: The house was levelled by Tamil members of the upper chamber (senate), like Senator Natesan, who pointed out that Senanayake had supported the franchise of the Indian Tamils till recently, and had "caved in" more recently. As the first prime minister , D.S. Senanayake , leader of the UNP, feared the strong possibilities of Marxist disruption of government and commenced the task of weakening

7004-401: The island very high indicators of physical well-being. Impressive national statistics tended to hide the existence of deprived pockets within the population and the most deprived population group has been the plantation labour, which had been economically, politically and socially deprived. The Donoughmore Commission of 1928 recommended universal franchise, and this was also meant to include

7107-434: The large Tamil minority in Sri Lanka is effectively separated from the mainstream Sinhalese culture and is fragmented into two major groups with their own Christian minorities. The first known temple was built in Matale. It began as a stone an icon of the goddess Mariamman . At this very location where the worship of her began in 1820, the now-famous Matale Sri Muthumariamman Temple was built in 1852. The trading community of

7210-461: The latter an Indian Tamil from Colombo , Sri Lanka . They were joined by Herbert Handley Bird , who established assemblies in Northern Kerala. They were helped by Baptist preacher and Keswick Convention speaker J.G. Gregson , who visited Kerala in 1896. Although a Baptist, he was sympathetic to Brethren viewpoints and helped to found the first Brethren assembly in Travancore , central Kerala. He also preached in Ayroor , near Kumbanad , paving

7313-734: The lowest rank. These groups follow the customs, traditions, and festivities of their South Indian Tamil ancestors . The traditional musical instruments such as thappu and parai are used and folk dances such as the kavadi , kummi and karaga attam are performed. Folk dramas called koothu in their various forms such as ponnar koothu , sangaran koothu , arujunan thabas and kaman koothu are still prevalent among them along with silambadi as an important feature. In general they use Hindu beliefs to guide their day-to-day lives. There are number of temples and places of worship for deities on estates and in villages, towns and other places within Sri Lanka to which they have migrated. When

7416-736: The majority Sinhalese population who felt their voting strength was diluted due to Indian Tamils. He introduced the Ceylon Citizenship Act of 1948 , the Indian-Pakistani Citizenship Act of 1949 and amended the Parliamentary Elections Act and disfranchised the Indian Tamils along with many persons of Indian and Pakistani ancestry. As they had no means of electing anyone to the Parliament they ceased to be

7519-670: The majority of the Indian estate workers. A decade later, the Soulbury Commission , which paved the way for the independence of Ceylon recognized the "anxieties arising out of the likelihood of large-scale enfranchisement of the Indian immigrants", The Commission, therefore, left the existing basis of franchise in Sri Lanka undisturbed. D. S. Senanayake had led the 1941 talks with Sir G. S. Bajpai of India and had reached agreement on modalities of repatriation and citizenship, although they were finally not ratified by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru . D. S. Senanayake had expressed

7622-684: The modern city of Chennai . The body of Apostle Thomas was translated to Edessa, Iraq. It is now in Ortona , Italy . Relics of Apostle Thomas were translated to the San Thome Cathedral in Chennai and to St Thomas Church in Palayur, near Guruvayoor at Chavakkad Taluk, Thrissur District in Kerala. Several ancient writers mention India as the scene of St. Thomas ’ labours. Ephrem the Syrian (300–378) writes in

7725-467: The new state of Ceylon in 1948. In the elections to the first parliament of Ceylon, seven Indian Tamil representatives were returned to Parliament. The plantation workers voted either for Indian Tamil candidates or for Lanka Sama Samaja Party candidates. Dr. N.M. Perera was the leader of the opposition in the first parliament and the Lanka Sama Samaja Party was the second largest party after

7828-528: The oldest order of Christianity in India . The Archdeacon was the head of the Church, and Palliyogams (Parish Councils) were in charge of temporal affairs. They had a liturgy -centered life with days of fasting and abstinence. Their devotion to the Mar Thoma tradition was absolute. Their churches were modelled after Jewish synagogues . "The church is neat and they keep it sweetly. There are mats but no seats. Instead of images, they have some useful writing from

7931-592: The peace talks between the Tamil Tigers and the Sri Lankan Government . The Hill Country Tamils derive their origins from a British colonial era project. According to Professor Bertram Bastianpillai, workers around the Tamil Nadu cities of Thirunelveli , Tiruchi , Madurai and Tanjore were recruited in 1827 by Governor Sir Edward Barnes on the request of George Bird , a pioneering planter. There

8034-459: The permanent schism among the Thomas' Christians of India, leading to the formation of Puthenkūr (New allegiance, pronounced Pùttènkūṟ ) and Pazhayakūr (Old allegiance, pronounced Paḻayakūṟ ) factions. The Pazhayakūr comprise the present day Syro-Malabar Church and Chaldean Syrian Church which continue to employ the original East Syriac Rite liturgy . The Puthenkūr group, who resisted

8137-450: The plantation workers as well. Page 57 of the report proposed: In the first place we consider it very desirable that a qualification of five years residence in the Island (allowing the temporary absence not exceeding eight months in all during the five years period) should be introduced in order that the privilege of voting should be confined to those who have an abiding interest in the country or who may be regarded as permanently settled in

8240-554: The policies of the ITAK. Thus the Hill Country Tamils had successfully charted a course of cooperating with successive Sri Lankan governments. The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964 and Indira-Sirimavo supplementary agreement of 1974 paved the way for the repatriation of 600,000 persons of Indian origin to India. Another 375,000 persons were accepted as citizens of Sri Lanka, which made them enter the polity. These repatriation agreements were

8343-466: The population, whereas Sri Lankan Tamils formed 12.8 per cent; in 1921, 13.4 per cent and 11.5 per cent; in 1931, 15.2 and 11.3; in 1946, 11.7 and 11.0; in 1953, 12.0 and 10.9; in 1963, 10.6 and 11.0; in 1971, 11.6 and 11.2; and in 1981, 5.5 per cent and 12.7 per cent respectively. The statistics reveal a more than 50 per cent fall in the Indian Tamil population between 1971 and 1981. The main reason for

8446-551: The president of the Ceylon Indian Congress (CIC), S. Thondaman had contested the Nuwara Eliya seat in the 1947 general election and won. His party put forward seven candidates in the plantation electorates and six of them were returned. Thus Thondaman became the spokesperson of the plantation workers. The CIC sat with the opposition, which included the Marxist parties. He opposed the 1948 citizenship act. Thondaman supported

8549-415: The quarters of the staff members such as clerks, tea makers, conductors, petty accountants or kanakkupillais , and supervisors. The bungalows of the planter and his assistants are in an isolated areas. These will be in close proximity to the office. The dwellings of the workers called line rooms are situated a little further away from the factories. Those who are considered to be of higher castes occupy

8652-476: The relationship with their home Church in Persia, which was also established by St. Thomas the Apostle. Following is a rough chronology of events associated with St. Thomas Christianity. Doctrine of the Apostles states that, "India and all its countries . . . received the Apostle's hand of priesthood from Judas Thomas…." From an early period the Church of St. Thomas Christians came into a lifelong relationship with

8755-449: The same time they follow a number of Jewish customs like worship, baptism, wedding and other ceremonies which are entirely different from Western Churches. The rulers of Kerala, always appreciated the contributions of St. Thomas Christians to the country and society. Thazhekad sasanam and deeds on copper plates bear witness to it. Five sheets of the three copper plates are now in the custody of St. Thomas Christians. In 883 King Alfred

8858-527: The seven "and a half" churches established by Thomas the Apostle during his mission in Malabar. These are located at Kodungalloor ( Muziris ), Paravur , Palayoor , Kokkamangalam , Niranam , Nilackal , Kollam , and the Thiruvithamcode Arappally in Kanyakumari district . The Nasranis are an ethnic people, and a single community. As a community with common cultural heritage and cultural tradition, they refer to themselves as Nasranis . However, as

8961-586: The time of the British (6,000 - 12,000 Jacobites joined the C.M.S. in 1836, after the Synod of Mavelikara; who are now within the Church of South India ), doctrines and missionary zeal influence ( Malankara Church and Patriarch/Catholicos issue (division of Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church (1912)). St. Thomas Christian families who claim their descent from ancestors who were baptized by Apostle Thomas are found all over Kerala . St. Thomas Christians were classified into

9064-559: The time. It also allowed citizenship to “a person born in Ceylon prior to the date of the Act coming into force, of a father born in Ceylon”. However, this was in effect a continuation of the older, somewhat harsher status quo of the Indian workers in the 1930s, prior to the Donoughmore constitution, which called for only five years' residence. However, Ponnambalam and Senanayake were strongly criticized by

9167-546: The tradition of Saint Thomas Christians , St. Thomas the Apostle established his throne in India and India was his See (Kolla Hendo), therefore the see of the metropolitan of Saint Thomas Christians was India and used the title Metropolitan and Gate of all India. In Syriac Manuscript Vatican Syriac Codex 22 the title given for the Metropolitan of the Saint Thomas Christians was "the superintendent and ruler of

9270-402: The way for German missionary Volbrecht Nagel to conduct the first Brethren "meeting" (as they usually call their services) there on 19 March 1899. Saint Thomas Christian denominations The Saint Thomas Christian denominations are Christian denominations from Kerala , India , which traditionally trace their ultimate origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in

9373-582: The west coast of India, i.e., Malabar . Shapur II the Great was the ninth King of the Sassanid Empire from 309 to 379. During that period, there was persecution against Christians. So in AD 345 under the leadership of Thomas of Cana 72 families landed at Muziris near Cranganore. They formed the group known as Knanaya Christians. They cooperated with the Malankara Church, attended worship services together but remained

9476-485: The wish to "embrace all Indian workers who integrate into the country as members of the Ceylonese nation", and had been relatively sympathetic, as early as 1928, and as late as 1941, to the granting of citizenship to Indian workers who wished to become permanent residents of the island. The Soulbury constitution came into effect in 1946. In trying to cobble an all-party cabinet inclusive of the Tamils, led by G. G. Ponnambalam ,

9579-525: The work of St. Thomas in India . These passages indicate that the tradition that St. Thomas died in India was widespread among the early churches. Many writers have mentioned that the Apostle established seven "and a half" churches in Malabar. They are: Doctrine of the Apostles states that, "India and all its countries...received the Apostle's hand of priesthood from Judas Thomas…." From 345 AD, when Knanaya Christians arrived from Persia , they had continued

9682-465: Was Justhus Joseph , also known as Vidwankutty, a Tamil Brahmin and also a CMS priest like Mathai Upadeshi. He arrived in Kerala in 1875, but his ministry declined after the failure of his prediction that Jesus Christ would return in 1881. A second wave of growth among the Kerala Brethren started in 1894 with the arrival of V.D. David, better known in Kerala as Tamil David, and L.M. Wordsmith,

9785-441: Was a vigorous campaign for social amelioration and increased educational facilities. There was a growing spirit of resistance. People destroyed Indian passports and refused to go to India. Repatriation was resisted. International opinion was canvassed against deprivation of citizenship rights. The plantation people who were not prepared to leave, destitute, the land whose property they had built. They were prepared to fraternize within

9888-601: Was a well known exorcist. He is well known in Kerala as Kadamattathu Kathanar. Abo died and was buried in Thevalakara church (now St. Mary's Orthodox Church). There are many accounts of visits from Rome, before the arrival of Portuguese. John of Monte Corvino , was a Franciscan missionary who traveled from Persia and moved down by sea to India, in 1291 Odoric of Pordenone who arrived in India in 1321. He visited Malabar, landing at Pandarani (20 m. north of Calicut ), at Cranganore , and at Kulam or Quilon . Jordanus ,

9991-570: Was an increase in wages, the living wages are not sufficient to meet their day-to-day needs. The plantations were nationalized under the 1972 land reform law and its 1975 amendment. The state owned plantations are managed by the Sri Lanka Plantation Corporation and the Janatha Estate Development Board. The nationalization did not result in any basic change on the plantation sector. The state has been forced to take

10094-484: Was held sacred in the Malabar Church. They constructed many churches and, during their lifetime, the Christian religion flourished especially in the kingdom of Diamper." The beginning of Kolla Varsham resulted in the origin of Christianity in Kerala as an individual religion outside vedic Vaishnavism In 190, Pantaenus , probably the founder of the famous Catechetical School of Alexandria , visited India and

10197-497: Was instrumental in using this electoral strength in improvement of the socioeconomic conditions of Hill Country Tamils. The plight of the repatriated persons in India has not been good. Census operations started in Sri Lanka in 1871. The Census of 1871, 1881, 1891 and 1901 had lumped together Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils. Since 1911, Indian Tamils have been shown as a separate category. The population statistics are revealing. In 1911, Indian Tamils constituted 12.9 per cent of

10300-402: Was regarded as the harbinger of such dangers. The fear of left-wing politics began to grow in the minds of Sri Lankan politicians of the era. The colonial government responded to the agitation of the leftists by imprisoning N. M. Perera , Colvin R. de Silva and other left leaders. Anti Marxist feelings were shared by the mainstream Sinhalese and Tamil leaders alike. (, Ch. 36). The criticism in

10403-472: Was the first in the whole of the Indies , with jurisdiction over modern India, Pakistan , Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Burma , and Sri Lanka. In 1347, Giovanni de' Marignolli visited Malabar. Another prominent Indian traveler was Joseph, priest over Cranganore. He journeyed to Babylon in 1490 and then sailed to Europe and visited Portugal , Rome, and Venice before returning to India. He helped to write

10506-453: Was the growing threat of Marxist infiltration into estate trade unions. In this he had won the concurrence of G. G. Ponnambalam for the second citizenship act, which required ten years of residence in the island as a condition for becoming citizens of the new nation. Senanayake, who had been very favourable to easy citizenship for Indian workers had increasingly modified his views in the face of Marxist trade union activity. The Bracegirdle affair

10609-579: Was translated for them by St. Thomas the apostle himself." Theophilus (ca 354) as recorded by church historian Philostorgius mentions about a church, priests, liturgy, in the immediate vicinity of the Maldives , which can only apply to a Christian church and faithful on the adjacent coast of India. The people referred to were the Christians known as a body who had their liturgy in the Syriac language and inhabited

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