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120-612: This dry steppe area, west of the lower Volga River, known among the nomads as Itil/Idjil, a basin on the northwest shore of the Caspian Sea, was the most suitable land for nomadic pastures. Itil or Idjil, the ancient name of the Volga River, written in the archaic Oirat script, means exactly that: the "pastures". The ancestors of Kalmyks were nomadic groups of Oirat -speaking Mongols , who migrated from Western Mongolia to Eastern Europe three times: in early medieval times, establishing in

240-519: A Cyrillic-based script system has been implemented. It does not represent epenthetic vowels , and thus doesn't show syllabification. In Mongolia, Central Mongolian minority varieties have no status, so Oirats are supposed to use Mongolian Cyrillic which de facto only represents Khalkha Mongolian . Dalai Lama Dalai Lama ( UK : / ˈ d æ l aɪ ˈ l ɑː m ə / , US : / ˈ d ɑː l aɪ / ; Tibetan : ཏཱ་ལའི་བླ་མ་ , Wylie : Tā la'i bla ma [táːlɛː láma] )

360-602: A Brahmin boy who lived in the time of Buddha Shakyamuni." According to the 14th Dalai Lama , long ago Avalokiteśvara had promised the Buddha to guide and defend the Tibetan people . In the late Middle Ages, his master plan to fulfill this promise was the stage-by-stage establishment of the Dalai Lama institution in Tibet. First, Tsongkhapa established three great monasteries around Lhasa in

480-712: A deliberate policy by the Qing to enfeeble them. After the 1771 exodus, the Kalmyks that remained part of the Russian Empire continued their nomadic pastoral lifestyle, ranging the pastures between the Don and the Volga Rivers, wintering in the lowlands along the shores of the Caspian Sea as far as Sarpa Lake to the northwest and Lake Manych-Gudilo to the west. In the spring, they moved along

600-498: A leading lama, known as 'Perfecter of the Monkhood', 'with a host of disciples'. Famed for his Buddhist scholarship, he was also referred to as Panchen Gendun Drup , 'Panchen' being an honorary title designating 'great scholar'. By the great Jonangpa master Bodong Chokley Namgyal he was accorded the honorary title Tamchey Khyenpa meaning "The Omniscient One", an appellation that was later assigned to all Dalai Lama incarnations. At

720-814: A monastery'. It was called the Ganden Phodrang , a name later adopted by the Tibetan Government, and it served as home for Dalai Lamas until the Fifth moved to the Potala Palace in 1645. In 1525, already abbot of Chokhorgyel, Drepung and Tashilhunpo, he was made abbot of Sera monastery as well, and worked to increase the number of monks there. Based at Drepung in winter and Chokorgyel in summer, he spent his remaining years composing commentaries, making regional teaching tours, visiting Tashilhunpo, and acting as abbot of these four great monasteries. As abbot, he made Drepung

840-525: A peaceful settlement. At 19, when the Kyichu River burst its banks and flooded Lhasa, he led his followers to rescue victims and repair the dykes. He then instituted a custom whereby on the last day of Monlam , all the monks would work on strengthening the flood defences. Gradually, he was shaping himself into a national leader. His popularity and renown became such that in 1564 when the Nedong King died, it

960-586: A poem of advice to his followers advising restraint from responding to violence with more violence and urged compassion and patience instead. The poem, entitled Shar Gang Rima , "The Song of the Eastern Snow Mountains", became one of his most enduring popular literary works. Gendun Drup's spiritual accomplishments brought him substantial donations from devotees which he used to build and furnish new monasteries, as well as to print and distribute Buddhist texts and to maintain monks and meditators. In 1474, at

1080-464: A second great monastery, Kumbum , at the birthplace of Tsongkhapa near Kokonor . Further on, he was asked to adjudicate on border disputes between Mongolia and China. It was the first time a Dalai Lama had exercised such political authority. Arriving in Mongolia in 1585, he stayed 2 years with Dhüring Khan, teaching Buddhism to his people and converting more Mongol princes and their tribes. Receiving

1200-539: A second invitation from the Emperor in Beijing he accepted, but died en route in 1588. As he was dying, his Mongolian converts urged him not to leave them, as they needed his continuing religious leadership. He promised them he would be incarnated next in Mongolia, as a Mongolian. The Fourth Dalai Lama, Yonten Gyatso (1589–1617) was a Mongol, the great-grandson of Altan Khan who was a descendant of Kublai Khan and leader of

1320-644: A small stroke on the right to indicate vowel length. It was retained longest in China where it can still be found in an occasional journal article. However, in China, Buryat and Oirat are considered non-standard compared to Southern Mongolian and are therefore supposed to use the Mongolian script and Southern Mongolian grammar for writing. In practice the people use neither and resort to learning Mandarin Chinese and using hànzì to communicate with others in China. In Kalmykia,

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1440-563: A symbol of Tibetan nationhood for Tibetans in Tibet and in exile. He is Tenzin Gyatso , who escaped from Lhasa in 1959 during the Tibetan diaspora and lives in exile in Dharamsala, India. From 1642 and the 5th Dalai Lama until 1951 and the 14th Dalai Lama , the lineage was enjoined with the secular role of governing Tibet . During this period, the Dalai Lamas or their Kalons (or regents ) led

1560-723: A third theory suggests that the Torghuts grew weary of the militant struggle between the Oirats and the Altan Khanate. Upon arrival to the lower Volga region in 1630, the Oirats encamped on land that was once part of the Astrakhan Khanate but was now claimed by the Tsardom of Russia . The region was lightly populated, from south of Saratov to the Russian garrison at Astrakhan and on both the east and

1680-497: A title of Shunyi Wang (King) from the Ming dynasty of China and swore allegiance to Ming, Although he remained de facto quite independent, he had fulfilled his political destiny and a nephew advised him to seek spiritual salvation, saying that "in Tibet dwells Avalokiteshvara ", referring to Sonam Gyatso, then 28 years old. China was also happy to help Altan Khan by providing necessary translations of holy scripture, and also lamas. At

1800-737: A wide geographical area of Uvs and Khovd provinces (aimags) of Western Mongolia ( N  = 209,412), and in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, China ( N  = 194,891). Ethnic groups of Oirat speakers in the Republic of Kalmykia, Russia ( N  = 162,740) include Torguts, Derbets and Buzavas, together with a smaller group called Khoshuts, who live in just two villages of Kalmykia. Up until today the Kalmyks have retained their distinguished sub-ethnic groups, being quite separated from their geographical neighbours in Russia and northeast Caucasus. The Kalmyks are

1920-536: Is endangered in all areas where it is spoken. In Russia, the killing of a large fraction of the Kalmyk population and the destruction of their society as consequences of the Kalmyk deportations of 1943 , along with the subsequent imposition among them of Russian as the sole official language have rendered the language obsolescent: it is almost exclusively the elderly who have a fluent command of Kalmyk. In China, while Oirat

2040-416: Is a Mongolic language spoken by the descendants of Oirat Mongols , now forming parts of Mongols in China , Kalmyks in Russia and Mongolians. Largely mutually intelligible to other core Central Mongolic languages, scholars differ as to whether they regard Oirat as a distinct language or a major dialect of the Mongolian language . Oirat-speaking areas are scattered across the far west of Mongolia ,

2160-562: Is a combination of the Mongolic word dalai ( ' ocean ' ) and the Tibetan word བླ་མ་ ( bla-ma ) ( ' master, guru ' ). The word dalai corresponds to the Tibetan word gyatso or rgya-mtsho , and, according to Schwieger, was chosen by analogy with the Mongolian title Dalaiyin qan or Dalaiin khan . Others suggest it may have been chosen in reference to the breadth of

2280-506: Is a title given by Altan Khan , the first Shunyi King of Ming China . He offered it in appreciation to the leader of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism , Sonam Gyatso, who received it in 1578 at Yanghua Monastery. At that time, Sonam Gyatso had just given teachings to the Khan, and so the title of Dalai Lama was also given to the entire tulku lineage. Sonam Gyatso became the 3rd Dalai Lama , while

2400-870: Is spoken in all of these nations, is Torgut . The term Oirat or more precisely, Written Oirat is sometimes also used to refer to the language of historical documents written in the Clear script . In Mongolia, there are seven historical Oirat dialects, each corresponding to a different tribe: There are some varieties of Oirat that are difficult to classify. The Alasha dialect in Alxa League , Inner Mongolia , originally belonged to Oirat and has been classified as such by some because of its phonology . However, it has been classified by others as Mongolian proper because of its morphology . The Darkhad dialect in Mongolia's Khövsgöl Province has variously been classified as Oirat, Mongolian proper, or (less often) Buryat . Oirat

2520-553: Is still quite widely used in its traditional ranges and there are many monolingual speakers, a combination of government policies and social realities has created an environment deleterious to the use of this language: the Chinese authorities' adoption of Southern Mongolian as the normative Mongolian language, new educational policies which have led to the virtual elimination of Mongolian schools in Xinjiang (there were just two left as of 2009), policies aiming to curtail nomadism , and

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2640-565: The Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism . Locked in between both tribes were the Choros, Dörbet Oirat and Khoid , collectively known as the " Dzungar people ", who were slowly rebuilding the base of power they enjoyed under the Four Oirat. The Choros were the dominant Oirat tribe of that era. Their leader, Erdeni Batur, attempted to follow Esen Khan in unifying the Oirats to challenge the Khalkha. Under

2760-592: The Gelugpa school, and became his student. After the death of Tsongkhapa's successor, the Panchen Lama Khedrup Je , Gendun Drup became the leader of the Gelugpa. He rose to become Abbot of Drepung, the greatest Gelugpa monastery outside Lhasa. It was mainly due to Gendun Drup that Tsongkhapa's new school grew into an order capable of competing with others on an equal footing. Taking advantage of good relations with

2880-625: The Karakalpaks . The Mangyshlak Peninsula was overtaken in 1639 by Kalmyks. At first, an uneasy relationship existed between the Russians and the Oirats. Mutual raiding by the Oirats of Russian settlements and by the Cossacks and the Bashkirs , Muslim vassals of the Russians, of Oirat encampments was commonplace. Numerous oaths and treaties were signed to ensure Oirat loyalty and military assistance. Although

3000-638: The Khoshut , and leaders of the Dzungar Khanates (1642–1720). These relationships occurred simultaneously with the priest and patron relationship between Tibet and the emperors of the Manchu -led Qing dynasty (1720–1912), which officially continued until the collapse of the Qing empire in 1912. 1578 AD, Dalai Lama. The title Dalai Lama is part of the full title "圣 识一切 瓦齐尔达喇 达赖 喇嘛" (Holy Knowing Everying Vajradhara Dalai Lama) given by Altan Khan . "Dalai Lama"

3120-669: The Khovd region in northwest Mongolia, reuniting most of Mongolia in the process . The Oirats would later regroup south of the Altai Mountains in Dzungaria. But Geresenz's grandson, Sholoi Ubashi Khuntaiji, pushed the Oirats further northwest, along the steppes of the Ob and Irtysh Rivers. Afterwards, he established a Khalkha Khanate under the name, Altan Khan, in the Oirat heartland of Dzungaria. In spite of

3240-634: The North Caucasus . These campaigns highlighted the strategic importance of the Kalmyk Khanate which functioned as a buffer zone, separating Russia and the Muslim world, as Russia fought wars in Europe to establish itself as a European power. To encourage the release of Oirat cavalrymen in support of its military campaigns, the Russian Empire increasingly relied on the provision of monetary payments and dry goods to

3360-723: The Qing Empire , in the Dzungar–Qing Wars ; they were the last of the Mongol groups to resist vassalage to Qing. At the start of this 400-year era, the Western Mongols designated themselves as the Four Oirat . The alliance comprised four major Western Mongol tribes: Khoshut , Choros , Torghut and Dörbet . Collectively, the Four Oirat sought power as an alternative to the Mongols, who were

3480-595: The Sakya and the Phagmo Drupa (Karma Kagyu affiliated) dynasties, and it is to him that the effective conversion of Mongolia to Buddhism is due. A brilliant scholar and teacher, he had the spiritual maturity to be made Abbot of Drepung, taking responsibility for the material and spiritual well-being of Tibet's largest monastery at the age of nine. At 10 he led the Monlam Prayer Festival , giving daily discourses to

3600-552: The Semey region along the lower portions of the Irtysh River, where they built several steppe monasteries . The Khoshut were adjacent to the Khalkha khanates of Altan Khan and Dzasagtu Khan. Both khanates prevented the Khoshut and the other Oirat from trading with Chinese border towns. The Khoshut were ruled by Baibagas Khan and then Güshi Khan , who were the first Oirat leaders to convert to

3720-686: The Tibetan Plateau , where he formed the Khoshut Khanate to protect Tibet and the Gelug from both internal and external enemies. Erdeni Batur and his descendants, by contrast, formed the Dzungar Khanate and came to dominate Central Eurasia. In 1618, the Torghut and a small contingent of Dörbet Oirats (200,000–250,000 people) chose to migrate from the upper Irtysh River region to the grazing pastures of

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3840-751: The Tümed Mongols who had already been converted to Buddhism by the Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588). This strong connection caused the Mongols to zealously support the Gelugpa sect in Tibet, strengthening their status and position but also arousing intensified opposition from the Gelugpa's rivals, particularly the Tsang Karma Kagyu in Shigatse and their Mongol patrons and the Bönpo in Kham and their allies. Being

3960-531: The bodhisattva of compassion, has a special relationship with the people of Tibet and intervenes in their fate by incarnating as benevolent rulers and teachers such as the Dalai Lamas. The Book of Kadam , the main text of the Kadampa school from which the 1st Dalai Lama hailed, is said to have laid the foundation for the Tibetans' later identification of the Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara. It traces

4080-423: The "Frontier Period", lasting from the advent of the Torghut under Kho Orluk in 1630 to the end of the great khanate of Kho Orluk 's descendant, Ayuka Khan , in 1724, a phase accompanied by little discernible acculturative change: There were few sustained interrelations between Kalmyks and Russians in the frontier period. Routine contacts consisted in the main of seasonal commodity exchanges of Kalmyk livestock and

4200-471: The 'Great 5th' founded the Dalai Lamas' religious and political reign over Tibet that survived for over 300 years. Gendun Drup (1391–1474), a disciple of Je Tsongkapa , would eventually be known as the ' First Dalai Lama ', but he would not receive this title until 104 years after he died. There was resistance to naming him as such, since he was ordained a monk in the Kadampa tradition and for various reasons,

4320-690: The 15th century, the three major groups of Oirat formed an alliance, adopting "Dörben Oirat" as their collective name. In the early 17th century, a second great Oirat Confederation emerged, which later became the Dzungar Empire. While the Dzungars (initially Choros, Dörbet and Khoit tribes) were establishing their empire in Central Eurasia, the Khoshuts were establishing the Khoshut Khanate in Tibet, protecting

4440-426: The 15–17th centuries, they established under the name "10 tumen Mongols", a cavalry unit of 10,000 horsemen, including four Oirat tumen and six tumen composed of other Mongols. They reestablished their traditional pastoral nomadic lifestyle during the end of the Yuan dynasty. The Oirats formed this alliance to defend themselves against the Khalkha Mongols and to pursue the greater objective of reunifying Mongolia. Until

4560-400: The 17th century, the First Altan Khan drove the Oirats westward to present-day eastern Kazakhstan . The Torghuts became the westernmost Oirat tribe, encamped in the Tarbagatai Mountains region and along the northern stretches of the Irtysh , Ishim and Tobol Rivers . Further west, the Kazakhs – a Turco-Mongol people – prevented the Torghuts from sending its trading caravans to

4680-476: The 2nd then moved on to southern Tibet and gathered more followers there who helped him construct a new monastery, Chokorgyel . He established the method by which later Dalai Lama incarnations would be discovered through visions at the "oracle lake", Lhamo Lhatso . The 3rd built on his predecessors' fame by becoming Abbot of the two great monasteries of Drepung and Sera . The Mongol leader Altan Khan , first Ming Shunyi King, hearing of his reputation, invited

4800-458: The 3rd to Mongolia where the 3rd converted the King and his followers to Buddhism, covering a vast tract of central Asia. This brought most of Mongolia into the Dalai Lama's sphere of influence, founding a spiritual empire which largely survives to the modern age. After being given the Mongolian name 'Dalai', he returned to Tibet to found the great monasteries of Lithang in Kham, eastern Tibet and Kumbum in Amdo, north-eastern Tibet. The 4th

4920-464: The 6th–8th centuries the Avar Khanate ; in medieval times, establishing the Ulus of Juchi and Il-Kanate as Khuda-in-laws of Genghis Khan ; and finally, in early modern times, establishing the Kalmyk Khanate in the 17th century. The Oirat language belongs to the western branch of the Mongolic language family, whose speakers include numerous sub-ethnic groups (Derbet, Torgut, Khoshut, Olot, Dzungar (Zunghar), Bayad, Zakhchin, Khoton, Myangad, Buzava) across

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5040-445: The Abbot he declined, already being Abbot of Drepung and Sera, but left his deputy there in his stead. From there he visited Narthang , the first monastery of Gendun Drup and gave numerous discourses and offerings to the monks in gratitude. Meanwhile, Altan Khan , chief of all the Mongol tribes near China's borders, had heard of Sonam Gyatso's spiritual prowess and repeatedly invited him to Mongolia. By 1571, when Altan Khan received

5160-537: The Chinese Emperor summoned him to his court. By then he had established a religious empire of such proportions that it was unsurprising the Emperor wanted to summon him and grant him a diploma. Through Altan Khan, the 3rd Dalai Lama requested to pay tribute to the Emperor of China in order to raise his State Tutor ranking, and the Ming imperial court of China agreed with the request. In 1582, he heard Altan Khan had died and invited by his son Dhüring Khan he decided to return to Mongolia. Passing through Amdo , he founded

5280-467: The Dalai Lama's wisdom. The Dalai Lama is also known in Tibetan as the Rgyal-ba Rin-po-che ( ' Precious Conqueror ' ) or simply as the Rgyal-ba . 1587 AD, Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (朵儿只唱). As requested by the third Shunyi King of Ming China, Chelike, Sonam Gyatso was given title Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (朵儿只唱) by Wanli Emperor . Samding Dorje Phagmo Since the 11th century, it has been widely believed in Central Asian Buddhist countries that Avalokiteśvara ,

5400-400: The Don Cossack region, Orenburg, Stavropol, the Terek and the Ural Mountains. Another generally accepted name is Ulan Zalata or the "red-buttoned ones" . In January 1771 the oppression of Tsarist administration forced the larger part of Kalmyks (33 thousand households, or approximately 170,000–200,000 people) to migrate to Dzungaria. Ubashi Khan , the great-grandson of Ayuka Khan and

5520-432: The Don River and the Sarpa lake system, attaining the higher grounds along the Don in the summer, passing the autumn in the Sarpa and Volga lowlands. In October and November they returned to their winter camps and pastures . Oirat language Oirat ( Clear script : ᡆᡕᡅᠷᠠᡑ ᡍᡄᠯᡄᠨ , Oirad kelen ; Kalmyk : Өөрд , Öörd [øːˈrət] ; Khalkha Mongolian : Ойрад , Oirad [ˈœe̯rət] )

5640-423: The Dzungars, to centralize political and military control over the tribes under his leadership. Some scholars, however, believe that the Torghuts sought uncontested pastures as their territory was being encroached upon by the Russians from the north, the Kazakhs from the south and the Dzungars from the east. The encroachments resulted in overcrowding of people and livestock, thereby diminishing the food supply. Lastly,

5760-496: The Four Oirat unified Mongolia for a short period. After Esen's death in 1455, the political union of the Dörben Oirat dissolved quickly, resulting in two decades of Oirat-Eastern Mongol conflict. The deadlock ended during the reign of Batmunkh Dayan Khan , a five-year-old boy in whose name the loyal Eastern Mongol forces rallied. Mandukhai Khatun and Dayan Khan took advantage of Oirat disunity and weakness and brought Oirats back under Mongolian rule. In doing so, he regained control of

5880-409: The Fourth Dalai Lama in 1617 led to open conflict breaking out between various parties. Firstly, the Tsangpa dynasty, rulers of Central Tibet from Shigatse, supporters of the Karmapa school and rivals to the Gelugpa , forbade the search for his incarnation. However, in 1618 Sonam Rabten , the former attendant of the 4th Dalai Lama who had become the Ganden Phodrang treasurer, secretly identified

6000-556: The Gelugpa sect from its enemies, and the Torghuts formed the Kalmyk Khanate in the lower Volga region. After encamping, the Oirats began to identify themselves as "Kalmyk." This named was supposedly given to them by their Muslim neighbors and later used by the Russians to describe them. The Oirats used this name in their dealings with outsiders, viz., their Russian and Muslim neighbors. But they continued to refer to themselves by their tribal, clan, or other internal affiliations. The name Kalmyk, however, wasn't immediately accepted by all of

6120-504: The Great executed influential nobles from among them. Approximately five-sixths of the Torghut followed Ubashi Khan. Most of the Khoshut, Choros, and Khoid also accompanied the Torghut on their journey to Dzungaria. The Dörbet Oirat, in contrast, elected not to go at all. Catherine the Great asked the Russian army, Bashkirs, and Kazakh Khanate to stop all migrants. Beset by Kazakh raids, thirst and starvation, approximately 85,000 Kalmyks died on their way to Dzungaria. After failing to stop

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6240-419: The Kadampa school had eschewed the adoption of the tulku system to which the older schools adhered. Therefore, although Gendun Drup grew to be an important Gelugpa lama, there was no search to identify his incarnation after his death in 1474. Despite this, 55 years after Tsongkhapa, the Tashilhunpo monks heard accounts that an incarnation of Gendun Drup had appeared nearby and repeatedly announced himself from

6360-462: The Khan as heir to the Chingizid lineage whilst securing his patronage. Altan Khan and his followers quickly adopted Buddhism as their state religion, replacing the prohibited traditional Shamanism . Mongol law was reformed to accord with Tibetan Buddhist law. From this time Buddhism spread rapidly across Mongolia and soon the Gelugpa had won the spiritual allegiance of most of the Mongolian tribes. As proposed by Sonam Gyatso, Altan Khan sponsored

6480-525: The Mongol homeland and restored the hegemony of the Eastern Mongols. After the death of Dayan in 1543, the Oirats and the Khalkhas resumed their conflict. The Oirat forces thrust eastward, but Dayan's youngest son, Geresenz, was given command of the Khalkha forces and drove the Oirats to Uvs Lake in northwest Mongolia. In 1552, after the Oirats once again challenged the Khalkha, Altan Khan swept up from Inner Mongolia with Tümed and Ordos cavalry units, pushing elements of various Oirat tribes from Karakorum to

6600-409: The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China in 1368, the Oirats emerged as a formidable foe against the Khalkha Mongols , the Han -led Ming dynasty and the Manchu -led Qing dynasty . For 400 years, the Oirats conducted a military struggle for domination and control over both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia . The struggle ended in 1757 with the defeat of the Oirats of the Dzungar Khanate against

6720-407: The Muslim towns and villages located along the Syr Darya river. As a result, the Torghuts established a trading relationship with the newly established outposts of the Tsarist government whose expansion into and exploration of Siberia was motivated mostly by the desire to profit from trade with Asia . The Khoshut , by contrast, were the easternmost Oirat, encamped near the Lake Zaysan area and

6840-420: The Oirat Khan and the Oirat nobility. In that respect, the Russian Empire treated the Oirats as it did the Cossacks. The provision of monetary payments and dry goods, however, did not stop the mutual raiding, and, in some instances, both sides failed to fulfill its promises . Another significant incentive the Russian Empire provided to the Oirats was tariff-free access to the markets of Russian border towns, where

6960-413: The Oirat caused dissension among the tribes and their Chief Tayishis who were independent minded but also highly regarded leaders themselves. This dissension reputedly caused Kho Orluk to move the Torghut tribe and elements of the Dörbet tribe westward to the Volga region where his descendants formed the Kalmyk Khanate. In the east, Güshi Khan took part of the Khoshut to the Tsaidam and Qinghai regions in

7080-526: The Oirat tribes in the lower Volga region. As late as 1761, the Khoshut and Dzungars (refugees from the Manchu Empire) referred to themselves and the Torghuts exclusively as Oirats. The Torghuts, by contrast, used the name Kalmyk for themselves as well as the Khoshut and Dzungars. Generally, European scholars have identified all western Mongolians collectively as Kalmyks, regardless of their location ( Ramstedt , 1935: v–vi). Such scholars (e.g. Sebastian Muenster) have relied on Muslim sources who traditionally used

7200-431: The Oirats became subjects of the Tsar, such allegiance by the Oirats was deemed to be nominal. In reality, the Oirats governed themselves pursuant to a document known as the "Great Code of the Nomads" ( Iki Tsaadzhin Bichig ). The Code was promulgated in 1640 by them, their brethren in Dzungaria and some of the Khalkha who all gathered near the Tarbagatai Mountains in Dzungaria to resolve their differences and to unite under

7320-461: The Oirats were permitted to barter their herds and the items they obtained from Asia and their Muslim neighbors in exchange for Russian goods. Trade also occurred with neighboring Turkic tribes under Russian control, such as the Tatars and the Bashkirs. Intermarriage became common with such tribes. This trading arrangement provided substantial benefits, monetary and otherwise, to the Oirat tayishis, noyons and zaisangs. Fred Adelman described this era as

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7440-402: The Olklha mountains. He also stayed in Kongpo and Dagpo and became known all over Tibet. He spent his winters in Lhasa, writing commentaries, and spent the rest of the year travelling and teaching many thousands of monks and laypeople. In 1509, he moved to southern Tibet to build Chokorgyel Monastery near the 'Oracle Lake', Lhamo Latso , completing it by 1511. That year he saw visions in

7560-406: The Russian Empire sought the increased use of Oirat cavalry in support of its military campaigns against the Muslim powers in the south, such as Safavid Iran , the Ottoman Empire, the Nogais, the Tatars of Kuban and the Crimean Khanate . Ayuka Khan also waged wars against the Kazakhs, subjugated the Turkmens of the Mangyshlak Peninsula , and made multiple expeditions against the highlanders of

7680-399: The Tashilhunpo establishment when tensions arose over conflicts between advocates of the two types of succession: the traditional abbatial election through merit and incarnation. He therefore moved to central Tibet, where he was invited to Drepung and where his reputation as a brilliant young teacher quickly grew. This move had the effect of shifting central Gelug authority back to Lhasa. He

7800-501: The Tibetan government in Lhasa , known as the Ganden Phodrang . It governed all of the Tibetan Plateau while respecting varying degrees of autonomy. In 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama revoked Tibet's Seventeen Point Agreement with China, at which point he legally returned to the secular leadership position of governing Tibet. As both spiritual and secular leaders, the Dalai Lama tulku lineage also undertook priest and patron relationships with neighbors, including Mongolian leaders, kings of

7920-406: The Western Mongols' self-designation as the Four Oirat, the Eastern Mongols began to refer to themselves as the "Forty Mongols", or the "Forty and Four". This means that the Khalkha Mongols claimed to have forty tümen to the four tümen maintained by the Four Oirat. The Oirat alliance was decentralized, informal and unstable. For instance, the Four Oirat did not have a central location from which it

8040-476: The age of 50, he entered meditation retreat at Narthang . As he grew older, Karma Kagyu adherents, finding their sect was losing too many recruits to the monkhood to burgeoning Gelugpa monasteries, tried to contain Gelug expansion by launching military expeditions against them. This led to decades of military and political power struggles between Tsangpa dynasty forces and others across central Tibet. In an attempt to ameliorate these clashes, Gendun Drup issued

8160-413: The age of 67 and his reliquary stupa was constructed at Khyomorlung. It was said that, by the time he died, through his disciples and their students, his personal influence covered the whole of Buddhist Central Asia where 'there was nobody of any consequence who did not know of him.' The Dalai Lama title was posthumously granted to Gedun Gyatso after 1578. The Third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588),

8280-457: The age of 84, he went on a final teaching tour by foot to visit Narthang Monastery . Returning to Tashilhunpo he died 'in a blaze of glory, recognised as having attained Buddhahood'. His remains were interred in a bejewelled silver stupa at Tashi Lhunpo Monastery , which survived the Cultural Revolution and can still be seen. After Gendun Drup died, a boy called Sangyey Pel, born to Nyngma adepts at Yolkar in Tsang , declared himself at

8400-540: The age of eight. His father took him on teachings and retreats, training him in all the family Nyingma lineages. At twelve he was installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's incarnation, ordained, enthroned, and renamed Gendun Gyatso Palzangpo (1475–1542). Tutored personally by the abbot, he made rapid progress, and in 1492 at the age of seventeen he was requested to teach all over Tsang, where thousands gathered to listen and give obeisance, including senior scholars and abbots. Two years later, he met some opposition from

8520-452: The age of three to be Gendun Drup and asked to be 'taken home' to Tashilhunpo. He spoke in mystical verses, quoted classical texts spontaneously, and claimed to be Dromtönpa , an earlier incarnation of the Dalai Lamas. When he saw monks from Tashilhunpo, he greeted the disciples of the late Gendun Drup by name. Convinced by the evidence, the Gelugpa elders broke with the traditions of their school and recognised him as Gendun Drup's tulku at

8640-423: The age of two. The monastic authorities saw compelling evidence that convinced them the child in question was indeed the incarnation of their founder and felt obliged to break with their own tradition, and in 1487, the boy was renamed Gendun Gyatso and installed at Tashilhunpo as Gendun Drup's tulku, albeit informally. Gendun Gyatso died in 1542, but the lineage of Dalai Lama tulkus became firmly established with

8760-547: The assembly of all Gelugpa monks. His influence grew so quickly that soon the monks at Sera Monastery also made him their Abbot and his mediation was being sought to prevent fighting between political power factions. At 16, in 1559, he was invited to Nedong by King Ngawang Tashi Drakpa , a Karma Kagyu supporter, and became his personal teacher. At 17, when fighting broke out in Lhasa between Gelug and Kagyu parties and efforts by local lamas to mediate failed, Sonam Gyatso negotiated

8880-515: The banner of the Gelug school. Although the goal of unification was not met, the summit leaders did ratify the Code, which regulated all aspects of nomadic life. In securing their position, the Oirats became a borderland power, often allying themselves with the Russian Empire against the neighboring Muslim population. During the era of Ayuka Khan , the Oirats rose to political and military prominence as

9000-588: The best students from hundreds of lesser monasteries in Asia were sent to Drepung for education. Throughout Gendun Gyatso's life, the Gelugpa were opposed and suppressed by older rivals, particularly the Karma Kagyu and their Ringpung clan patrons from Tsang, who felt threatened by their loss of influence. In 1498, the Ringpung army captured Lhasa and banned the Gelugpa annual New Year Monlam Prayer Festival . Gendun Gyatso

9120-437: The building of Thegchen Chonkhor Monastery at the site of Sonam Gyatso's open-air teachings given to the whole Mongol population. He also called Sonam Gyatso "Dalai", Mongolian for 'Gyatso' (Ocean). In October 1587, as requested by the family of Altan Khan, Gyalwa Sonam Gyatso was promoted to Duǒ Er Zhǐ Chàng (Chinese:朵儿只唱) by the emperor of China, seal of authority and golden sheets were granted. The name "Dalai Lama", by which

9240-643: The child, who had been born to the noble Zahor family at Tagtse castle, south of Lhasa. Then, the Panchen Lama , in Shigatse, negotiated the lifting of the ban, enabling the boy to be recognised as Lobsang Gyatso , the 5th Dalai Lama. Also in 1618, the Tsangpa King, Karma Puntsok Namgyal, whose Mongol patron was Choghtu Khong Tayiji of the Khalkha Mongols , attacked the Gelugpa in Lhasa to avenge an earlier snub and established two military bases there to control

9360-687: The dynamic leadership of Erdeni Batur, the Dzungars stopped the expansion of the first Altan Khan and began planning the resurrection of the Four Oirat under the Dzungar banner. In furtherance of such plans, Erdeni Batur designed and built a capital city called Kubak-sari on the Emil River near the modern city of Tacheng . During his attempt to build a nation, Erdeni Batur encouraged diplomacy, commerce and farming. He also sought to acquire modern weaponry and build small industry, such as metal works, to supply his military with weapons. The attempted unification of

9480-434: The era of Ayuka Khan, the Kalmyk Khanate reached its peak of military and political power. The Khanate experienced economic prosperity from free trade with Russian border towns, China, Tibet and with their Muslim neighbors. During this era, Ayuka Khan also kept close contacts with his Oirat kinsmen in Dzungaria, as well as the Dalai Lama in Tibet. Historically, Oirat identified themselves by their respective sub-group names. In

9600-485: The first two tulkus in the lineage, the 1st Dalai Lama and the 2nd Dalai Lama , were posthumously awarded the title. All tulkus in the lineage of the Dalai Lamas are considered manifestations of the Buddha Avalokiteshvara , the bodhisattva of compassion. Since the time of the 5th Dalai Lama in the 17th century, the Dalai Lama has been a symbol of unification of the state of Tibet . The Dalai Lama

9720-583: The flight, Catherine abolished the Kalmyk Khanate, transferring all governmental powers to the governor of Astrakhan. The title of Khan was abolished. The highest native governing office remaining was the Vice- Khan , who also was recognized by the government as the highest ranking Kalmyk prince. By appointing the Vice-Khan, the Russian Empire was now permanently the decisive force in Kalmyk government and affairs. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) of

9840-688: The lake and 'empowered' it to impart clues to help identify incarnate lamas. All Dalai Lamas from the 3rd on were found with the help of such visions granted to regents. He was invited back to Tashilhunpo and given the residence built for Gendun Drup, to be occupied later by the Panchen Lamas . He was made abbot of Tashilhunpo and stayed there teaching in Tsang for nine months. Gendun Gyatso continued to travel widely and teach while based at Tibet's largest monastery, Drepung and became known as 'Drepung Lama', his fame and influence spreading all over Central Asia as

9960-563: The largest monastery in the whole of Tibet. He attracted many students and disciples 'from Kashmir to China' as well as major patrons and disciples such as Gongma Nangso Donyopa of Droda who built a monastery at Zhekar Dzong in his honour and invited him to name it and be its spiritual guide. Gongma Gyaltsen Palzangpo of Khyomorlungand and his Queen, Sangyey Paldzomma, became his favorite patrons and disciples and he visited their area to carry out rituals as 'he chose it for his next place of rebirth'. He died in meditation at Drepung in 1542 at

10080-539: The last Kalmyk Khan, decided to return his people to their ancestral homeland, Dzungaria, and restore the Dzungar Khanate and Mongolian independence. As C.D Barkman notes, "It is quite clear that the Torghuts had not intended to surrender the Chinese, but had hoped to lead an independent existence in Dzungaria." Ubashi sent 30,000 cavalry in the first year of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) to gain weaponry before

10200-530: The legend of the bodhisattva's incarnations as early Tibetan kings and emperors such as Songtsen Gampo and later as Dromtönpa (1004–1064). This lineage has been extrapolated by Tibetans up to and including the Dalai Lamas. Thus, according to such sources, an informal line of succession of the present Dalai Lamas as incarnations of Avalokiteśvara stretches back much further than the 1st Dalai Lama, Gendun Drub ; as many as sixty persons are enumerated as earlier incarnations of Avalokiteśvara and predecessors in

10320-555: The limited occupational prospects in Chinese society for graduates of Mongolian schools. As for Mongolia, the predominance of Khalkha Mongolian is bringing about the Khalkhaization of all other varieties of Mongolian. Oirat has been written in two script systems: the Mongolian scripts and Cyrillic. Historically, the Clear script , which originated from the Mongolian script , was used. It uses modified letters shapes e.g. to differentiate between different rounded vowels, and it uses

10440-502: The lineage later became known throughout the non-Tibetan world, was thus established and it was applied to the first two incarnations retrospectively. In 1579, the Ming allowed the third Dalai Lama to pay regular tribute. Returning eventually to Tibet by a roundabout route and invited to stay and teach all along the way, in 1580 Sonam Gyatso was in Hohhot [or Ningxia ], not far from Beijing, when

10560-530: The lower Volga region south of Saratov and north of the Caspian Sea on both banks of the Volga River . The Torghut were led by their taishi, Kho Orluk . They were the largest Oirat tribe to migrate, bringing along nearly the entire tribe. The second-largest group was the Dörbet Oirats under their taishi, Dalai Batur. Together they moved west through southern Siberia and the southern Ural Mountains , avoiding

10680-639: The majority of the native inhabitants, the Nogai Horde . Large groups of Nogais fled southeast to the northern Caucasian plain and west to the Black Sea steppe, lands claimed by the Crimean Khanate , itself a vassal or ally of the Ottoman Empire . Smaller groups of Nogais sought the protection of the Russian garrison at Astrakhan . The remaining nomadic tribes became vassals of the Oirats. The Kalmyks battled

10800-480: The mid-17th century, when bestowal of the title of Khan was transferred to the Dalai Lama , all Mongol tribes recognized this claim and the political prestige attached to it. Although the Oirats could not assert this claim prior to the mid-17th century, they did in fact have a close connection to Genghis Khan by virtue of the fact that Genghis Khan 's brother, Qasar , was in command of the Khoshut tribe. In response to

10920-528: The middle of Tsang, Gendun Drup expanded the Gelugpa sphere of influence, and his own, from the Lhasa region of Ü to this province, which was the stronghold of the Karma Kagyu school and their patrons, the rising Tsangpa dynasty. Tashilhunpo eventually become 'Southern Tibet's greatest monastic university' with a complement of 3,000 monks. Gendun Drup was said to be the greatest scholar-saint ever produced by Narthang Monastery and became 'the single most important lama in Tibet'. Through hard work he became

11040-419: The migration. The 8th Dalai Lama was contacted to request his blessing and to set the date of departure. After consulting the astrological chart, he set a return date, but at the moment of departure, the weakening of the ice on the Volga River permitted only those Kalmyks (about 200,000 people) on the eastern bank to leave. Those 100,000–150,000 people on the western bank were forced to stay behind and Catherine

11160-464: The more direct route that would have taken them through the heart of the territory of their enemy, the Kazakhs. En route, they raided Russian settlements and Kazakh and Bashkir encampments. Many theories have been advanced to explain the reasons for the migration. One generally accepted theory is that there may have been discontent among the Oirat tribes, which arose from the attempt by Kharkhul, taishi of

11280-567: The name "Torghut" as garde de jour . He wrote that the Torghuts owed their name either to the memory of the guard of Genghis Khan or, as descendants of the Keraites , to the old garde de jour . This was documented among the Keraites in The Secret History of the Mongols before Genghis Khan took over the region. The Four Oirat was a political entity formed by the four major Oirat tribes. During

11400-466: The newest school, unlike the older schools the Gelugpa lacked an established network of Tibetan clan patronage and were thus more reliant on foreign patrons. At the age of 10 with a large Mongol escort he travelled to Lhasa where he was enthroned. He studied at Drepung and became its abbot but being a non-Tibetan he met with opposition from some Tibetans, especially the Karma Kagyu who felt their position

11520-495: The nobility and a lack of determined opposition from rival orders, he founded Tashilhunpo Monastery at Shigatse, on the very edge of Karma Kagyu-dominated territory, and would serve as its Abbot until his death. This monastery became the fourth great Gelugpa monastery in Tibet, after Ganden , Drepung, and Sera, all founded in Tsongkhapa's time, and would later become the seat of the Panchen Lamas . By establishing it at Shigatse in

11640-640: The norm at the time as well as exposure to diverse spiritual schools and ideas. He studied Buddhist philosophy extensively. In 1405, ordained by Narthang's abbot, he took the name of Gendun Drup. He was recognised as an exceptionally gifted pupil, so the abbot tutored him personally and took special interest in his progress. In twelve years he passed the twelve grades of monkhood and took the highest vows. After completing his intensive studies at Narthang he left to continue at specialist monasteries in Central Tibet. In 1415, Gendun Drup met Tsongkhapa , founder of

11760-589: The northwest of China and Russia 's Caspian coast, where its major variety is Kalmyk . In China, it is spoken mainly in Xinjiang , but also among the Deed Mongol of Qinghai and Subei County in Gansu . In all three countries, Oirat has become variously endangered or even obsolescent as a direct result of government actions or as a consequence of social and economic policies. Its most widespread tribal dialect, which

11880-426: The one hand and Cossacks and Bashkirs on the other. A few Kalmyk nobles became russified and nominally Christian who went to Moscow in hope of securing Russian help for their political ambitions on the Kalmyk steppe. Russian subsidies to Kalmyk nobles, however, became an effective means of political control only later. Yet gradually the Kalmyk princes came to require Russian support and to abide in Russian policy. During

12000-574: The only traditionally Buddhist ethnic group who are located inside Europe . Through emigration, small Kalmyk communities have been established in the United States, France, Germany, and the Czech Republic. The contemporary Kalmyks are a branch of the Mongolian Oirats , whose ancient grazing-lands spanned present-day parts of Kazakhstan , Russia , Mongolia and China . After the fall of

12120-590: The original group reached Balkhash Lake , the western border of Qing China . This migration became the topic of The Revolt of the Tartars , by Thomas De Quincey . The Qing shifted the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks soon died. The migrant Kalmyks became known as Torghut in Qing China. The Torghut were coerced by the Qing into giving up their nomadic lifestyle and to take up sedentary agriculture instead as part of

12240-734: The patrilineal heirs to Genghis Khan . The Four Oirat incorporated neighboring tribes or splinter groups at times, so there was a great deal of fluctuation in the composition of the alliance, with larger tribes dominating or absorbing the smaller ones. Smaller tribes belonging to the confederation included the Khoits, Zakhchin, Bayids and Khangal. Together, these nomadic tribes roamed the grassy plains of western Inner Asia, between Lake Balkhash in present-day eastern Kazakhstan and Lake Baikal in present-day Russia north of central Mongolia. They pitched their yurts and kept herds of cattle, flocks of sheep, horses, donkeys and camels. Paul Pelliot translated

12360-495: The products thereof for such nomad necessities as brick tea, grain, textiles and metal articles, at Astrakhan, Tsaritsyn and Saratov. This was the kind of exchange relationship between nomads and urban craftsmen and traders in which the Kalmyks traditionally engaged. Political contacts consisted of a series of treaty arrangements for the nominal allegiance of the Kalmyk Khans to Russia, and the cessation of mutual raiding by Kalmyks on

12480-436: The province of Ü before he died in 1419. The 1st Dalai Lama soon became Abbot of the greatest one, Drepung , and developed a large popular power base in Ü. He later extended this to cover Tsang, where he constructed a fourth great monastery, Tashi Lhunpo , at Shigatse . The 2nd studied there before returning to Lhasa, where he became Abbot of Drepung. Having reactivated the 1st's large popular followings in Tsang and Ü,

12600-419: The same lineage leading up to Gendun Drub. These earlier incarnations include a mythology of 36 Indian personalities, ten early Tibetan kings and emperors all said to be previous incarnations of Dromtönpa, and fourteen further Nepalese and Tibetan yogis and sages. In fact, according to the "Birth to Exile" article on the 14th Dalai Lama's website, he is "the seventy-fourth in a lineage that can be traced back to

12720-415: The second invitation, in 1577–78 Sonam Gyatso travelled 1,500 miles to Mongolia to see him. They met in an atmosphere of intense reverence and devotion and their meeting resulted in the re-establishment of strong Tibet-Mongolia relations after a gap of 200 years. To Altan Khan, Sonam Gyatso identified himself as the incarnation of Drogön Chögyal Phagpa , and Altan Khan as that of Kubilai Khan , thus placing

12840-454: The setbacks, the Oirats would continue their campaigns against the Altan Khanate, trying to unseat Sholoi Ubashi Khuntaiji from Dzungaria. The continuous, back-and-forth nature of the struggle, which defined this period, is captured in the Oirat epic song "The Rout of Mongolian Sholoi Ubashi Khuntaiji", recounting the Oirat victory over the Altan Khan of the Khalkha in 1587. At the beginning of

12960-403: The support of lesser noyons, who were also called taishi. These minor noyons controlled divisions of the tribe ( ulus ) and were politically and economically independent of the chief tayishi. Chief taishis sought to influence and dominate the chief taishis of the other tribes, causing intertribal rivalry, dissension and periodic skirmishes. Under the leadership of Esen, Chief Taishi of the Choros,

13080-461: The third incarnation, Sonam Gyatso (1543–1588), who was formally recognised and enthroned at Drepung in 1546. Gendun Gyatso was given the title "Dalai Lama" by the Tümed Altan Khan in 1578, and his two predecessors were then accorded the title posthumously, making Gendun now the third in the lineage. Pema Dorje (1391–1474), who would eventually be posthumously declared the 1st Dalai Lama,

13200-491: The west banks of the Volga River. The Tsardom of Russia was not ready to colonize the area and was in no position to prevent the Oirats from encamping in the region, but it had a direct political interest in ensuring that the Oirats would not become allied with its Turkic-speaking neighbors. The Kalmyks became Russian allies and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. The Oirats quickly consolidated their position by expelling

13320-463: The word "Kalmyk" to describe western Mongolians in a derogatory manner and the western Mongols of China and Mongolia have regarded that name as a term of abuse . Instead, they use the name Oirat or they go by their respective tribal names, e.g., Khoshut, Dörbet, Choros, Torghut, Khoit, Bayid, Mingat, etc. . Over time, the descendants of the Oirat migrants in the lower Volga region embraced the name "Kalmyk" irrespective of their locations, viz., Astrakhan,

13440-462: Was Sonam Gyatso at the age of 21 who was requested to lead his funeral rites, rather than his own Kagyu lamas. Required to travel and teach without respite after taking full ordination in 1565, he still maintained extensive meditation practices in the hours before dawn and again at the end of the day. In 1569, at age 26, he went to Tashilhunpo to study the layout and administration of the monastery built by his predecessor Gendun Drup. Invited to become

13560-411: Was afforded all the loyalty and devotion that Gendun Drup had earned and the Gelug school remained as united as ever. Under his leadership, the sect continued growing in size and influence and its lamas were asked to mediate in disputes between other rivals. Gendun Gyatso's popularity in Ü-Tsang grew as he went on pilgrimage, teaching and studying from masters such as the adept Khedrup Norzang Gyatso in

13680-425: Was an important figure of the Gelug tradition, which was dominant in Central Tibet, but his religious authority went beyond sectarian boundaries, representing Buddhist values and traditions not tied to a specific school. The Dalai Lama's traditional function as an ecumenical figure has been taken up by the fourteenth Dalai Lama , who has worked to overcome sectarian and other divisions in the exile community and become

13800-454: Was born in Tolung, near Lhasa, as predicted by his predecessor. Claiming he was Gendun Gyatso and readily recalling events from his previous life, he was recognised as the incarnation, named 'Sonam Gyatso' and installed at Drepung, where 'he quickly excelled his teachers in knowledge and wisdom and developed extraordinary powers'. Unlike his predecessors, he came from a noble family, connected with

13920-457: Was born in a cattle pen in Shabtod, Tsang in 1391. His family were goatherders, but when his father died in 1398, his mother entrusted him to his uncle for education as a Buddhist monk. Pema Dorje was sent to Narthang , a major Kadampa monastery near Shigatse, which ran the largest printing press in Tibet. Its celebrated library attracted many scholars, so Pema Dorje received an education beyond

14040-456: Was governed, and it was not governed by a central figure for most of its existence. The four Oirats did not establish a single military or a unified monastic system. Lastly, it was not until 1640 that the Four Oirat adopted uniform customary laws. As pastoralist nomads, the Oirats were organized at the tribal level, where each tribe was ruled by a noyon or prince who also functioned as the chief taishi "chieftain". The chief taishi governed with

14160-475: Was promoted to abbot of Drepung in 1517 and that year Ringpung forces were forced to withdraw from Lhasa. Gendun Gyatso then went to the Gongma (King) Drakpa Jungne to obtain permission for the festival to be held again. The next New Year, the Gongma was so impressed by Gendun Gyatso's performance leading the festival that he sponsored construction of a large new residence for him at Drepung, 'a monastery within

14280-467: Was then born in Mongolia as the great-grandson of Altan Khan , cementing strong ties between Central Asia, the Dalai Lamas, the Gelugpa and Tibet . The 5th in the succession used the vast popular power base of devoted followers built up by his four predecessors. By 1642, with the strategy provided by his chagdzo (manager) Sonam Rapten and the military assistance of Khoshut chieftain Gushri Khan ,

14400-457: Was threatened by these emerging events; there were several attempts to remove him from power. Seal of authority was granted in 1616 by Wanli Emperor of Ming. Yonten Gyatso died at the age of 27 under suspicious circumstances and his chief attendant Sonam Rapten went on to discover the 5th Dalai Lama, became his chagdzo or manager and after 1642 he went on to be his regent, the Desi. The death of

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