Misplaced Pages

#863136

99-652: Güshi Khan (1582 – 14 January 1655) was a Khoshut prince and founder of the Khoshut Khanate , who supplanted the Tumed descendants of Altan Khan as the main benefactor of the Dalai Lama and the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism . In 1637, Güshi Khan defeated a rival Mongol prince Choghtu Khong Tayiji , a Kagyu follower, near Qinghai Lake and established his khanate in Tibet over

198-647: A quadripoint . The geography of Mongolia is varied, with the Gobi Desert to the south and cold, mountainous regions to the north and west. Much of Mongolia consists of the Mongolian-Manchurian grassland , with forested areas accounting for 11.2% of the total land area, a higher percentage than Ireland (10%). The whole of Mongolia is considered to be part of the Mongolian Plateau. The highest point in Mongolia

297-646: A 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.36/10, ranking it sixth globally out of 172 countries. Mongolia's total population as of January 2015 was estimated by the U.S. Census Bureau to be 3,000,251 people, ranking around 121st in the world. But the U.S. Department of State Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs uses the United Nations (UN) estimations instead of the U.S. Census Bureau estimations. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division estimates Mongolia's total population (mid-2007) as 2,629,000 (11% less than

396-512: A category of arid rangeland with insufficient vegetation to support marmots but with enough to support camels. Mongols distinguish Gobi from desert proper, although the distinction is not always apparent to outsiders unfamiliar with the Mongolian landscape. Gobi rangelands are fragile and easily destroyed by overgrazing, which results in expansion of the true desert, a stony waste where not even Bactrian camels can survive. The arid conditions in

495-575: A confederation in 209 BC. Soon they emerged as the greatest threat to the Qin dynasty , forcing the latter to construct the Great Wall of China . It was guarded by up to almost 300,000 soldiers during Marshal Meng Tian 's tenure, as a means of defense against the destructive Xiongnu raids. The vast Xiongnu empire (209 BC–93 AD) was followed by the Mongolic Xianbei empire (93–234 AD), which also ruled more than

594-513: A dictatorship and organized Stalinist purges in Mongolia between 1937 and 1939, died suspiciously in the Soviet Union in 1952. Comintern leader Bohumír Šmeral said, "People of Mongolia are not important, the land is important. Mongolian land is larger than England, France and Germany". After the Japanese invasion of neighboring Manchuria in 1931, Mongolia was threatened on this front. During

693-481: A large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan . Since the adoption of the new Constitution of Mongolia on 13 February 1992, the official name of the state is "Mongolia" ( Mongol Uls ). The Khoit Tsenkher Cave in Khovd Province shows lively pink, brown, and red ochre paintings (dated to 20,000 years ago) of mammoths , lynx , bactrian camels , and ostriches , earning it

792-457: A large prison-yard. All the root causes of unhappiness were removed from their places. The lamas and rulers of the Sakyapa , Gelugpa , Karmapa , Drukpa and Taklungpa were brought out of the prison dungeons where they had been placed and sent back to their own. The people up to the king of Jang paid taxes in money and earnestly sought to bow to him respectfully." The Beri ruler was executed and all

891-496: A market economy was often rocky; during the early 1990s the country had to deal with high inflation and food shortages. The first election victories for non-communist parties came in 1993 (presidential elections) and 1996 (parliamentary elections). China has supported Mongolia's application for membership in the Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and granting it observer status in

990-493: A message, suggesting that the troops of Kham and Tsang would attack the Gelugpa stronghold in Ü in concert. The aim was to eradicate the Gelugpa and allow freedom of worship for the other sects. The message was intercepted and forwarded to Güshi Khan, who used it as a pretext for a new invasion. The Dalai Lama is said to have been opposed to creating more bloodshed, but Sonam Rapten went behind his back and encouraged Güshi to destroy

1089-415: A minor revival of the historic Mongolian script , which is still the official script used by Mongols in neighboring Inner Mongolia . Although Mongolian script has officially been declared the national script , and is taught from the sixth grade onward at schools, it remains mostly confined to ceremonial usage in daily life. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to use both Cyrillic and

SECTION 10

#1732844946864

1188-479: A quarter of Earth's total population at the time). The emergence of Pax Mongolica also significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia during its height. After Genghis Khan's death, the empire was subdivided into four kingdoms or Khanates . These eventually became quasi-independent after the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264), which broke out in a battle for power following Möngke Khan 's death in 1259. One of

1287-719: A result of the Russian Civil War , the White Russian Lieutenant General Baron Ungern led his troops into Mongolia in October 1920, defeating the Chinese forces in Niislel Khüree (now Ulaanbaatar) in early February 1921 with Mongol support. To eliminate the threat posed by Ungern, Bolshevik Russia decided to support the establishment of a communist Mongolian government and army. This Mongolian army took

1386-526: A series of alliances and intermarriages, as well as military and economic measures. Ambans , Manchu "high officials", were installed in Khüree , Uliastai , and Khovd , and the country was divided into numerous feudal and ecclesiastical fiefdoms (which also placed people in power with loyalty to the Qing). Over the course of the 19th century, the feudal lords attached more importance to representation and less importance to

1485-676: A throne and proclaimed "Holder of the Doctrine Chogyal " ( Wylie : bstan 'dzin chos kyi rgyal po , THL : Tendzin Chö kyi Gyelpo , Mongolian : Данзан Чойгии Жалбуу ). By this time he was also known by the title of khagan , adopted in defiance of the Borjigid (the direct descendants of Genghis Khan ). Güshi invited the Dalai Lama to visit his territories, but the Great Fifth was unable to do so due to

1584-420: A year, and it is usually at the center of a region of high atmospheric pressure. Precipitation is highest in the north (average of 200 to 350 millimeters (8 to 14 in) per year) and lowest in the south, which receives 100 to 200 millimeters (4 to 8 in) annually. The highest annual precipitation of 622.297 mm (24.500 in) occurred in the forests of Bulgan Province near the border with Russia and

1683-487: Is a landlocked country in East Asia , bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), with a population of 3.5 million, making it the world's most sparsely populated sovereign state . Mongolia is the world's largest landlocked country that does not border a closed sea , and much of its area is covered by grassy steppe , with mountains to

1782-622: Is a member of the United Nations , Asia Cooperation Dialogue , G77 , Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank , Non-Aligned Movement and a NATO global partner . Mongolia joined the World Trade Organization in 1997 and seeks to expand its participation in regional economic and trade groups. The name Mongolia means the "Land of the Mongols" in Latin. The Mongolian word "Mongol" ( монгол )

1881-657: Is of uncertain etymology. Sükhbataar (1992) and de la Vaissière (2021) proposed it being a derivation from Mugulü , the 4th-century founder of the Rouran Khaganate , first attested as the 'Mungu', ( Chinese : 蒙兀 , Modern Chinese Měngwù , Middle Chinese Muwngu ), a branch of the Shiwei in an 8th-century Tang dynasty list of northern tribes, presumably related to the Liao -era Mungku (Chinese: 蒙古 , Modern Chinese Měnggǔ , Middle Chinese MuwngkuX ). After

1980-665: Is the Khüiten Peak in the Tavan bogd massif in the far west at 4,374 m (14,350 ft). The basin of the Uvs Lake , shared with Tuva Republic in Russia, is a natural World Heritage Site . Mongolia is known as the "Land of the Eternal Blue Sky" or "Country of Blue Sky" (Mongolian: "Mönkh khökh tengeriin oron") because it has over 250 sunny days a year. Most of the country is hot in

2079-399: Is the majority religion (51.7%), with the nonreligious being the second-largest group (40.6%). Islam is the third-largest religious identification (3.2%), concentrated among ethnic Kazakhs . The vast majority of citizens are ethnic Mongols, with roughly 5% of the population being Kazakhs , Tuvans , and other ethnic minorities, who are especially concentrated in the western regions. Mongolia

SECTION 20

#1732844946864

2178-989: The Dzungar Khanate remained influential until the Qing annihilated them in 1755 . In 1771 the Volga Khoshuts fled back to Dzungaria with the Kalmyks and were resettled by the Qing around Bosten Lake . Their small remnants under a Tumen family in Kalmykia were influential until 1917. Another part of them was formed into a separate banner in Bulgan Province , Khovd Province ; but they were counted as Torghut who migrated with them in much larger numbers. The Khoshuts in Alashan numbered 36,900 in 1990. The Khoshuts around Bosten Lake numbered more than 12,000 in 1999. Mongolia Mongolia

2277-642: The Dzungars (western Mongols or Oirats) were virtually annihilated during the Qing conquest of Dzungaria in 1757 and 1758. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungar were killed by a combination of disease and warfare. Outer Mongolia was given relative autonomy, being administered by the hereditary Genghisid khanates of Tusheet Khan, Setsen Khan, Zasagt Khan and Sain Noyon Khan. The Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia had immense de facto authority. The Manchu forbade mass Chinese immigration into

2376-617: The Gelug and Karma Kagyu schools. The main Gelug religious figure church was the Dalai Lama while the Karma Kagyu was supported by the dynasty of the Tsangpa based in Samdrubtse (modern Shigatse ). They, in turn, found support from groups of Khalkhas and Chahars . Sonam Rapten was the chief attendant during the youth of the 5th Dalai Lama (1617–1682). He drew up plans to end the persecution of

2475-759: The Khorchin tribes in southeastern Mongolian Plateau , but in the mid-15th century they migrated to western Mongolian Plateau to become an ally of the Oirats to counter the military power in central Mongolian Plateau. Their ruling family Galwas was the Hasarid - Khorchins who were deported by the Western Mongols. The Khoshuts first appeared in the 1580s and by the 1620s were the most powerful Oirat tribe. They led others in converting to Buddhism . In 1636 Güshi Khan led many Khoshuds to occupy Kokenuur ( Qinghai ). The Khoshut Khanate

2574-523: The Manchu -founded Qing dynasty , which absorbed the country in the 17th century. By the early 20th century, almost one-third of the adult male population were Buddhist monks. After the collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia declared independence , and achieved actual independence from the Republic of China in 1921. Shortly thereafter, the country became a satellite state of the Soviet Union . In 1924,

2673-523: The Mongol Empire , the largest contiguous land empire in world history. Under his successors it stretched from present-day Poland in the west to Korea in the east, and from parts of Siberia in the north to the Gulf of Oman and Vietnam in the south, covering some 33,000,000 square kilometres (13,000,000 sq mi), (22% of Earth's total land area) and had a population of over 100 million people (about

2772-583: The Mongol Empire , which became the largest contiguous land empire in history. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China proper and established the Yuan dynasty . After the collapse of the Yuan, the Mongols retreated to Mongolia and resumed their earlier pattern of factional conflict, except during the era of Dayan Khan and Tumen Zasagt Khan . In the 16th century, Tibetan Buddhism spread to Mongolia, being further led by

2871-582: The Mongolian People's Republic to prevent Mongolian reunification. All leaders of Mongolia who did not fulfill Stalin's demands to perform Red Terror against Mongolians were executed, including Peljidiin Genden and Anandyn Amar . The Stalinist purges in Mongolia , which began in 1937, killed more than 30,000 people. Under Stalinist influence in the Mongolian People's Republic , an estimated 17,000 monks were killed, official figures show. Choibalsan , who led

2970-409: The Mongolian People's Republic was founded as a socialist state . After the anti-communist revolutions of 1989 , Mongolia conducted its own peaceful democratic revolution in early 1990. This led to a multi-party system , a new constitution of 1992 , and transition to a market economy . Approximately 30% of the population is nomadic or semi-nomadic; horse culture remains integral. Buddhism

3069-613: The Mongolian part of Kyakhta from Chinese forces on 18 March 1921, and on 6 July, Russian and Mongolian troops arrived in Khüree. Mongolia declared its independence again on 11 July 1921. As a result, Mongolia was closely aligned with the Soviet Union over the next seven decades. In 1924, after the Bogd Khaan died of laryngeal cancer or, as some sources claim, at the hands of Russian spies,

Güshi Khan - Misplaced Pages Continue

3168-552: The Republic of China used its Security Council veto in 1955, to stop the admission of the Mongolian People's Republic to the United Nations on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia —including Outer Mongolia— as part of China. This was the only time the Republic of China ever used its veto. Hence, and because of the repeated threats to veto by the ROC, Mongolia did not join the UN until 1961 when

3267-536: The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation . At 1,564,116 km (603,909 sq mi), Mongolia is the world's 18th-largest country. It is significantly larger than the next-largest country, Peru. It mostly lies between latitudes 41° and 52°N (a small area is north of 52°), and longitudes 87° and 120°E . As a point of reference the northernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same latitude as Berlin (Germany) and Saskatoon (Canada), while

3366-743: The Soviet-Japanese Border War of 1939, the Soviet Union successfully defended Mongolia against Japanese expansionism. Mongolia fought against Japan during the Battles of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 and during the Soviet–Japanese War in August 1945 to liberate Inner Mongolia from Japan and Mengjiang . The February 1945 Yalta Conference provided for the Soviet Union's participation in the Pacific War . One of

3465-669: The Torgut Oirat , to migrate westwards and eventually settle by the Volga River . Now Güshi succeeded to the position of Baibaghas as chief of the Khoshut. In 1615, when the Oirats were still under the suzerainty of the Khalkha leader Ubasi Khong Tayiji , the elite had largely converted to Tibetan Buddhism. However, the period saw a rise in internal religious rivalries within Tibet, in particular between

3564-629: The Turkistanis . In 1625 a conflict erupted between the Khoshot chief Chöükür and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothers Güshi and Köndölön Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from the Ishim River to the Tobol River , attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. The infighting among the Oirats inspired one sub-group,

3663-714: The "Great Fifth" as the head of a unified Tibetan state. In the company of the Dzungar prince Erdeni Batur, Güshi marched into Qinghai with 10,000 Oirat troops in 1636. In the next year, he confronted the Khalkha forces of Choghtu Khung Tayiji, which were 30,000 strong and were opposed to the Gelugpa sect. The contest took place in the Kokonor Gorge and is known as the Battle of the Bloody Hill. The Choghtu troops were defeated and scattered, and

3762-408: The 2nd month (25 March). Karma Tenkyong 's life was spared for the moment and he was imprisoned in Neu, south-east of Lhasa. As for Güshi Khan, according to the 5th Dalai Lama's chronicles, "When the crystal lord [the moon] of the month of Chaitra was full [14 April 1642], from that day of the first season of the year according to the Kalachakra , he became king of the three parts of Tibet and set up

3861-447: The Beri ruler. The campaign was prepared in 1639, assisted by some Tibetans. In June of that year, Güshi moved against Beri and subjugated most of Donyo Dorje's subjects. On 6 January 1641, according to the chronicles of the 5th Dalai Lama, "the ruler of Beri and others fled to a well-defended frontier, but as by the sharp iron of a person's virtue, the phenomenon of magnet and iron-filings takes place, so they were all captured and placed in

3960-415: The Dalai Lama's enemies in Kham were crushed. Having subdued Kham entirely by 1641, Güshi proceeded to invade the domain of Karma Tenkyong in Tsang. His reputation as an invincible warrior rendered resistance weak. Meanwhile, Sonam Rapten was busy taking over districts in Ü which paid allegiance to the Tsangpa. The Khoshut troops besieged Shigatse , the stronghold of Karma Tenkyong. An eyewitness described

4059-416: The Gelug and unify Tibet with the help of Güshi. The Gelug monasteries appealed for help against the Karmapa and Bon partisans such as the Khalkha prince Choghtu Khong Tayiji , who had recently settled in Amdo . This was a very bold move since the Mongols had a reputation for ruthlessness against military foes and civilians alike. Güshi was known for his devotion to the Gelugpa and responded positively. He

Güshi Khan - Misplaced Pages Continue

4158-463: The Genghisids. In the mid-16th century, Altan Khan of the Tümed, a grandson of Dayan Khan – but not a hereditary or legitimate Khan – became powerful. He founded Hohhot in 1557. After he met with the Dalai Lama in 1578, he ordered the introduction of Tibetan Buddhism to Mongolia. (It was the second time this had occurred.) Abtai Khan of the Khalkha converted to Buddhism and founded the Erdene Zuu monastery in 1585. His grandson Zanabazar became

4257-467: The Gobi are attributed to the rain shadow effect caused by the Himalayas. Before the Himalayas were formed by the collision of the Indo-Australian plate with the Eurasian plate 10 million years ago, Mongolia was a flourishing habitat for major fauna but still somewhat arid and cold due to distance from sources of evaporation. Sea turtle and mollusk fossils have been found in the Gobi, apart from well-known dinosaur fossils. Tadpole shrimps are still found in

4356-428: The Gobi today. The eastern part of Mongolia including the Onon and Kherlen rivers and Lake Buir form part of the Amur river basin draining to the Pacific Ocean. It hosts some unique species like the Eastern brook lamprey, Daurian crayfish ( cambaroides dauricus ) and Daurian pearl oyster ( dahurinaia dahurica ) in the Onon/Kherlen rivers as well as Siberian prawn ( exopalaemon modestus ) in Lake Buir. Mongolia had

4455-435: The Khoshut ruler maintained control over the armed forces; however, he did not significantly interfere in the affairs of Central Tibet. He tended to spend the summers in the pastureland of Dam by the Tengri-nor Lake , some 80 miles to the north of Lhasa which he visited in wintertime. The bulk of the semi-nomadic Khoshots stayed with their herds around the Tsongön Lake (Qinghai Lake). Sonam Rapten acted as regent ( desi ) and

4554-479: The Kyrgyz. The Mongolic Khitans , descendants of the Xianbei, ruled Mongolia during the Liao dynasty (907–1125), after which the Khamag Mongol (1125–1206) rose to prominence. Lines 3–5 of the memorial inscription of Bilge Khagan (684–737) in central Mongolia summarizes the time of the Khagans : In battles they subdued the nations of all four sides of the world and suppressed them. They made those who had heads bow their heads, and who had knees genuflect them. In

4653-412: The Ming armies pursued the Mongols into their homeland, they successfully sacked and destroyed the Mongol capital Karakorum and other cities. Some of these attacks were repelled by the Mongols under Ayushridar and his general Köke Temür . After the expulsion of the Yuan rulers from China proper , the Mongols continued to rule their homeland, known in historiography as the Northern Yuan dynasty. With

4752-404: The Qing, and after the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, the contract of Mongolian submission to the Manchu had become invalid. The area controlled by the Bogd Khaan was approximately that of the former Outer Mongolia during the Qing period. In 1919, after the October Revolution in Russia, Chinese troops led by warlord Xu Shuzheng occupied Mongolia. Warfare erupted on the northern border. As

4851-447: The Soviet Union agreed to lift its veto on the admission of Mauritania (and any other newly independent African state), in return for the admission of Mongolia. Faced with pressure from nearly all the other African countries, the ROC relented under protest. Mongolia and Mauritania were both admitted to the UN on 27 October 1961. (see China and the United Nations ) On 26 January 1952, Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal took power in Mongolia after

4950-420: The Soviet Union to the West, and English has become the dominant foreign language, aided by liberalized media, international aid agencies, the rise of private education and tutoring, as well as official government policy. In the 2014–2015 academic year, 59% of the overall student population studied English at public secondary schools. In 2023, English was declared the "first foreign language", and to be taught from

5049-410: The Soviet conditions for its participation, put forward at Yalta, was that after the war Outer Mongolia would retain its independence. The referendum took place on 20 October 1945, with (according to official numbers) 100% of the electorate voting for independence. After the establishment of the People's Republic of China , both countries confirmed their mutual recognition on 6 October 1949. However,

SECTION 50

#1732844946864

5148-413: The U.S. Census Bureau figure). UN estimates resemble those made by the Mongolian National Statistical Office (2,612,900, end of June 2007). Mongolia's population growth rate is estimated at 1.2% (2007 est.). About 59% of the total population is under age 30, 27% of whom are under 14. This relatively young and growing population has placed strains on Mongolia's economy. The first census in the 20th century

5247-418: The area, which allowed the Mongols to keep their culture. The Oirats who migrated to the Volga steppes in Russia became known as Kalmyks . The main trade route during this period was the Tea Road through Siberia; it had permanent stations located every 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi), each of which was staffed by 5–30 chosen families. Until 1911, the Qing dynasty maintained control of Mongolia with

5346-416: The country were forcibly converted to Gelugpa, while Nyingma monks who had performed Mongol-repelling exorcism were imprisoned. The new political system renewed the old concept of chö-yön ( patron and priest relationship ) which had roots back to the relation between the Sakya lamas and the Mongol great khans during the Yuan dynasty . While the Dalai Lama was the highest figure in spiritual authority,

5445-462: The country's political system was changed. The Mongolian People's Republic was established. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan rose to power. The early leaders of the Mongolian People's Republic (1921–1952) included many with Pan-Mongolist ideals. However, changing global politics and increased Soviet pressure led to the decline of Pan-Mongol aspirations in the following period. Khorloogiin Choibalsan instituted collectivization of livestock, began

5544-480: The country's livestock dying from starvation or freezing temperatures or both, resulting in economic upheaval for the largely pastoral population. The annual average temperature in Ulaanbaatar is −1.3 °C (29.7 °F), making it the world's coldest capital city. Mongolia is high, cold and windy. It has an extreme continental climate with long, cold winters and short summers, during which most of its annual precipitation falls. The country averages 257 cloudless days

5643-446: The death of Choibalsan. Tsedenbal was the leading political figure in Mongolia for more than 30 years. While Tsedenbal was visiting Moscow in August 1984, his severe illness prompted the parliament to announce his retirement and replace him with Jambyn Batmönkh . The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 strongly influenced Mongolian politics and youth . Its people undertook the peaceful Democratic Revolution in January 1990 and

5742-443: The destruction of the Buddhist monasteries, and carried out Stalinist purges , which resulted in the murders of numerous monks and other leaders. In Mongolia during the 1920s, approximately one-third of the male population were monks. By the beginning of the 20th century, 750 monasteries were functioning in Mongolia and by the end of the 1930s almost all had been looted or razed. In 1930, the Soviet Union stopped Buryat migration to

5841-459: The division of the Mongol tribes, it was subsequently also known as "The Forty and the Four" (Döčin dörben) among them. The next centuries were marked by violent power struggles among various factions, notably the Genghisids and the non-Genghisid Oirats , as well as by several Ming invasions (such as the five expeditions led by the Yongle Emperor ). In the early 16th century, Dayan Khan and his khatun Mandukhai reunited all Mongol groups under

5940-418: The dominant culture. Horse-riding nomadism has been documented by archeological evidence in Mongolia during the Copper and Bronze Age Afanasevo culture (3500–2500 BC); this Indo-European culture was active to the Khangai Mountains in Central Mongolia. The wheeled vehicles found in the burials of the Afanasevans have been dated to before 2200 BC. Pastoral nomadism and metalworking became more developed with

6039-520: The east up to the Kadyrkhan common people, in the west up to the Iron Gate they conquered... These Khagans were wise. These Khagans were great. Their servants were wise and great too. Officials were honest and direct with people. They ruled the nation this way. This way they held sway over them. When they died ambassadors from Bokuli Cholug (Baekje Korea), Tabgach (Tang China), Tibet (Tibetan Empire), Avar (Avar Khaganate), Rome (Byzantine Empire), Kirgiz , Uch-Kurykan, Otuz-Tatars, Khitans , Tatabis came to

SECTION 60

#1732844946864

6138-405: The entirety of present-day Mongolia. The Mongolic Rouran Khaganate (330–555), of Xianbei provenance was the first to use "Khagan" as an imperial title. It ruled a massive empire before being defeated by the Göktürks (555–745), an even larger empire. The Göktürks laid siege to Panticapaeum , present-day Kerch , in 576. They were succeeded by the Uyghur Khaganate (745–840) who were defeated by

6237-442: The fall of the Liao dynasty in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau . However, their wars with the Jurchen -ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. The last head of the tribe was Yesügei , whose son Temüjin eventually united all the Shiwei tribes as the Mongol Empire ( Yekhe Monggol Ulus ). In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for

6336-410: The fall of the Qing dynasty in 1911, Mongolia under the Bogd Khaan declared its independence. However, the newly established Republic of China considered Mongolia to be part of its own territory. Yuan Shikai , the President of the Republic of China , considered the new republic to be the successor of the Qing. Bogd Khaan said that both Mongolia and China had been administered by the Manchu during

6435-538: The fertility value increased to 2.8 in 2013 and stabilised afterwards at a rate of about 2.5-2.6 children per woman around 2020. The Mongols are moderately homogeneous; ethnic Mongols account for about 95% of the population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. The Khalkha make up 86% of the ethnic Mongol population. The remaining 14% include Oirats, Buryats and others. Turkic peoples ( Kazakhs and Tuvans ) constitute 4.5% of Mongolia's population, and

6534-479: The first Jebtsundamba Khutughtu in 1640. Following the leaders, the entire Mongolian population embraced Buddhism. Each family kept scriptures and Buddha statues on an altar at the north side of their yurt . Mongolian nobles donated land, money and herders to the monasteries. As was typical in states with established religions, the top religious institutions, the monasteries, wielded significant temporal power in addition to spiritual power. The last Khagan of Mongols

6633-426: The funerals. So many people came to mourn over the great Khagans. They were famous Khagans. In the chaos of the late 12th century, a chieftain named Temüjin finally succeeded in uniting the Mongol tribes between Manchuria and the Altai Mountains . In 1206, he took the title Genghis Khan , and waged a series of military campaigns – renowned for their brutality and ferocity – sweeping through much of Asia, and forming

6732-400: The horrors of the siege: "[the place] had turned into a big cremation ground covered with heaps of corpses deprived of their lives as one had given a flock of sheep to a pack of wolves". All attempts of mediation failed, and the monastic settlement and the suburbs fell on the 8th day of the 1st month of the Water-Horse year 1642. This was followed by the surrender of the castle on the 25th day of

6831-415: The introduction of a multi-party system and a market economy. At the same time, the transformation of the former Marxist-Leninist Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party to the current social democratic Mongolian People's Party reshaped the country's political landscape. A new constitution was introduced in 1992, and the term "People's Republic" was dropped from the country's name. The transition to

6930-410: The khanates, the "Great Khaanate", consisting of the Mongol homeland and most of modern-day China, became known as the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan , the grandson of Genghis Khan. He set up his capital in present-day Beijing. After more than a century of power, the Yuan dynasty was overthrown by the Ming dynasty in 1368, and the Yuan court fled to the north, thus becoming the Northern Yuan dynasty . As

7029-494: The later Okunev culture (2nd millennium BC), Andronovo culture (2300–1000 BC) and Karasuk culture (1500–300 BC), culminating with the Iron Age Xiongnu Empire in 209 BC. Monuments of the pre-Xiongnu Bronze Age include deer stones , keregsur kurgans , square slab tombs , and rock paintings. Although cultivation of crops has continued since the Neolithic, agriculture has always remained small in scale compared to pastoral nomadism. Agriculture may have first been introduced from

7128-467: The lowest of 41.735 mm (1.643 in) occurred in the Gobi Desert (period 1961–1990). The sparsely populated far north of Bulgan Province averages 600 mm (24 in) in annual precipitation which means it receives more precipitation than Beijing (571.8 mm or 22.51 in) or Berlin (571 mm or 22.5 in). The name "Gobi" is a Mongol term for a desert steppe, which usually refers to

7227-515: The next years. His military assistance to the Gelug school enabled the 5th Dalai Lama to establish political control over Tibet . It is also spelt Gushri Khan and Gushihan. In other languages it is: Güshi Khan was born Torobaikhu, the third son of Akhai Khatun and Khanai Noyan Khonggor, chief of the Khoshuts. He was descended from a younger brother of Genghis Khan , Qasar . At the age of 12, Torobaikhu had already won renown in battle against

7326-469: The nickname "the Lascaux of Mongolia". The Venus figurines of Mal'ta (21,000 years ago) testify to the level of Upper Paleolithic art in northern Mongolia; Mal'ta is now part of Russia. Neolithic agricultural settlements (c. 5500–3500 BC), such as those at Norovlin, Tamsagbulag, Bayanzag, and Rashaan Khad, predated the introduction of horse-riding nomadism, a pivotal event in the history of Mongolia which became

7425-753: The north and west and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar , the capital and largest city , is home to roughly half of the country's population. The territory of modern-day Mongolia has been ruled by various nomadic empires , including the Xiongnu , the Xianbei , the Rouran , the First Turkic Khaganate , the Second Turkic Khaganate , the Uyghur Khaganate and others. In 1206, Genghis Khan founded

7524-683: The past. Mongol and Tibetan soldiers then surrounded his large movable encampment ( gar ). Chöying Dorje managed to sneak out at the last minute, but the troops broke in, ravaged the camp and killed anyone who resisted. The Karmapa hierarch fled to the mountains in the south. The surviving supporters of the Tsangpa and Karma Kagyü took up resistance in the Kongpo region in the southeast. The incensed Güshi Khan gave orders to execute his royal prisoner Karma Tenkyong, while his army ravaged Kongpo and killed 7,000 rebels. The remainder gave up. Many Karma Kagyü monasteries in

7623-524: The prehistoric times, Mongolia has been inhabited by nomads who, from time to time, formed great confederations that rose to power and prominence. Common institutions were the office of the Khan , the Kurultai (Supreme Council), left and right wings, imperial army ( Keshig ) and the decimal military system. The first of these empires, the Xiongnu of undetermined ethnicity, were brought together by Modu Shanyu to form

7722-655: The responsibilities towards their subjects. The behavior of Mongolia's nobility, together with usurious practices by Chinese traders and the collection of imperial taxes in silver instead of animals, resulted in widespread poverty among the nomads. By 1911 there were 700 large and small monasteries in Outer Mongolia; their 115,000 monks made up 21% of the population. Apart from the Jebtsundamba Khutuktu, there were 13 other reincarnating high lamas, called 'seal-holding saints' ( tamgatai khutuktu ), in Outer Mongolia. With

7821-541: The rest are Russian, Chinese, Korean and American nationalities. Mongolia's official and national language is Mongolian . A member of the Mongolic language family, the standard dialect is Khalkha Mongol . It coexists with various other, largely mutually intelligible varieties of Mongolic such as Oirat , Buryat , and Khamnigan . Several dialects have been morphing to become more like the central Khalkha dialect in recent years. Most speakers of these dialects are located in

7920-461: The south in addition to being more stable. The Khangai Mountains play a certain role in forming this microclimate. In Tsetserleg, the warmest town in this microclimate, nighttime January temperatures rarely go under −30 °C (−22 °F) while daytime January temperatures often reach 0 °C (32 °F) to 5 °C (41 °F). The country is subject to occasional harsh climatic conditions known as zud . It results in large proportions of

8019-553: The southernmost part is on roughly the same latitude as Rome (Italy) and Chicago (USA). The westernmost part of Mongolia is on roughly the same longitude as Kolkata in India, while the easternmost part is on the same longitude as Qinhuangdao and Hangzhou in China, as well as the western edge of Taiwan. Although Mongolia does not share a border with Kazakhstan, its westernmost point is only 36.76 kilometres (22.84 mi) from Kazakhstan, nearly making

8118-652: The strategically important Tsongön Lake region in Amdo after 1648. They were known as the Eight Khoshuts and quarreled constantly over territory. The 5th Dalai Lama sent several governors in 1656 and 1659. The Mongols were gradually Tibetanised and played an important role in extending the Gelug school's influence in Amdo. The system with a Khoshut protector ruler over Tibet lasted for four generations, up to 1717. Samding Dorje Phagmo Khoshut Originally, Khoshuuds were one of

8217-401: The summer and extremely cold in the winter, with January averages dropping as low as −30 °C (−22 °F). A vast front of cold, heavy, shallow air comes in from Siberia in winter and collects in river valleys and low basins causing very cold temperatures while slopes of mountains are much warmer due to the effects of temperature inversion (temperature increases with altitude). In winter

8316-557: The survivors had to surrender. Choghtu himself hid in a marmot hole but was found and killed on the spot. In that way the Khalkhas were suppressed in Tibet a short time after they were subjugated in Mongolia by the invading Manchu people . Güshi proceeded to Ü-Tsang in 1638 as a pilgrim. There he received religious instructions from the 5th Dalai Lama. During a ceremony in Lhasa , he was placed on

8415-495: The traditional Mongolian script in official documents by 2025. Since 1990, English has quickly supplanted Russian as the most popular foreign language in Mongolia. In the communist era , Russian was a vital language for mobility and professional communication, with a large number of students studying in the Soviet Union as well as a large number of Soviet professionals and soldiers located within Mongolia. Since then, however, Mongolia's education system has reoriented away from

8514-572: The unstable circumstances in Ü-Tsang. He did, however, send a permanent representative to the Khoshut to maintain good relations. Güshi Khan returned to his newly conquered realm in Qinghai, where the Khoshuts resolved to settle down. New trouble soon followed. The king of Beri in Kham , Donyo Dorje, was a practitioner of the Bön religion and enemy of the Gelugpa. He allied with the Tsangpa ruler Karma Tenkyong and sent

8613-514: The warmest January temperatures in Omnogovi Province ( Dalanzadgad , Khanbogd ) and the region of the Altai mountains bordering China. A unique microclimate is the fertile grassland-forest region of central and eastern Arkhangai Province ( Tsetserleg ) and northern Ovorkhangai Province ( Arvaikheer ) where January temperatures are on average the same and often higher than the warmest desert regions to

8712-506: The west or arose independently in the region. The population during the Copper Age has been described as mongoloid in the east of what is now Mongolia, and as europoid in the west. Tocharians ( Yuezhi ) and Scythians inhabited western Mongolia during the Bronze Age. The mummy of a Scythian warrior, which is believed to be about 2,500 years old, was a 30- to 40-year-old man with blond hair; it

8811-651: The west. The 5th Dalai Lama in his turn confirmed the position of Güshi Khan as the Dharma king (or chogyal ) of Tibet. The upheavals of the Mongol conquest led to famine and hardship. There was moreover still opposition against the Güshi Khan-Dalai Lama ruling constellation. The Karmapa hierarch Chöying Dorje was requested by the Dalai Lama to sign a formal agreement that he would not cause any further trouble. The Karmapa refused, arguing that he had not fomented trouble in

8910-578: The western part of the country, namely Bayan-Ölgii , Uvs , and Khovd . Kazakh , a Turkic language , is the majority language in Bayan-Ölgii, while Tuvan is another Turkic language spoken in Khövsgöl . Mongolian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. Today, Mongolian is mainly written using the Cyrillic alphabet , introduced during the 1940s. Since the 1990 revolution there has been

9009-515: The white umbrella of his laws on the peak of the world". On the 5th day of the 4th month in 1642, the Dalai Lama was led in state to the palace of Shigatse and seated on the throne of the deposed king. With this act, he replaced the rival dominant school of the Karmapas . Güshi Khan then declared that he bestowed the supreme authority of Tibet on Dalai Lama, from Tachienlu in the east to the Ladakh border in

9108-523: The whole of Mongolia comes under the influence of the Siberian Anticyclone . The localities most severely affected by this cold weather are Uvs province ( Ulaangom ), western Khovsgol ( Rinchinlhumbe ), eastern Zavkhan ( Tosontsengel ), northern Bulgan (Hutag) and eastern Dornod province (Khalkhiin Gol). Ulaanbaatar is strongly, but less severely, affected. The cold gets less severe as one goes south, reaching

9207-635: Was Ligden Khan in the early 17th century. He came into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and also alienated most Mongol tribes. He died in 1634. By 1636, most of the Inner Mongolian tribes had submitted to the Manchus, who founded the Qing dynasty . The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under Manchu rule. After several Dzungar–Qing Wars ,

9306-407: Was carried out in 1918 and recorded a population of 647,500. Since the end of socialism, Mongolia has experienced a decline of total fertility rate (children per woman) that is steeper than in any other country in the world, according to recent UN estimations: in 1970–1975, fertility was estimated to be 7.33 children per woman, dropping to about 2.1 in 2000–2005. The decline ended and in 2005–2010,

9405-577: Was concluded in 1646 but was soon violated. Fresh fighting in the following year led to another defeat for the Dalai Lama state. Gushi Khan died in January 1655, leaving ten sons: Furthermore, Güshi's daughter Amin Dara married Erdeni Batur , the founder of the Dzungar Khanate . Güshi's eldest son Dayan succeeded him in his dignity as Dharma king of Tibet and protector of the faith. However, eight sons with their tribal followers, led by Dorje Dalai Batur, settled in

9504-601: Was established in 1642. Some time after 1645, his brother Kondeleng Ubashi migrated to the Volga , joining the Kalmyks . However, many Khoshuts remained in the Oirat homeland Dzungaria under Ochirtu Setsen. After the Dzungar leader Galdan Boshogtu Khan killed Ochirtu, the Khoshut chief Khoroli submitted to the Qing dynasty with his people in 1686 and resettled in Alashan . The Khoshuts of

9603-477: Was formally appointed by the Khoshut king. Shortly after unification, a conflict broke out with Bhutan , recently unified under the Tibetan lama Ngawang Namgyal . Güshi Khan and the regent sent several hundred Mongol and Tibetan troops into Bhutan in 1644. However, the Mongol warriors were unused to the climate and the expedition suffered a major defeat. This broke some of the Mongol reputation for invincibility. A peace

9702-572: Was found in the Altai , Mongolia. As equine nomadism was introduced into Mongolia, the political center of the Eurasian Steppe also shifted to Mongolia, where it remained until the 18th century CE. The intrusions of northern pastoralists (e.g. the Guifang, Shanrong, and Donghu ) into China during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) and Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) presaged the age of nomadic empires . Since

9801-657: Was joined in a pro-Gelugpa league by the other Oirat princes: his nephews Uchirtu Sechen and Ablai Tayiji in the Zaysan and Ertis areas; furthermore Erdeni Batur , whose Dzungar and Dörbet Oirat subjects lived by the Ulungur , Irtysh and Emil Rivers , and even the Torghut chief Kho Orluk , who was in the process of subduing areas to the north of the Aral and Caspian Seas . As it turned out, it would nevertheless take several years to install

#863136