117-759: The 2021 KNP Complex Fire was a large wildfire in Sequoia National Park and the Sequoia National Forest in Central California 's Tulare County . After lightning ignited the Paradise and Colony fires in the southern Sierra Nevada on September 9, the twin blazes combined into the Complex and burned a total of 88,307 acres (35,737 hectares). The fire was not declared contained until mid-December, after several atmospheric rivers delivered rain and snow to
234-564: A defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure. Communities in the Philippines also maintain fire lines 5 to 10 meters (16 to 33 ft) wide between the forest and their village, and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather. Continued residential development in fire-prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism. The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by
351-463: A sling psychrometer or a kestrel typically every hour and relaying them up the chain of command . Aircraft can also serve as lookouts at times, but this is not the preferred option. A crew's day may start at any hour of the day. After breaking fire camp , crews are transported to the fire. Once on location, crews use hand tools ( chainsaws , pulaskis , shovels , etc.) for working the fireline. Handcrews may hike several miles or more per day. Once at
468-465: A 15 mile radius. Additionally, Sensaio Tech , based in Brazil and Toronto, has released a sensor device that continuously monitors 14 different variables common in forests, ranging from soil temperature to salinity. This information is connected live back to clients through dashboard visualizations, while mobile notifications are provided regarding dangerous levels. Satellite and aerial monitoring through
585-470: A 24-hour fire day that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth. Climate change promotes the type of weather that makes wildfires more likely. In some areas, an increase of wildfires has been attributed directly to climate change. Evidence from Earth's past also shows more fire in warmer periods. Climate change increases evapotranspiration . This can cause vegetation and soils to dry out. When
702-601: A canopy that grows well above the ground that protects them from smaller fires. Historically, giant sequoia groves had a fire return interval of approximately 15 years, and so long-lived giant sequoias might see dozens of wildfires throughout their lifetimes. As with the rest of the Sierra Nevada's forests, this ceased with European-American settlement. Sequoia and Kings Canyon parks together contain about 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) of giant sequoia groves, only 4,610 acres (1,870 ha) of which had seen prescribed or managed fire in
819-570: A combination of fire severity data, satellite imagery, aerial reconnaissance, and ground assessments to estimate possible large giant sequoia mortality from the KNP Complex Fire. In total, the National Park Service report estimated that the KNP Complex Fire killed between 1,330 and 2,380 large sequoias, defined as those over four feet (1.2 metres) in diameter. That figure includes both the sequoias killed outright and those expected to die in
936-566: A doubling in land area burned by wildfires compared to natural levels. Humans have impacted wildfire through climate change (e.g. more intense heat waves and droughts ), land-use change , and wildfire suppression . The carbon released from wildfires can add to carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere and thus contribute to the greenhouse effect . This creates a climate change feedback . Naturally occurring wildfires can have beneficial effects on those ecosystems that have evolved with fire. In fact, many plant species depend on
1053-502: A downed hollow sequoia log converted into a cabin in the 1920s, all burned in the fire. Redwood Canyon Research Cabin and a private cabin at Oriole Lake were also destroyed. The fire destroyed radio transmission towers and other hardware on Eshom Point, damaged park communications equipment on Milk Ranch Peak , and damaged an electrical distribution line belonging to Southern California Edison . No campgrounds, picnic areas, or administrative buildings in either park were directly impacted by
1170-610: A fire starts in an area with very dry vegetation, it can spread rapidly. Higher temperatures can also lengthen the fire season. This is the time of year in which severe wildfires are most likely, particularly in regions where snow is disappearing. Weather conditions are raising the risks of wildfires. But the total area burnt by wildfires has decreased. This is mostly because savanna has been converted to cropland , so there are fewer trees to burn. Climate variability including heat waves , droughts , and El Niño , and regional weather patterns, such as high-pressure ridges, can increase
1287-550: A high severity, and anecdotal evidence has shown that in multiple fires these areas fail to regenerate. Following the fire's impingement on Castle Creek Grove and Redwood Mountain Grove, park officials wrote on Facebook that they suspected the fire had killed trees in those groves, possibly hundreds of them. Before the fire, Redwood Mountain Grove had been home to 5,509 large giant sequoias, and Castle Creek Grove home to another 419. Officials also wrote that protecting other threatened groves
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#17328524241441404-550: A hundred natural groves in the western Sierra Nevada. National Park Service scientists calculated that the KNP Complex Fire killed roughly 1,300–2,400 large giant sequoias (hundreds more died in the Windy Fire in the Sequoia National Forest, which burned contemporaneously). The fires are estimated to have killed three to five percent of the total population of large giant sequoias. The KNP Complex Fire took place during
1521-530: A new fire detection tool is in operation at the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service (USFS) which uses data from the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (NPP) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space-based products. The high-resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions. In 2014, an international campaign
1638-415: A number expected to rise to 30,000 by 2050. The economic impact is also significant, with projected costs reaching $ 240 billion annually by 2050, surpassing other climate-related damages. Over the past century, wildfires have accounted for 20–25% of global carbon emissions, the remainder from human activities. Global carbon emissions from wildfires through August 2020 equaled the average annual emissions of
1755-545: A policy of allowing some wildfires to burn is the cheapest method and an ecologically appropriate policy for many forests, they tend not to take into account the economic value of resources that are consumed by the fire, especially merchantable timber. Some studies conclude that while fuels may also be removed by logging, such thinning treatments may not be effective at reducing fire severity under extreme weather conditions. Building codes in fire-prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame-resistant materials and
1872-503: A possible resolution to human operator error. These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence, as suggested by GIS data analyses. An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position via Global Positioning System (GPS) into a collective whole for near-realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers . A small, high risk area that features thick vegetation,
1989-531: A rapid forward rate of spread (FROS) when burning through dense uninterrupted fuels. They can move as fast as 10.8 kilometres per hour (6.7 mph) in forests and 22 kilometres per hour (14 mph) in grasslands. Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front, or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing . They may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands (hot wood embers) and other burning materials through
2106-681: A remote site and sent via overnight mail to the fire manager . During the Yellowstone fires of 1988 , a data station was established in West Yellowstone , permitting the delivery of satellite-based fire information in approximately four hours. Public hotlines, fire lookouts in towers, and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires. However, accurate human observation may be limited by operator fatigue , time of day, time of year, and geographic location. Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as
2223-466: A severe fire season for the western United States, and particularly for California. During the state's 2021 wildfire season nearly 2.6 million acres (1,100,000 ha) burned: the second largest area on record after 2020. The national preparedness level hit the maximum level of 5 on July 14 and remained there until September 20, the longest period on record. Officials took drastic measures to try and limit new ignitions: between August 31 and September 15,
2340-569: A strong human presence, or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network . Detection systems may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems: detecting temperature, humidity, and smoke. These may be battery-powered, solar-powered, or tree-rechargeable : able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material. Larger, medium-risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as
2457-405: Is governed in part by topography , as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows: Wildfires occur when all the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation that
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#17328524241442574-721: Is no longer an expectation, but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control. While more than 99% of the 10,000 new wildfires each year are contained, escaped wildfires under extreme weather conditions are difficult to suppress without a change in the weather. Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of 54,500 square kilometers (13,000,000 acres) per year. Above all, fighting wildfires can become deadly. A wildfire's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks. Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of
2691-473: Is prone to offset errors, anywhere from 2 to 3 kilometers (1 to 2 mi) for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to 12 kilometers (7.5 mi) for GOES data. Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled, and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time. Cloud cover and image resolution may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery. Global Forest Watch provides detailed daily updates on fire alerts. In 2015
2808-662: Is subjected to enough heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are needed to evaporate any water in the material and heat the material to its fire point . Dense forests usually provide more shade, resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity , and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires. Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks. Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration , but water loss
2925-543: Is taken from the National Park Service's report on giant sequoia mortality following the 2021 fire season. Redwood Mountain Grove, Atwell Grove, and Suwanee Grove saw the most acreage burned at high severity. On October 7, a falling tree struck four personnel (affiliated with Cal Fire and the California Conservation Corps ). All four were transported via helicopter to nearby hospitals with serious injuries, but were listed as stable by that night and released from
3042-416: Is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain. When this balance is not maintained, often as a consequence of droughts , plants dry out and are therefore more flammable. A wildfire front is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where unburned material meets active flames, or the smoldering transition between unburned and burned material. As the front approaches,
3159-630: The 117th Congress in 2023. In July 2022, the Forest Service announced that it would begin undertaking "emergency fuels reduction treatments to provide for the long term survival of giant sequoia groves against immediate wildfire threats" by removing vegetation and duff on the surface, thinning areas of the forest, and implementing prescribed burns. The announcement stated that the work would encompass 13,377 acres (5,413 ha) in and around 12 giant sequoia groves in Sequoia and Sierra National Forests, with
3276-418: The 2019–20 Australian bushfire season "an independent study found online bots and trolls exaggerating the role of arson in the fires." In the 2023 Canadian wildfires false claims of arson gained traction on social media; however, arson is generally not a main cause of wildfires in Canada. In California, generally 6–10% of wildfires annually are arson. Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around
3393-957: The Amazon rainforest . The fires in the latter were caused mainly by illegal logging . The smoke from the fires expanded on huge territory including major cities, dramatically reducing air quality. As of August 2020, the wildfires in that year were 13% worse than in 2019 due primarily to climate change , deforestation and agricultural burning. The Amazon rainforest 's existence is threatened by fires. Record-breaking wildfires in 2021 occurred in Turkey , Greece and Russia , thought to be linked to climate change. The carbon released from wildfires can add to greenhouse gas concentrations. Climate models do not yet fully reflect this feedback . Wildfires release large amounts of carbon dioxide, black and brown carbon particles, and ozone precursors such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into
3510-557: The European Union . In 2020, the carbon released by California's wildfires was significantly larger than the state's other carbon emissions. Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0.81 and 2.57 giga tonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons ) of CO 2 into the atmosphere, which is between 13–40% of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels. In June and July 2019, fires in
3627-472: The Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS). Between 2022–2023, wildfires throughout North America prompted an uptake in the delivery and design of various technologies using artificial intelligence for early detection, prevention, and prediction of wildfires. Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs. In less developed nations
KNP Complex Fire - Misplaced Pages Continue
3744-500: The Paris climate agreement . Due to the complex oxidative chemistry occurring during the transport of wildfire smoke in the atmosphere, the toxicity of emissions was indicated to increase over time. Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming solar radiation during winter months by as much as 15%. The Amazon is estimated to hold around 90 billion tons of carbon. As of 2019,
3861-676: The San Joaquin Valley , including the city of Fresno , between late September and early October. On September 27, the air quality index in Three Rivers near the KNP Complex Fire soared to 350 (the second-highest reading in the country that day after Kernville , which was inundated by smoke from the Windy Fire) and the South Coast Air Quality Management District issued a special air quality advisory for parts of
3978-429: The taiga biome are particularly susceptible. Wildfires can severely impact humans and their settlements. Effects include for example the direct health impacts of smoke and fire, as well as destruction of property (especially in wildland–urban interfaces ), and economic losses. There is also the potential for contamination of water and soil. At a global level, human practices have made the impacts of wildfire worse, with
4095-470: The 20 years before the KNP Complex Fire. Most of that treated acreage was in the Giant Forest grove alone. Because of the lack of milder wildfires—leading to fuel build-up—and the intensification of other factors (such as climate change and bark beetles), modern Californian wildfires burn with an increased proportion of moderate to high severity fire effects and such fires have become a "significant threat to
4212-449: The 2020 SQF Complex Fire , which killed an estimated 10–14 percent of large sequoias (or between 7,500 and 10,600 individual trees). The mortality assessments suggest that in 2020 and 2021, 13–19 percent of the world's large sequoia population was lost in just three large wildfires. Prior to 2020, the total number of large sequoias within the groves of the Sierra Nevada was estimated at 75,580. The total number may have fallen to ~60,000 after
4329-459: The Arctic emitted more than 140 megatons of carbon dioxide, according to an analysis by CAMS. To put that into perspective this amounts to the same amount of carbon emitted by 36 million cars in a year. The recent wildfires and their massive CO 2 emissions mean that it will be important to take them into consideration when implementing measures for reaching greenhouse gas reduction targets accorded with
4446-621: The Cabin Fire, was found near Dorst Creek and fully contained at only 1.25 acres (0.51 ha). The other two fires were the four-acre (1.6 ha) Colony Fire near Colony Peak, burning in a mixed conifer forest west of the Giant Forest and north of the Kaweah River, and the one-quarter-acre (0.10 ha) Paradise Fire west of Paradise Creek, south of the Kaweah River and burning in chaparral in rugged terrain. Campgrounds and park roads nearby closed and suppression efforts began, with handcrews on
4563-607: The California Disaster Assistance Act. At least 659 people were displaced by evacuation orders during the fire's active period in early October. The Giant Forest, which closed in mid-September, reopened first on a limited basis in December 2021 and then fully on March 11, 2022. The stretch of the Generals Highway between Sequoia and Kings Canyon reopened on March 18, 2022, though mudslides re-closed parts of it in
4680-669: The Castle, Windy, and KNP Complex fires. On September 23, 2021, Sequoia National Park was the backdrop for Governor Newsom's signature of a $ 15 billion climate change legislation package that included $ 1.5 billion for wildfire response and forest resilience. Newsom alluded to the nearby threatened giant sequoias in his remarks on the bill. In June 2022, the Save Our Sequoias Act was introduced by Democratic member Scott Peters and Republican member Kevin McCarthy (whose district includes
4797-495: The Colony Fire to more than 1,100 acres (450 ha). Sequoia National Park closed to the public. On September 15 and 16, both fires grew moderately and on every flank. With the arrival of a Type 1 incident management team , the number of personnel on the incident grew to more than 400, even as the combined size of the two fires reached more than 11,000 acres (4,500 ha). As the Colony Fire moved within one mile (1.6 km) of
KNP Complex Fire - Misplaced Pages Continue
4914-515: The Giant Forest through the snow. Containment rapidly increased to 60 percent by October 21: with a total burned area of 88,307 acres (35,737 ha), this marked the end of the fire's expansion. On October 24, a significant atmospheric river made landfall in Northern California, delivering several inches of rain across much of the state. Though it weakened as it slid southward, two to three inches (51 to 76 mm) of rain fell on all parts of
5031-511: The Giant Forest, containing the General Sherman tree and thousands of other giant sequoias, firefighters began to protect specific trees by removing vegetation from around their bases and covering parts of the trees in a protective foil wrap, usually used to protect structures and for firefighters' emergency shelters. On September 17, the Colony and Paradise fires met and merged in the drainage of
5148-542: The Kaweah River. By September 13, the area burned surpassed 200 acres (81 ha) for the Colony Fire and 800 acres (320 ha) for the Paradise Fire. Evacuations were ordered for the Mineral King area, and warnings instituted for Three Rivers. The response was still hampered by the rough terrain, as officials noted that ground access to the Paradise Fire had proved "impossible" thus far. Only 130 personnel were engaged on
5265-645: The Lodgepole area, and in the communities of Three Rivers and Hartland. On September 30, the fire crossed the North Fork of the Kaweah River, and entered the lower portion of the Pierce Creek drainage to the north. On October 1, the fire pushed up through Pierce Creek, over the lower parts of the Redwood Mountain ridge, and into Redwood Canyon, taking the total burned area to more than 50,000 acres (20,000 ha). For
5382-525: The Marble Fork of the Kaweah River. Smoke that had stifled the combined fire's northeastern portion cleared away, and the resulting ventilation allowed the fire to grow. The northern portion of the blaze pushed up and out of the Marble Fork into the Halstead Creek drainage in a 6,500-acre (2,600 ha) "extreme head fire run", according to a National Park Service post-fire assessment, burning the entirety of
5499-590: The San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains. When winds pushed smoke further south into the Los Angeles basin, many people called 911, and firefighters responded to multiple reports of drift smoke in the Angeles National Forest as skies turned hazy shades of brown and orange. The table below shows how the fire grew in size and in containment during September and October 2021. Acreage reflects, where possible,
5616-512: The Suwanee Grove at almost entirely moderate to high severity. The fire also entered the westernmost edge of the Giant Forest grove for the first time, in the vicinity of the Four Guardsmen trees, but firefighters' protective efforts ensured all four survived. The total burned area reached 17,857 acres (7,226 ha) by September 18 as the complex became one of the highest-priority wildfires in
5733-525: The U.S. Forest Service’s Pacific Southwest Region closed all of California's national forests to public use because of fire conditions. In the decades preceding the fire, average temperatures in the Sierra increased measurably even as precipitation did not. This trend was driven partly by climate change . Climate change and consequent warming in California has helped produce hotter and more severe droughts, such as
5850-498: The United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones, carrier pigeons , and heliographs . Aerial and land photography using instant cameras were used in the 1950s until infrared scanning was developed for fire detection in the 1960s. However, information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology. Early satellite-derived fire analyses were hand-drawn on maps at
5967-714: The Western US, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season, or the most fire-prone time of the year. A 2019 study indicates that the increase in fire risk in California may be partially attributable to human-induced climate change . In the summer of 1974–1975 (southern hemisphere), Australia suffered its worst recorded wildfire, when 15% of Australia's land mass suffered "extensive fire damage". Fires that summer burned up an estimated 117 million hectares (290 million acres ; 1,170,000 square kilometres ; 450,000 square miles ). In Australia,
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#17328524241446084-435: The air over roads, rivers, and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks . Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting, and dry ground fuels around a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands. Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire. In Australian bushfires , spot fires are known to occur as far as 20 kilometres (12 mi) from
6201-470: The amount of remaining surface material, soil stability, and soil hydrophobicity , soil burn severity influences post-fire runoff and debris flow issues. The KNP Complex Fire's overall footprint was calculated to contain 12.4 percent unburned, 48.8 percent low, and 38.8 percent moderate-to-high soil burn severity. The KNP Complex Fire and the Windy Fire's smoke output created hazardous air quality conditions in
6318-720: The annual number of hot days (above 35 °C) and very hot days (above 40 °C) has increased significantly in many areas of the country since 1950. The country has always had bushfires but in 2019, the extent and ferocity of these fires increased dramatically. For the first time catastrophic bushfire conditions were declared for Greater Sydney. New South Wales and Queensland declared a state of emergency but fires were also burning in South Australia and Western Australia. In 2019, extreme heat and dryness caused massive wildfires in Siberia , Alaska , Canary Islands , Australia , and in
6435-444: The atmosphere. These emissions affect radiation, clouds, and climate on regional and even global scales. Wildfires also emit substantial amounts of semi-volatile organic species that can partition from the gas phase to form secondary organic aerosol (SOA) over hours to days after emission. In addition, the formation of the other pollutants as the air is transported can lead to harmful exposures for populations in regions far away from
6552-752: The bill visited some of the worst-affected groves from the KNP Complex Fire in Sequoia National Park in May, prior to its introduction. Despite having 75 co-sponsors in the House, the bill was opposed by 81 environmental groups, including the Sierra Club , the League of Conservation Voters , Greenpeace , the Pacific Crest Trail Association , and Defenders of Wildlife . Their joint letter to Congress argued that
6669-503: The bill would "weaken existing environmental law to expedite potentially harmful logging projects that undermine the ecological integrity of sequoia groves and do nothing to protect these trees". An amended version of the legislation was introduced in the Senate in September 2022 by California senators Dianne Feinstein and Alex Padilla . The act was not passed in either chamber before the end of
6786-485: The burned trails in Kings Canyon National Park, were within moderate or high burn severity areas. An additional 6.1 miles (10 km) of trails were used as containment lines along the fire's perimeter, and did not wholly burn. Other impacts included damage to signage throughout the park, including road reflectors, speed limit signs, and posts, and nearly 20,000 potentially hazardous burned trees along roads in
6903-523: The canopies of the giant sequoias, and some was dropped on trees in Muir Grove. Smoky conditions kept aircraft away from Redwood Mountain Grove, preventing gel drops there, and before long the wildfire outpaced the firefighters' burnout operations. By October 3, the fire's footprint spanned over 60,000 acres (24,000 ha). The fire spotted across Mineral King Road, provoking evacuation orders for Sierra King Drive, Hammond, and Oak Grove. That evening, part of
7020-764: The direction of the fire, which can make fires particularly dangerous. For example, during the 1949 Mann Gulch fire in Montana , United States, thirteen smokejumpers died when they lost their communication links, became disoriented, and were overtaken by the fire. In the Australian February 2009 Victorian bushfires , at least 173 people died and over 2,029 homes and 3,500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire. Handcrew Handcrews are diverse teams of career and temporary wildland firefighters . The crews typically consist of 18 to 20 firefighters but can also contain 4 to 6 and 8 to 10. These crews have
7137-693: The earth's atmosphere has 415 parts per million of carbon, and the destruction of the Amazon would add about 38 parts per million. Some research has shown wildfire smoke can have a cooling effect. Research in 2007 stated that black carbon in snow changed temperature three times more than atmospheric carbon dioxide. As much as 94 percent of Arctic warming may be caused by dark carbon on snow that initiates melting. The dark carbon comes from fossil fuels burning, wood and other biofuels, and forest fires. Melting can occur even at low concentrations of dark carbon (below five parts per billion)". Wildfire prevention refers to
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#17328524241447254-411: The economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life. The demand for timely, high-quality fire information has increased in recent years. Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting. Early detection efforts were focused on early response, accurate results in both daytime and nighttime, and the ability to prioritize fire danger. Fire lookout towers were used in
7371-552: The effect of weather on the fire. Wildfire severity results from a combination of factors such as available fuels, physical setting, and weather. Climatic cycles with wet periods that create substantial fuels, followed by drought and heat, often precede severe wildfires. These cycles have been intensified by climate change . Wildfires are a common type of disaster in some regions, including Siberia (Russia), California (United States), British Columbia (Canada), and Australia . Areas with Mediterranean climates or in
7488-412: The effects of fire for growth and reproduction. The ignition of a fire takes place through either natural causes or human activity (deliberate or not). Natural occurrences that can ignite wildfires without the involvement of humans include lightning , volcanic eruptions , sparks from rock falls, and spontaneous combustions . Sources of human-caused fire may include arson, accidental ignition, or
7605-507: The fall of 2022. During winter storms in early 2023, fire-weakened hillsides contributed to washouts and damaged culverts, again causing multiple closures along the highway. The fire destroyed four structures and damaged one, according to Cal Fire. These included a number of historic buildings in Sequoia National Park. The Redwood Mountain Ranger Station (built in 1940), Moro Rock Comfort Station (built in 1934, and Barton's Log/Crose's Cabin,
7722-506: The far side of the Sierra Nevada. In the sequoia grove itself the fire generated winds strong enough to strip bark and foliage from the sequoia trees, and flames likely climbed into the canopies of the sequoias, moving from tree to tree as a crown fire . The fire's run took it across Generals Highway near Stony Creek. The Tulare County Sheriff’s Office issued immediate evacuation orders for Mineral King Road and Mineral King Drive. The fire's intensity subsided upon reaching Big Baldy and parts of
7839-500: The figure reported in the daily morning update following overnight aerial infrared mapping of the fire. The graph runs from September 10, the day the fires were discovered, until October 21, the last day where fire growth was reported (though the fire was not declared completely contained until nearly two months later). Wildfire A wildfire , forest fire , or a bushfire is an unplanned, uncontrolled and unpredictable fire in an area of combustible vegetation . Depending on
7956-401: The fire and a flash flood watch was issued for the area. Christy Brigham, chief of resource management and science at Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks, declared it a season-ending event. At this point, with the fire largely out, much of the work was focused on repairing the damage from the suppression effort and stabilizing burned areas. A week later, control over the incident passed from
8073-402: The fire and consider safety . They will often designate one or two crew members to act as a lookout. This person generally has a few years of experience and is placed at a location where they can see a large portion of the fire. For larger fires there are multiple lookouts positioned around the entire fire. They watch for spot fires (fire that crosses the fireline) and take weather readings using
8190-402: The fire front. Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect : air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns . Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds , strong winds, and fire whirls with
8307-417: The fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through convection and thermal radiation . First, wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of 100 °C (212 °F). Next, the pyrolysis of wood at 230 °C (450 °F) releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at 380 °C (720 °F) or, when heated sufficiently, ignite at 590 °C (1,000 °F). Even before
8424-457: The fire still burning near Pierce Meadow surged up the western side of Redwood Mountain. By morning, it had merged with a fire front burning up through Redwood Canyon, and the combined head of the fire burned the central portion of the canyon, scorching the southern part of Redwood Mountain Grove at high severity. The fire burned hot in the canyon, putting up 40,000-foot (12,000 m) convective pyrocumulus or pyrocumulonimbus clouds visible from
8541-402: The fire's growth on its southern end. In late September, a high-pressure system settled in place over the area: higher humidity levels and lower temperatures, combined with a thick smoke inversion, stifled fire behavior somewhat even as the lack of visibility prevented aircraft from flying. Despite this, on September 24, fire activity ticked up as flames moved down from the conifer forests into
8658-449: The fire, but other park infrastructure was affected. For example, 62.3 miles (100 km) of trail within the fire's perimeter suffered varying degrees of damage. Sequoia National Park contained 44.2 miles (71 km) of the total and Kings Canyon National Park the remaining 18.1 miles (29 km). Nine miles (14 km), representing 20 percent of Sequoia National Park's burned trails, and 7.4 miles (12 km), representing 40 percent of
8775-452: The flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location, heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to 800 °C (1,470 °F), which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster. High-temperature and long-duration surface wildfires may encourage flashover or torching : the drying of tree canopies and their subsequent ignition from below. Wildfires have
8892-441: The force of tornadoes at speeds of more than 80 kilometres per hour (50 mph). Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions. Intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds. Sunlight warms
9009-429: The forest by consuming dry fuels. This ceased in the 20th century when the U.S. federal government began extinguishing every wildfire as a matter of policy. This led to elevated fuel loads in forests, including giant sequoia groves. Not until the 1960s was fire reintroduced to some groves. While approximately 30,000 acres (12,000 ha) used to burn naturally and annually in the Sequoia and Kings Canyon parks, as of 2022
9126-498: The grass and oak woodlands closer to the visitors center in the foothills, and leapt past firefighters and their control lines on Paradise Ridge. Burnout operations helped catch the fire in the Mineral King Road and Ash Mountain areas. A giant sequoia killed by the fire fell across the Generals Highway, blocking travel between the northern and southern portions of the fire until equipment could be mustered to cut through it. During
9243-408: The ground and water and fire retardant drops from the air. With the combination of difficult terrain and dry weather conducive to fire spread, park officials warned that "the fires have spread potential and could affect operations in the coming days or weeks." The Colony and Paradise fires grew overnight to 72 acres (29 ha) and 32 acres (13 ha) respectively, with no containment. On September 11
9360-450: The ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill. At night the land cools, creating air currents that travel downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys. Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around
9477-535: The grove that had previously been treated with prescribed fire. The Redwood Canyon area growth took the fire's total burned area to just shy of 80,000 acres (32,000 ha) by October 5. Following the blow-up in Redwood Canyon, shifts in the weather began to enable firefighters to gain the upper hand. On October 8, storms brought rain to the whole of the fire. Some areas received as much as three-tenths of an inch ( 7.6 mm) of precipitation. During this same period
9594-560: The hospital the following morning. On October 11, another firefighter was struck by a falling rock while working in Atwell Grove. They were hospitalized but were expected to recover. On October 22, Gavin Newsom , the governor of California , declared a state of emergency in Tulare County and multiple other counties affected by the season's fires, allowing residents to access resources through
9711-555: The incident. That night, the Paradise Fire spread down-slope to the north, crossing the Middle Fork of the Kaweah River and the Generals Highway. Park employees at the Ash Mountain Headquarters Complex and in employee housing nearby evacuated. Both fires expanded considerably over the course of the following day (September 14), taking the Paradise Fire's total burned acreage to more than 5,900 acres (2,400 ha) and
9828-490: The infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires. Additional capabilities such as night vision , brightness detection, and color change detection may also be incorporated into sensor arrays . The Department of Natural Resources signed a contract with PanoAI for the installation of 360 degree 'rapid detection' cameras around the Pacific northwest, which are mounted on cell towers and are capable of 24/7 monitoring of
9945-533: The intent to complete the work by 2023 at a cost of $ 15 million in funds from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act and a further $ 6 million then still unappropriated. In October 2022, the National Park Service separately announced its own emergency actions to protect 11 at-risk and remote giant sequoia groves in Sequoia and Kings Canyon parks by manually thinning vegetation around the trees, burning piles of potential fuels, and using prescribed fire in
10062-455: The interagency incident management team back to the Forest Service and National Park Service. The KNP Complex Fire was declared completely contained on December 16, with no further growth expected outside of the existing perimeter. The area burned by the fire was calculated at 88,307 acres (35,737 ha), and the cost of fighting the fire came to $ 170 million. Giant sequoias are typically resistant to wildfires, possessing thick bark and
10179-614: The last week of September, the fire grew by several thousand acres per day, driven by gusty west winds. As its footprint increased, mandatory evacuation orders were issued on September 30 for Eshom and Hartland Camp in Tulare County. These orders were expanded on October 1 to include Grant Grove Village, Wilsonia , and Cedar Grove in Kings Canyon National Park, and Big Meadows, Weston Meadows, and Quail Flat areas in Giant Sequoia National Monument. Approximately 158 homes were threatened between those in Sequoia National Park, in
10296-650: The line and scattered. These are also called ladder fuels that allow the fire to climb up into the canopies which makes controlling a fire much more difficult. Sawyers do the cutting and swampers do the moving of the debris. Depending on the size of the crew there can be between 1 and 5 swampers per sawyer. Other jobs include burn outs , gridding for spot fires, and mop up after the fire is controlled. Depending on their qualifications and skill levels, crews may be divided into squads (4 or 5 firefighters each). The more qualified crews will have specialized personnel such as sawyers and EMTs . Crews and managers must always monitor
10413-581: The majority of giant sequoia groves) in the House of Representatives . The bill sought to provide $ 350 million over the course of a decade to codify the Giant Sequoia Lands Coalition (an existing partnership between federal, state, tribal and local land managers), create a reforestation plan for groves destroyed by wildfires, and streamline the environmental review process for thinning and removing vegetation from other groves. Legislators working to draft
10530-440: The mountains. The number of firefighting personnel reached more than 2,000 and firefighting costs surpassed $ 170 million. The KNP Complex forced the communities of Three Rivers , Wilsonia , and Cedar Grove to evacuate, and caused the temporary closure of Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks while damaging roads, trails, and cabins within. The fire also heavily impacted the endangered giant sequoia , which grows in less than
10647-763: The nation. The complex slowly grew to just over 25,000 acres (10,000 ha) by September 21, causing Kings Canyon National Park to close. Portions of both parks east of the Pacific Crest Trail in the High Sierra remained open. As crews prepared for the fire's potential arrival in the Lost and Muir sequoia groves, the fire moved through the Giant Forest and reduced in intensity as it met areas that had already been treated with prescribed fire. Meanwhile, California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (Cal Fire) personnel constructed control lines along Paradise Ridge to help check
10764-487: The next two days, the fire backed down into Redwood Canyon, burning through Big Springs Grove and making occasional runs up towards Big Baldy (a high granite ridge to the east). Redwood Mountain Grove was singled out for concern—park officials knew that its southern section lay on a steep slope and was littered with excess fuel. Firefighters had begun burnout operations in the grove on October 1. Officials also decided to apply an experimental polyacrylamide fire retardant gel to
10881-419: The one California endured between 2012 and 2016. Acute stress from that drought killed many trees in the Sierra Nevada, particularly at middling elevations. The lack of water also crippled trees' abilities to resist the predations of bark beetles, which resulted in "greatly elevated mortality" for many major tree species in Sequoia National Park, including the ponderosa pine, the sugar pine, the incense-cedar, and
10998-419: The parks burned only around 10,000 acres (4,000 ha) annually in prescribed burns. Much of the KNP Complex Fire footprint had no recent wildfire burn history. A 2023 study identified "old, large-diameter fuels like fallen logs" as the likely culprit for the fire's high intensity after analyzing radiocarbon signatures in samples of the smoke, consistent with prior research demonstrating that fire suppression and
11115-539: The parks. In addition to giant sequoia mortality, the Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) team evaluated a host of other environmental impacts from the fire. The KNP Complex Fire burned critical habitat for the Pacific fisher , a small carnivorous mammal whose southern Sierra Nevada population is listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 . One of the primary reasons for
11232-843: The persistence of large sequoias", according to the Park Service's assessment. During the KNP Complex Fire's lifetime, it reached 16 separate giant sequoia groves, and affected some of them severely. The Park Service assessment reported: "Much of the fire’s growth occurred due to backing and flanking, with short uphill runs. However, in some areas terrain, fuels, and winds aligned to drive high intensity crown runs ranging from tens to hundreds of acres." Thus, while many groves received low-intensity flanking or backing fire producing effects that varied from "unburned" to "low" severity, several were affected by moderate or high severity runs that killed many mature giant sequoias. Studies have shown an 84 percent average mortality rate in old-growth sequoia groves burned at
11349-480: The preemptive methods aimed at reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread. Prevention techniques aim to manage air quality, maintain ecological balances, protect resources, and to affect future fires. Prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires, since, for example, 95% of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement. Wildfire prevention programs around
11466-410: The responsibilities of constructing firelines – strips of land cleared of flammable materials and dug down to mineral soil. These lines are generally constructed around wildfires to control them. Another type of line handcrews create is saw line. This is line where all trees limbs are removed up to shoulder height and all small trees and brush is cut down. All the limbs and trees are then carried outside
11583-462: The resulting accumulation of fuels have contributed to elevated fire intensities in the Sierra Nevada. On the night of September 9, a series of thunderstorms moved through California, generating more than 1,100 cloud-to-ground lightning strikes across the state by the following morning. Over 200 strikes occurred in Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks. On September 10, three lightning-ignited fires were discovered in Sequoia National Park. One of them,
11700-404: The risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically. Years of high precipitation can produce rapid vegetation growth, which when followed by warmer periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons. High temperatures dry out the fuel loads and make them more flammable, increasing tree mortality and posing significant risks to global forest health. Since the mid-1980s, in
11817-539: The southern Sierra Nevada, with 9.9 inches (25 cm) of rainfall compared to the region's average of 28.8 inches (73 cm). The summer of 2021 was also California's hottest ever recorded. The hot and dry conditions kept vegetation moisture levels "critically low". The drought and dead trees added to the high levels of vegetation that had already accumulated in Sierra Nevada forests. Prior to European-American settlement, frequent fires of lower severity occurred, leaving most sequoia trees unharmed and aiding regeneration in
11934-558: The species' listing is the loss and fragmentation of its habitat due to high-severity wildfire. More than 27,000 acres (10,927 ha) of proposed critical fisher habitat burned in the fire, 58 percent of it at moderate to high severities. More than 60,000 acres (24,281 ha) of spotted owl habitat (much of it overlapping with fisher habitat) also burned, 46 percent of it at moderate to high severities. The BAER team also evaluated soil burn severity using satellite imagery and field observations for calibration. A qualitative metric based on
12051-399: The techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds. In more advanced nations, the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity. Silver iodide can be used to encourage snow fall, while fire retardants and water can be dropped onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles , planes , and helicopters . Complete fire suppression
12168-502: The thinned areas. In February 2023, the Park Service began seeking public feedback on replanting sequoia and conifer seedlings in several groves particularly affected by the KNP and SQF Complex fires. Below is a summary of the groves that the KNP Complex impacted, the dates those groves burned, the acreage and percentage of each that burned at high severity, and a brief narrative. All information
12285-460: The three to five years following the fire. When combined with the estimated large sequoia mortality of 931–1,257 trees from the Windy Fire, the 2021 California wildfire season saw the potential loss of three to five percent of the global population of large giant sequoias. The National Park Service's assessment highlighted an "alarming trend" given the previous mortality from the Castle Fire portion of
12402-487: The total number of personnel assigned to the fire peaked at over 2,000, and it remained around that level for most of the second week of October. The favorable weather, particularly on the fire's north end, allowed those crews to achieve 20 percent containment of the fire by October 10. Another storm on the night of the 17th brought more than two inches (5.1 cm) of snow to the fire area, slowing fire activity further even as hotshot crews built another contingency line beneath
12519-439: The two fires, though still discrete, were christened the KNP Complex Fire. Ground crews on the Colony Fire were beleaguered by six-foot (1.8 m) flames and many hazardous snags . Meanwhile, the Paradise Fire's challenging location mid-slope with no safety zones or easy access caused officials to resort to an aircraft-only strategy, hoping to use water and fire retardant drops to keep the fire north of Paradise Ridge and south of
12636-718: The type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a bushfire ( in Australia ), desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, prairie fire, vegetation fire, or veld fire. Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire. Wildfires are different from controlled or prescribed burning , which are carried out to provide a benefit for people. Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake. Wildfires can be classified by cause of ignition, physical properties, combustible material present, and
12753-533: The uncontrolled use of fire in land-clearing and agriculture such as the slash-and-burn farming in Southeast Asia. In the tropics , farmers often practice the slash-and-burn method of clearing fields during the dry season . In middle latitudes , the most common human causes of wildfires are equipment generating sparks (chainsaws, grinders, mowers, etc.), overhead power lines , and arson . Arson may account for over 20% of human caused fires. However, in
12870-936: The use of planes, helicopter, or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large, low risk areas. These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft-mounted infrared or high-resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires. Satellite-mounted sensors such as Envisat 's Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer and European Remote-Sensing Satellite 's Along-Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires, identifying hot spots greater than 39 °C (102 °F). The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Hazard Mapping System combines remote-sensing data from satellite sources such as Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations. However, satellite detection
12987-421: The white fir. Annual tree mortality rates nearly doubled in the park just between 1983 and 2004. A park representative estimated in 2021 that Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Parks held over one million beetle-killed trees that were helping drive the KNP Complex Fire. California saw its second-driest water year ever in 2020–2021, exceeded only by that of 1923–1924. It was the driest ever water year on record for
13104-411: The wildfires. While direct emissions of harmful pollutants can affect first responders and residents, wildfire smoke can also be transported over long distances and impact air quality across local, regional, and global scales. The health effects of wildfire smoke, such as worsening cardiovascular and respiratory conditions, extend beyond immediate exposure, contributing to nearly 16,000 annual deaths,
13221-519: The world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use (WFU) and prescribed or controlled burns . Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions. Other objectives can include maintenance of healthy forests, rangelands, and wetlands, and support of ecosystem diversity. Strategies for wildfire prevention, detection, control and suppression have varied over
13338-540: The world, such as those in Burning Mountain , New South Wales; Centralia , Pennsylvania; and several coal-sustained fires in China . They can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material. (Fire) Good luck deleting this, Frost! (Fire) The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content, and weather conditions. Fuel arrangement and density
13455-466: The years. One common and inexpensive technique to reduce the risk of uncontrolled wildfires is controlled burning : intentionally igniting smaller less-intense fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire. Vegetation may be burned periodically to limit the accumulation of plants and other debris that may serve as fuel, while also maintaining high species diversity. While other people claim that controlled burns and
13572-762: Was organized in South Africa's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data. In advance of that campaign, the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria, South Africa, an early adopter of the VIIRS 375 m fire product, put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger. Since 2021 NASA has provided active fire locations in near real-time via
13689-408: Was the current priority and continued fire hazards precluded a complete assessment until later. On November 19, 2021, the Burned Area Emergency Response (BAER) team assigned to the KNP Complex Fire released their report, which discussed a variety of fire impacts, post-fire hazards, and potential actions for response. Analysis conducted by Nature Conservancy and National Park Service scientists used
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