The Korean independence movement was a series of diplomatic and militant efforts to liberate Korea from Japanese rule . The movement began around the late 19th or early 20th century, and ended with the surrender of Japan in 1945. As independence activism on the peninsula was largely suppressed by Japan, many significant efforts were conducted abroad by the Korean diaspora , as well as by a number of sympathetic non-Koreans.
94-464: [REDACTED] Workers' Party of South Korea The Jeju uprising , known in South Korea as the Jeju April 3 incident ( Korean : 제주 4·3 사건 ), was an uprising on Jeju Island from April 1948 to May 1949. A year prior to its start, residents of Jeju had begun protesting elections scheduled by the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK) to be held in the United States-occupied half of Korea , which they believed would entrench
188-492: A holiday in both South Korea and North Korea . Until the mid 19th century, Qing China , Japan, and Joseon Korea all maintained policies of relative isolationism . Around this time, Joseon was a tributary state of Qing. The Opium Wars during the mid-19th century between China and various Western powers led to the Qing government being forced to sign several unequal treaties , opening up Chinese territory to foreigners. Japan
282-531: A colony. They desired to restore Korea's independent political sovereignty after Japan invaded the weakened and partially modernized Korean Empire . This was the result of Japan's political maneuvers to secure international approval for the annexation of treaty annexing Korea. During the independence movement, the rest of the world viewed what was occurring in Korea as an anti-imperialist , anti-militarist , and an anti-Japanese resistance movement. Koreans, however, saw
376-522: A complete surrender and the rebels demanded disarmament of the local police, dismissal of all governing officials on the island, prohibition of paramilitary groups, and the re-unification and liberation of the Korean peninsula. In the wake of these failed peace negotiations, the fighting continued. The U.S. military government responded to guerrilla activity by transferring another regiment to Jeju from Busan and deploying police companies, each 1,700 strong, from
470-578: A general election on May 10, 1948, under UNTCOK supervision. Fearing it would lose influence over the northern half of Korea if it complied, the Soviet Union rejected the UN resolution and denied the UNTCOK access to northern Korea. UNTCOK nevertheless went through with the elections, albeit in the southern half of the country only. The Soviet Union responded to these elections in the south with an election of its own in
564-557: A military government to administer the southern region, which included Jeju Island. In December 1945, U.S. representatives met with those from the Soviet Union and United Kingdom to work out joint trusteeship. Due to lack of consensus, however, the U.S. took the "Korean question" to the United Nations for further deliberation. On November 14, 1947, the United Nations General Assembly passed UN Resolution 112, calling for
658-495: A number of volunteer guerrilla armies, called " righteous armies " emerged among the Korean populace to fight the Japanese. Around 20,000 volunteers died in these confrontations, which ultimately did not stop the colonization of Korea. The period of Japanese colonial rule that ensued was oppressive to a far-reaching degree, giving rise to many Korean resistance movements . By 1919 these became nationwide, marked by what became known as
752-402: A process of absorbing Korea into its own sphere of influence over the course of several decades. According to Kirk W. Larsen, by 1882, Japan appeared to be the preeminent power on the peninsula, even over Joseon's formal suzerain , Qing. Japan's hegemony over Korea was further cemented by the Japanese victory in the 1894 to 1895 First Sino–Japanese War . The Treaty of Shimonoseki that ended
846-574: A tenant position. In 1926 the disputes started to increase at a fast pace and movements concerning labor emerged more within the Independence Movement. There were broadly three kinds of national liberation groups: (a) the Christian groups which grew out of missionary efforts led by Western missionaries primarily from the United States prior to the Japanese occupation; (b) the former military and
940-595: Is considered as the day the Jeju uprising officially began. Some sources claim it came about when military police "fired on a demonstration commemorating the Korean struggle against Japanese rule," igniting mass insurrection. Other sources, however, make no mention of this demonstration incident, and claim that WPSK plans to attack on April 3 had been in the works for some time. Whatever the case, at approximately 02:00, around 500 WPSK guerrillas alongside up to 3,000 sympathizers attacked Northwest Youth League positions as well as 11 of
1034-637: Is disputed, they succeeded at emboldening WPSK military forces. In the months following the elections, conditions worsened to the point that Republic of Korea (ROK) officials decided to send the Fourteenth Regiment of the Korean Constabulary, stationed near the southern port city of Yeosu , to Jeju Island to assist counter-guerrilla efforts. Not wanting to "murder the people of Jeju," however, thousands of these troops mutinied on October 20, 1948, just as they were preparing to depart. They killed many of
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#17328448693911128-602: Is what sparked the First Sino–Japanese War. In April 1896, Soh Jaipil and others established the Independence Club : the first political organization that advocated for Korean independence. Among other goals, the group advocated for the establishment of a constitutional monarchy . While Gojong initially recognized and tolerated the organization, he eventually disbanded it in December 1898. Between 1905 and 1912,
1222-649: The Cairo Conference , the US and China came to agree on Korean independence "in due course", with China still pressing for immediate recognition of the exile government and a tangible date for independence. After Soviet-American relations deteriorated, on August 10, 1945, the United States Department of War agreed that China should land troops in Pusan , Korea from which to prevent a Soviet takeover. However, this turnaround
1316-735: The Chinese Communist Party . Little real support came through, but that which did develop long-standing relationships that contributed to the dividing of Korea after 1949, and the polar positions between south and north. The constant infighting within the Yi family , the nobles, the confiscation of royal assets, the disbanding of the royal army by the Japanese, the execution of seniors within Korea by Japan, comprehensive assassinations of Korean royalty by Japanese mercenaries, and surveillance by Japanese authorities led to great difficulties in royal descendants and their family groups in finding anything but
1410-641: The Imo Incident occurred, in which general anti-foreigner sentiment (especially anti-Japanese) amongst the Joseon Army and later the general citizenry led to the killing of both Korean government officials and members of the Japanese legation. In 1894, the Donghak Peasant Rebellion occurred. Like the Imo Incident, this rebellion was also generally anti-foreigner, with a focus on Japan. This incident
1504-631: The Korean Peninsula . Although China achieved agreement by the Allies on eventual Korean independence in the Cairo Declaration of 1943, continued disagreement and ambiguity about the postwar Korean government lasted until the Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 created a de facto division of Korea into Soviet and American zones. August 15, the day that Japan surrendered in 1945, is celebrated as
1598-569: The March First Movement . Japanese rule was oppressive but changed over time. Initially, there was very harsh repression in the decade following annexation. Japan's rule was markedly different than in its other colony, Formosa . This period is referred to as amhukki (the dark period) in Korean historiography and common parlance in Korea. Tens of thousands of Koreans were arrested by the Japanese colonial administration for political reasons. The harshness of Japanese rule increased support for
1692-649: The National Committee for Investigation of the Truth about the Jeju April 3 Incident chaired by South Korean prime minister Goh Kun released a comprehensive report detailing the violence that occurred during the uprising, and South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun issued an official apology on behalf of the South Korean government. In 2019, the South Korean police and the defense ministry apologized for their involvement in
1786-548: The National Intelligence Service . However, on November 23, 1998, after the democratization of South Korea, President Kim Dae-jung stated that "the Jeju uprising was a communist rebellion, but there are a lot of people who died under false accusations as innocents, so now we have to reveal the truth and clear their false charges." On December 26, 1999, the National Assembly passed a bill, 'A special law for
1880-741: The National Security Act in September 1948, which among other measures, outlawed the Workers' Party of South Korea. On 24 June 1949, the party merged with the Workers' Party of North Korea , forming the Workers' Party of Korea . The WPNK leader Kim Il Sung became party chairman, whereas Pak Hon-yong became deputy chairman. In the Korean War , 60,000 to 200,000 members of the party and suspected communist supporters, many of them civilians, were massacred by
1974-594: The Northwest Youth League . Although both the police and paramilitary groups employed violent and harsh tactics in their suppression of the locals, the Northwest Youth League was especially ruthless, described as borderline terroristic. As the May 10, 1948 elections approached, WPSK leaders hardened in their opposition to the involvement of UNTCOK in Korean affairs, as they believed the elections would formalise
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#17328448693912068-679: The Peace Preservation Law of 1925 , some freedoms were restricted. Then, in the lead up to the invasion of China and World War II, the harshness of Japanese rule increased again. Although the Empire of Japan had invaded and occupied northeast China from 1931, the Nationalist Government of China avoided declaring war on Japan until the Empire directly attacked Beijing in 1937, sparking the Second Sino-Japanese War . After
2162-731: The U.S. State Department to support Korean independence and recognize the KPG, the Far Eastern Division was skeptical. Its argument was that the Korean people "were emasculated politically" after decades of Japanese rule, and showed too much disunity, preferring a condominium solution for Korea that involved the Soviets. China was adamantly opposed to Soviet influence in Korea after hearing about atrocities in Poland following its Soviet takeover in 1939. By
2256-680: The United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) John R. Hodge stated in October 1947 that Jeju was "a truly communal area that is peacefully controlled by the People's Committee without much Comintern influence." The Jeju People's Committee had come under the directive of the Workers' Party of South Korea (WPSK) by late 1946. The WPSK encouraged the People's Council to establish military and political committees, as well as mass organizations. The 1946 USAMGIK dissolution of
2350-461: The division of the country . A general strike was later organised by the Workers' Party of South Korea (WPSK) from February to March 1948. The WPSK launched an insurgency in April 1948, attacking police and Northwest Youth League members stationed on Jeju who had been mobilized to suppress the protests by force. The First Republic of Korea under President Syngman Rhee escalated the suppression of
2444-508: The "Namro Party" ( 남로당 ; 南勞黨 ). It was founded on 23 November 1946 through the merger of the Communist Party of South Korea , New People's Party of Korea and a faction of the People's Party of Korea (the so-called 'forty-eighters'). It was led by Ho Hon . The party was outlawed by the U.S. occupation authorities due to the party being an aggravating opposition to South Korea and
2538-494: The 24 police stations on the island, killing 30 police officers, specifically targeting those who were known to have previously collaborated with the Japanese. Lieutenant General Kim Ik-ryeol , commander of police forces on the island, attempted to end the insurrection peacefully by negotiating with the rebels. He met several times with rebel leader Kim Dal-sam of the WPSK but neither side could agree on conditions. The government wanted
2632-776: The 38th parallel partition as a border, rendering a unified, independent Korea much less likely. In January 1948, Pak Hon-yong , the leader of the WPSK, called on WPSK members south of the 38th parallel to oppose the elections by whatever means necessary, and called for a general strike to begin on February 7. At this point, there were at least 60,000 members of the WPSK on Jeju, and at least 80,000 active supporters. These members and supporters not only went on strike but in some cases attacked government installations and engaged with police forces in open conflict. These engagements between WPSK guerrillas against rightist groups and police continued through March 1948. Although skirmishes had been taking place on Jeju Island since early 1947, April 3, 1948,
2726-523: The Japanese princess Nashimoto. The ban on Korean newspapers was lifted, allowing publication of Choson Ilbo and The Dong-A Ilbo . Korean government workers received the same wages as Japanese officials, though the Japanese officials received bonuses the Koreans did not. Whippings were eliminated for minor offenses but not for others. Laws interfering with burial, slaughtering of animals, peasant markets, or traditional customs were removed or changed. After
2820-637: The Jeju rebels and their sympathizers had been, "killed, captured, or converted." Stars and Stripes reported on the South Korean Army's suppression of the rebellion, local support for the rebels, as well as rebel retaliation against local rightist opponents. Immediately after the North Korean invasion of South Korea , the South Korean military ordered the "preemptive apprehension" of suspected leftists nationwide. Thousands were detained on Jeju and then sorted into four groups, labeled A, B, C and D, based on
2914-464: The Jeju uprising truth ascertainment and the regaining impaired reputation of the victims'. On January 12, 2000, the National Assembly legislated a law so the Korean government could begin conducting an investigation of the uprising. Due to this decision, it could be possible to expand the human rights of the residents of Jeju. On October 15, 2003, a truth ascertainment committee of the Jeju uprising
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3008-508: The King of Joseon, made efforts to reach out to the United States and various European powers via a number of treaties, foreign exchange student programs, and diplomatic missions. But these overtures often went ignored or forgotten, as the powers prioritized their own interests in Japan and China. Koreans requesting assistance from foreign governments and being ignored became a frequent occurrence even until
3102-638: The Korean independence movement. Many Koreans left the Korean Peninsula for Manchuria and Primorsky Krai in Russia, some of whom formed resistance groups and societies in Manchuria to fight for Korean independence. Koreans also carried out armed struggles against Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea. In 1919 and 1920s, Korean independence army units engaged in resistance activities in Manchuria, which traveled across
3196-469: The Korean-Chinese border, using guerrilla warfare to fight against the Japanese army. Some went to Japan, where groups agitated clandestinely. There was a prominent group of Korean Communists in Japan, who were in danger for their political activities. Partly due to Korean opposition to Japanese colonial policies, this was followed by a relaxation of some harsh policies. The Korean crown prince married
3290-492: The March 1 shootings. By the spring of 1949 four South Korean Army battalions arrived and joined the local constabulary, police forces, and right-wing Northwest Youth Association partisans to suppress protests. The combined forces quickly destroyed or disabled most of the remaining rebel forces. On June 7, 1949, the leadership of the movement fell apart following the killing of major rebel leader Lee Deok-gu. The US military later called
3384-600: The Republic of Korea (KPG) was founded as a self-proclaimed government in exile . After the outbreak of the Pacific War in 1941, China became one of the Allies of World War II . In the Second Sino-Japanese War , China attempted to use this influence to assert Allied recognition of the KPG. However, the United States was skeptical of Korean unity and readiness for independence, preferring an international trusteeship -like solution for
3478-544: The Sam-il Movement). An attempt by the security forces to disperse the crowds only brought more citizens of Jeju out in support of the demonstrations. The police fired indiscriminately into the crowd, killing six civilians, including a six-year-old child. On March 8, 1947, a crowd of about a thousand demonstrators gathered at the Chong-myon jail, demanding the release of WPSK members the military government had arrested during
3572-478: The Sam-il demonstrations. When the demonstrators started throwing rocks and subsequently rushed the jail, the police inside shot at them, killing five. In response, WPSK members and others called on the military government to take action against the police officers who fired on the crowd. Instead, 400 more police officers were flown in from the mainland, along with members of an extreme right-wing paramilitary group known as
3666-628: The South Korean Army with supervision of the US army in what became known as the Bodo League massacre . The clandestine trade union movement, the All Korea Labor Union ( Chŏnp'yŏng ) was connected to the party. Korean independence movement In the mid-19th century, Japan and China were forced out of their policies of isolationism by the West. Japan then proceeded to rapidly modernize, forcefully open Korea, and establish its own hegemony over
3760-535: The US Armed Forces sent an investigation team headed by Colonel James A. Casteel to Jeju to investigate the causes of the rebellion. They summarized that the February 1948 Jeju general strike prior to the rebellion was caused by instigation by the WPSK and hostility towards the police as a result of shootings. They also described the strike as "communist inspired" but participated by both the left and right in response to
3854-447: The US, but the party organized a network of clandestine cells and was able to obtain a considerable following. It had around 360,000 party members. In 1947, the party initiated armed guerrilla struggle. As the persecution of party intensified, large sections of the party leadership moved to Pyongyang . The party was opposed to the formation of a South Korean state. In February–March 1948, it instigated general strikes in opposition to
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3948-471: The United States declared war on Japan in 1941, China became an Ally of World War II , and tried to exercise its influence within the group to support Pan-Asian and nationalist movements, which included stipulating a demand of the complete surrender of Japan and immediate independence of Korea afterwards. China tried to promote the legitimacy of the Provisional Government of Korea (KPG), which
4042-456: The United States should apologize for this. According to them, the U.S. president should visit Jeju Island, and the U.S. should officially admit responsibility for the Jeju massacre. Workers%27 Party of South Korea The Workers' Party of South Korea ( Korean : 남조선로동당 ) was a communist party in South Korea from 1946 to 1949. It is also sometimes colloquially referred to as
4136-853: The complete destruction of Jungsangan village a "successful operation." The National Committee for the Investigation of the Truth about the Jeju April 3 Incident concluded that the U.S. Army Military Government in Korea and the Korean Military Advisory Group shared responsibility for the incident as it began under the rule of the military government and an American colonel was in charge of the security forces of Jeju until August 1948. According to Heo Hojun's(허호준), U.S. liaison aircraft helped to arrest and kill villagers who evacuated to middle mountain area. Song Yo Chan(송요찬) commander of punitive forces in Jeju during late 1948, show appreciation to Fred M. Erricson who helped punitive operation and noticed
4230-488: The end of the Japanese occupation in 1945. Korean-Chinese joint operations Liberation forces operations Other Following Joseon's forced opening, Japan continued to open more and more parts of Korea to exclusive Japanese trade, to the chagrin of the citizens of Joseon as well as Joseon and Qing officials. In some areas of Korea and especially near the port of Wonsan , "small roving bands of Koreans" attacked Japanese people who ventured outside at night. In 1882,
4324-535: The event, the defense ministry and police under the Moon Jae-in administration apologized for the past government's role in the Jeju massacre. Some right-wing groups, including the Wallganjosun ( Korean : 월간조선 ), and Jaehyanggooninhwe ( Korean : 재향군인회 ) argued that the Jeju uprising was led and instigated by the WPSK. Kim Gwang-dong, the director of researching policy in Korea argued that though
4418-469: The fundamental characteristic of the uprising was "subversion of the system," there were many skewed and biased studies that criticized the Korean government's faults in suppressing the rebellion. He said that "it was an armed struggle and revolt of the forces who advocate communism against forces who support liberal democracy." A Presbyterian minister, Lee Jong-yoon, said at a church in Seoul that "the Jeju rising
4512-409: The government admitted that the events on Jeju Island had taken place. In 2003, the National Committee for Investigation of the Truth about the Jeju April 3 Incident chaired by South Korean prime minister Goh Kun described the event as a genocide . In October 2003, President Roh Moo-hyun apologized to the populace of Jeju for the brutal suppression of the uprising: "Due to wrongful decisions of
4606-533: The government, many innocent people of Jeju suffered many casualties and destruction of their homes." In March 2009, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission revealed, "At least 20,000 people jailed for taking part in the popular uprisings in Jeju, Yeosu and Suncheon, accused of being communists, were massacred in some 20 prisons across the country," when the Korean War broke out. The commission reported 14,373 victims during
4700-576: The high-ranking officers and former Japanese collaborators and seized Yeosu and surrounding areas before retreating into the areas around Jirisan mountain and setting up guerrilla bases, much as the Jeju guerrillas did while hiding out in Hallasan . Embarrassed by this incident, Syngman Rhee , the newly elected president of the ROK, intensified the government's efforts to stamp out the rebellion. On November 17, 1948, Syngman Rhee proclaimed martial law in order to quell
4794-467: The improvement of school facilities. From 1911 to 1937, Korea was dealing with economic problems (with the rest of the world, going through the Great Depression after World War I). There were many labor complaints that contributed to the grievances against Japan's colonial rule. During this period, there were 159,061 disputes with workers concerned with wages and 1018 disputes involving 68,686 farmers in
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#17328448693914888-435: The irregular army groups; and (c) business and intellectual expatriates who formed the theoretical and political framework abroad. Catholicism arrived in Korea towards the end of the 18th century, facing intense persecution for the centuries afterwards. Methodist and Presbyterian missionaries followed in the 19th century starting off a renaissance with more liberal thoughts on issues of equality and woman's rights, which
4982-526: The island's 230 villages were burned to the ground, and over 39,000 houses were destroyed. Of the 400 villages before the uprising only 170 remained afterwards. In 2008, bodies of massacre victims were discovered in a mass grave near Jeju International Airport . Estimates of the overall deaths of the 1948–1950 uprising run as high as 100,000. In January 2019, the Jeju District Court overturned military court rulings that imprisoned Jeju Islanders, clearing
5076-522: The massacre have evaluated that the Jeju People's Committee has nothing to do with directive of the WPSK. Residents of Jeju began protesting against the elections a year before they took place. Particularly concerned about permanently dividing the peninsula, the WPSK planned gatherings on March 1, 1947, to denounce the elections and simultaneously celebrate the anniversary of the March 1st Movement (also known as
5170-406: The massacres during the Jeju uprising. After Imperial Japan surrendered to Allied forces on August 15, 1945, the 35-year Japanese occupation of Korea finally came to an end. Korea was subsequently divided at the 38th parallel north , with the Soviet Union assuming trusteeship north of the line and the United States south of the line. In September 1945, Lt. General John R. Hodge established
5264-411: The methods used by the South Korean government to suppress protesters and rebels were especially cruel, with violence against civilians by pro-government forces contributing to the Yeosu-Suncheon rebellion in South Jeolla during the conflict. Some historians and scholars, including military historian Allan R. Millett , regard the Jeju uprising as the true beginning of the Korean War. In October 2003,
5358-429: The mountainous region controlled by guerillas the night before the election so they could not be brought out to vote at gunpoint, and thousands did. Many election officials even declined to show up. These campaigns, along with sporadic arson, violent demonstrations and attacks on three government installations on election day rendered the election useless. The turnout in Jeju was the lowest in all of South Korea, so low that
5452-411: The movement as a step to free Korea from the Japanese military rule. The South Korean government has been criticized as recently as 2011 for not accepting Korean socialists who fought for Korean independence. There was no main strategy or tactic that was prevalent throughout the resistance movement, but there were stages where certain tactics or strategies were prominent. From 1905 to 1910, most of
5546-465: The movement's activities were closed off to the elite class or rare scholar. During this time, militaristic and violent attempts were taken to resist the Japanese including assassination . Most of the attempts were disorganized, scattered, and leaderless to prevent arrests and surveillance by the Japanese. From 1910 to 1919, was a time of education during the colonial era. Many Korean textbooks on grammar and spelling were circulated in schools. It started
5640-422: The names of the 18 surviving plaintiffs and recognizing them as wronged victims of the Jeju April 3 Uprising and Massacre. At the 71st commemoration of Jeju uprising, April 3, 2019, the South Korean police and defense ministry apologized for the first time over the massacres. Families of victims of the uprising and associated massacres, as well as various civic organizations, continuously attempted to openly discuss
5734-530: The names of the 18 surviving plaintiffs and recognizing them as wronged victims of the Jeju April 3 Uprising and Massacre. At the 71st commemoration of Jeju uprising, April 3, 2019, the South Korean police and defense ministry apologized for the first time over the massacres. Many South Korean human rights activists and bereaved families of the victims of the massacre argue that the killings were systematically carried out by USAMGIK and South Korean anti-communist right-wing political forces. Therefore, they argue that
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#17328448693915828-412: The north on August 25, 1948. Residents of Jeju island were some of the most active participants in the Korean independence movement against colonial Japanese occupation. Due to the island's relative isolation from the mainland peninsula, Jeju experienced relative peace after the Japanese surrender, contrasting with the period of heavy unrest in the southern region of mainland Korea. As with the mainland,
5922-422: The number of guerrilla forces to just 300. On January 1, 1949, the guerrillas launched one last offensive against ROK police. They attacked at Odong-ni and Jeju City, but were beaten back by ROK police and driven to the island's interior mountains. ROK police pursued the guerrillas and continued to commit atrocities, including rounding up whole villages and killing them all. The ROK forces, now determined to destroy
6016-449: The number was higher since there are both unidentified or unidentifiable victims. In addition, about 180 soldiers died in combat, and 140 policemen died in the April 3 incident. In 2003, South Korea's National Committee for the Investigation of the Truth concluded that the US Army military government and the Korean military shared responsibility for the incident. On October 31, 2003, South Korean president Roh Moo-hyun offered an apology to
6110-412: The one established in 1906 in Colorado by Park Hee Byung . The culmination of expatriate success was the Shanghai declaration of independence. Sun Yat-sen was an early supporter of Korean struggles against Japanese invaders. By 1925, Korean expatriates began to cultivate two-pronged support in Shanghai: from Chiang Kai-Shek's Kuomintang , and from early communist supporters, who later branched into
6204-408: The peninsula. Eventually, it formally annexed Korea in 1910 . The 1919 March First Movement protests are widely seen as a significant catalyst for the international independence movement, although domestically the protests were violently suppressed. In the aftermath of the protests, thousands of Korean independence activists fled abroad, mostly to China . In April 1919, the Provisional Government of
6298-459: The perceived security risks each posed. On August 30, 1950, a written order by a senior intelligence officer in the South Korean Navy instructed Jeju's police to "execute all those in groups C and D by firing squad no later than September 6." In one of its first official acts, the South Korean National Assembly passed the National Traitors Act in 1948, which among other measures, outlawed the Workers Party of South Korea. For almost fifty years after
6392-427: The period immediately following the Japanese surrender was characterized by the formation of People's Committees , local autonomous councils tasked with coordinating the transition towards Korean independence. When the American military government arrived on Jeju in late 1945, the Jeju People's Council was the only existing government on the island. As a testament to this relative stability, the US military governor under
6486-414: The plans to create a separate South Korean state. On 3 April 1948, the party led a popular uprising on Jeju island , against the unilateral declaration of the foundation of South Korea. In the suppression of the revolt, thousands of islanders were killed (see Jeju massacre ), largely by forces of the South Korean Government. In one of its first official acts, the South Korean National Assembly passed
6580-408: The provisional People's Republic of Korea and their associated People's Committees on the mainland sparked the Autumn Uprising of 1946 , which did not spread to Jeju (as its PC still operated virtually undisturbed by the American military government) but did contribute to rising tensions on the island. However, since the 2000s, many South Korean liberal scholars and bereaved families of the victims of
6674-429: The rally point, command post of Rebel forces and battle situation between Rebel and Punitive forces by reconnaissance flight. After the outbreak of the Korean War, the US assumed command of the South Korean armed forces. Brigadier General William Lynn Roberts commanded Americans on Jeju. The US military documented massacres but did not intervene. On May 13, 1949, the US ambassador to South Korea wired Washington that
6768-435: The rebellion. During this period, ROK police forces engaged in numerous war crimes. One report describes the events of December 14, 1948 at a small Jeju village, in which ROK forces attacked the village and kidnapped many young men and girls. The girls were gang-raped over a two-week period and were then executed along with the young men. By the end of 1948, the ROK's harsh tactics and effective suppression campaigns had reduced
6862-408: The remaining WPSK guerrillas, launched an eradication campaign in March 1949. During the campaign, 2,345 guerrillas and 1,668 civilians were killed. With the campaign now effectively over, the ROK held elections on Jeju Island to fill the province's empty seats in the National Assembly; Jeju Island was now effectively and symbolically under ROK jurisdiction. At the beginning of the uprising, the island
6956-502: The same. In response, U.S. military provincial governor William F. Dean ordered a purge of WPSK sympathizers from the ranks of the Korean constabulary, and three sergeants were summarily executed. Fighting continued through the May 10 elections. A total of 214 people had been killed by then. During election week, the guerrillas "cut telephone lines, destroyed bridges, and blocked roads with piles of stones to disrupt communications." The WPSK Women's League campaigned for residents to hide in
7050-478: The southern provinces of the mainland. The guerrillas retreated to their bases in the forests and caves around Hallasan , an extinct volcano and the highest mountain in South Korea. On April 29, the Korean, non-military, governor of Jeju province abandoned his post, defected, and joined the guerrillas. This caused many police officers, disillusioned by the atrocities they were ordered to commit against their own, to do
7144-829: The strict Confucian tradition would not permit. The early Korean Christian missionaries both led the Korean independence movement active from 1890 through 1907, and later the creation of a Korean liberation movement from 1907 to 1945. Korean Christians suffered martyrdoms, crucifixions, burnings to death, police interrogations and massacres by the Japanese. Amongst the major religious nationalist groups were: Supporters of these groups included French, Czech, Chinese, and Russian arms merchants, as well as Chinese nationalist and communist movements. Expatriate liberation groups were active in Shanghai, northeast China, parts of Russia, Hawaii, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. Groups were even organised in areas without many expatriate Koreans, such as
7238-531: The summer months of 1948, they picked up again in August after the Soviet Union held elections north of the 38th parallel to form the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). In conjunction with these elections, the Workers' Party of North Korea (WPNK) organized "underground elections" for those wanting to participate south of the 38th parallel, including on Jeju Island. Although the turnout of these elections
7332-415: The trend of intellectual resistance to Japanese colonial rule. This period, along with Woodrow Wilson 's progressive principles abroad, created an aware, nationalist, and eager student population. After the March First Movement of 1919, strikes became prominent in the movement. Up to 1945, universities were used as a haven and source of students who further supported the movement. This support system led to
7426-644: The two Kims to form the unified Korean Liberation Army (KLA). Under the terms in which the KLA was allowed to operate in China, it became an auxiliary of China's National Revolutionary Army until 1945. China's National Military Council had also decided that "complete independence" for Korea was China's fundamental Korean policy; otherwise, the government in Chongqing tried to unify the warring Korean factions. Although Chiang and Korean leaders like Syngman Rhee tried to influence
7520-496: The two seats reserved for Jeju province in the new national assembly were left vacant. Fearing an upsurge in guerrilla activities after they succeeded in getting what they wanted out of the election, General Dean requested a US Navy blockade of the island on May 11, so that sympathizers from the mainland could not reach Jeju. The Navy sent the USS ; John R. Craig to enforce the blockade. Although guerrilla activities waned during
7614-435: The uprising but the national government suppressed all materials and discussions, and even made the topic of the uprising illegal. The first published recollection in South Korea of the massacre was the 1978 novel Sun-i Samch'on ( Korean : 순이삼촌 , "Uncle Suni") which is set during the event. However, it was swiftly banned by the ROK government and its author, Hyun Ki-young , was arrested and tortured for three days by
7708-858: The uprising from August 1948, declaring martial law in November and beginning an "eradication campaign" against rebel forces in the rural areas of Jeju in March 1949, defeating them within two months. Many rebel veterans and suspected sympathizers were later killed upon the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950, and the existence of the Jeju uprising was officially censored and repressed in South Korea for several decades. The Jeju uprising and its repression were notable for its extreme violence; between 14,000 and 30,000 people (10 percent of Jeju's population) were killed, and 40,000 fled to Japan . Other estimates reach as high as 80,000 dead. Atrocities and war crimes were committed by both sides, but historians have noted that
7802-457: The uprising, 86 percent at the hands of the security forces and 14 percent at the hands of armed rebels, and estimated that the total death toll was as high as 30,000. The commission listed the number of confirmed deaths at each stage of the incident; 104 deaths from March 3, 1947 to April 4, 1948; 214 deaths during the initial armed uprising from April 4 to May 10; and 637 deaths during armed conflict from May 11 to October 10. The most violent period
7896-399: The uprising, it was a crime punishable by beatings, torture, and a lengthy prison sentence if any South Korean even mentioned the events of the Jeju uprising. The event had been largely ignored by the government. In 1992, President Roh Tae Woo 's government sealed up a cave on Mount Halla , where the remains of massacre victims had been discovered. After civil rule was reinstated in the 1990s,
7990-573: The victims of the Jeju incident. On March 28, 2008, the Korea Institute of Science and Technology opened a chemical aid project in Bonggae-dong, Jeju as part of a joint compensation program for the Jeju April 3 incident. In January 2019, 18 survivors, who were formally charged with insurrection , were acquitted more than 70 years after their imprisonment. The Jeju District Court overturned military court rulings that imprisoned Jeju Islanders, clearing
8084-449: The war stipulated that Qing would relinquish Joseon from its influence. The Russian Empire then attempted to put Korea in its own sphere of influence, but was soundly defeated in the 1904 to 1905 Russo-Japanese War . By this point, Japan was the unquestioned hegemon over Korea. In 1905, it made Joseon its protectorate , and in 1910, it formally absorbed Korea into its empire . Meanwhile, shortly after Korea's forced opening, Gojong ,
8178-496: Was also forced to open up by the United States via the 1853 to 1854 Perry Expedition . It then underwent the Meiji Restoration and experienced a period of rapid modernization. However, in 1866, Joseon was able to resist an American attempt to open it as well as a French attempt . It was Japan that eventually succeeded in opening Korea, when it forced Joseon to sign the unequal Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 . Japan then began
8272-406: Was assembled according to the special law, and ascertained a fact-finding report of the Jeju uprising. In line with the finding of the committee, on October 31, 2003, former president Roh Moo-hyeon admitted that the brutal suppression of the uprising was a massive abuse of governmental power and made a public apology to the people of Jeju on behalf of the Republic of Korea. On the 71st anniversary of
8366-560: Was controlled by the United States Army Military Government in Korea . Only a small number of Americans were present. Jimmie Leach , a captain in the US Army , was an adviser to the South Korean Constabulary and claimed that there were six Americans on the island, including himself, and that they could call on two small L-4 scout planes and two old minesweepers converted to coastal cutters, manned by Korean crews. On March 8, 1949,
8460-559: Was established by Korean exiles in China after the suppression of the March 1st Movement in Korea. The KPG was ideologically aligned with the Chinese government of the time, as independence leader Kim Ku had agreed to Chiang Kai-shek 's suggestion to adopt the Chinese Three Principles of the People program in exchange for financial aid. At the same time, China supported the leftist independence leader Kim Won-bong and convinced
8554-408: Was from October 11, 1948 to March 1, 1949, with 9,709 confirmed deaths. There were a further 2,668 confirmed deaths between March 3, 1949 and June 24, 1950. 800 more deaths occurred on Jeju up to 21 September 1954. The commission confirmed 7,624 victims of the security forces, and 1,528 victims of the armed rebels. Further, they confirmed 448 victims of systematic civilian massacres. Some 70 percent of
8648-414: Was illegal according to the first constitution of South Korea. The other side argues that martial law from the Japanese colonial era still existed and therefore permitted any violence effectuating martial law. This part continued before August 15, 1948, and after the formation of the South Korean government. Although the June, 2000 incident report stated that 14,028 victims were found, it is very likely that
8742-512: Was incurred by the leftist forces and they provoked the rebellion to disturb the May 10 general election." The statement was broadcast through the CTS channel . On November 20, 2010, a chairman of an adjustment committee of past affairs and a former new right, Lee Young-Jo argued that the "Jeju rising was apparent communist-led rebellion." There are controversies about the legality of martial law, which took effect on November 17, 1948. One side believes it
8836-461: Was too late to prevent the division of Korea , as the Red Army quickly occupied northern Korea that same month. Inactive or defunct Inactive or defunct Although there were many separate movements against colonial rule, the main ideology or purpose of the movement was to free Korea from the Japanese military and political rule. Koreans were concerned with alien domination and Korea's state as
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