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143-683: The name was resurrected after the Congress of Vienna for the province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg of the Kingdom of Prussia between 1815 and 1822. Its territory is today split between the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the Dutch province of Gelderland . The United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg was a combination of states of the Holy Roman Empire . The duchies of Jülich and Berg united in 1423. Nearly

286-484: A copyright law and freedom of the press. With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, civil servants and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke of an attendee, it danced a lot but did not move forward. On the other hand, the possibilities for informal gatherings created by this "side program" may have helped ensure

429-597: A de facto province of the Prussian kingdom. Although Frederick was still only an elector within the portions of his domain that were part of the empire, he only acknowledged the emperor's overlordship over them in a formal way. In the mid-16th century, the margraves of Brandenburg had become highly dependent on the estates (counts, lords, knights and towns, no prelates due to the Protestant Reformation in 1538). The margraviate's liabilities and tax income as well as

572-717: A standing army in 1653 , was symbolized by the widely noted victories in the Battle of Warsaw in 1656 and Battle of Fehrbellin ( 1675 ) and by the Great Sleigh Drive ( 1678 ). Brandenburg-Prussia also established a Brandenburg Navy for on the nearby waters of the Baltic Sea , Gulf of Finland and passages west to the North Sea with access to the North Atlantic Ocean and additional German colonies were established along

715-490: A 1647 agreement with Frederick William which had favored the Protestants in the duchies, while Frederick William insisted that the agreement be upheld. Besides these religious motives, Frederick William's invasion also aimed at territorial expansion. The conflict had the potential to spark another international war since Wolfgang William wanted to have the still not demobilized army of Lorraine , which continued to operate in

858-743: A baroque ceremony in Königsberg Castle . On 28 January, Augustus the Strong congratulated Frederick, yet not as Polish king, but as Saxon elector. In February, Denmark–Norway accepted Frederick's elevation in hope of an ally in the Great Northern War , and the Tsardom of Russia likewise approved in 1701. Most princes of the Holy Roman Empire followed. Charles XII of Sweden accepted Frederick as Prussian king in 1703. In 1713, France and Spain also accepted Frederick's royal status. The coronation

1001-437: A century later, in 1521, these two duchies, along with the county of Ravensberg , fell extinct, with only the last duke's daughter Maria von Geldern left to inherit; under Salic law , women could only hold property through a husband or guardian, so the territories passed to her husband—and distant relative— John III, Duke of Cleves and Mark as a result of their strategic marriage in 1509. These united duchies controlled most of

1144-725: A clause of subjection of the chiefs to Frederick William's overlordship and an agreement allowing Brandenburg-Prussia to establish a fort, and is thus regarded the beginning of the Brandenburg-Prussian colonial era. To facilitate the colonial expeditions, the Brandenburg African Company was founded on 7 March 1682, initially with its headquarters in Berlin and its shipyards in Pillau , since 1683 in Emden . Throughout its existence,

1287-548: A counter-offensive, pursuing the retreating Swedish forces through Swedish Pomerania . Polish king John III Sobieski planned to restore Polish suzerainty over the Duchy of Prussia, and for this purpose concluded an alliance with France on 11 June 1675. France promised assistance and subsidies, while Sobieski in turn allowed French recruitment in Poland-Lithuania and promised to aid Hungarian rebel forces who were to distract

1430-572: A cumbersome process that required much in the way of time and transportation. The format set at the Congress of Vienna would serve as inspiration for the 1856 peace conference brokered by France (the Congress of Paris ) that settled the Crimean War . The Congress of Vienna settlement gave birth to the Concert of Europe , an international political doctrine that emphasized the maintaining of political boundaries,

1573-649: A decorative purpose, but was regarded a necessity to prevail in political competition. Though Frederick III held the elevated status of a prince elector , this status was also gained by Maximilian I of Bavaria in 1623, during the Thirty Years' War , also by the Elector of the Palatinate in the Peace of Westphalia (1648), and by Ernest Augustus of the House of Hanover in 1692. Thus,

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1716-623: A large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls. Four great powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition , a covenant of nations allied in the war against France. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration : These parties had not been part of

1859-685: A member of a cadet branch of the House of Hohenzollern . On behalf of her mother Elisabeth of the Brandenburgian Hohenzollern, Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg became Albert's second wife in 1550, and bore him his successor Albert Frederick . In 1563, the Brandenburgian branch of the Hohenzollern was granted the right of succession by the Polish crown. Albert Frederick became duke of Prussia after Albert's death in 1568. His mother died in

2002-702: A model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945. Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all

2145-481: A navy and colonies during the reign of Frederick William. The "Great Elector" had spent part of his childhood at the Pomeranian court and port cities of Wolgast (1631–1633) and Stettin (1633–1635), and afterwards studied at the Dutch universities of Leyden and The Hague (1635–1638). When Frederick William became elector in 1640, he invited Dutch engineers to Brandenburg, sent Brandenburgian engineers to study in

2288-636: A possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte . Participants were representatives of all European powers (other than the Ottoman Empire ) and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich , and was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of

2431-518: A significant role in European wars for several hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently. During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivenza to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of

2574-455: A superior agency of the territories' Amtskammer chambers. The General War Commissariat ( Generalkriegskommissariat ) emerged as a second central agency, superior to the local Kriegskommissariat agencies initially concerned with the administration of the army, but until 1712 transformed into an agency also concerned with general tax and police tasks. In 1613, John Sigismund converted from Lutheranism to Calvinism , but failed to achieve

2717-570: A treaty on 3 January 1815 , among only the three of them, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition. When the Tsar heard of the treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland , with

2860-401: A treaty was signed with the chiefs of Taccararay (now Takoradi ), some 30 kilometers east of Großfriedrichsburg. A fourth fort was built at a spring near the village of Taccrama , between Großfriedrichsburg and Dorotheenschanze, named Loge or Sophie-Louise-Schanze . Overall, the colony comprised roughly 50 kilometers of coastline, and did not extend into the hinterland. A second colony

3003-507: A victory. When the anti-Swedish coalition however gained the upper hand, Frederick William changed sides when Polish king John II Casimir Vasa confirmed his sovereignty in Prussia, but not in Ermland, in the Treaty of Wehlau-Bromberg in 1657. The duchy would legally revert to Poland if the Hohenzollern dynastic line became extinct. Hohenzollern sovereignty in the Prussian duchy was confirmed in

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3146-417: Is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte , nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain. The most complex topic at

3289-642: The Battle of Warsaw in June, enhancing the elector's international reputation. Continued pressure on Charles X Gustav resulted in him conceding full sovereignty in Ducal Prussia and Ermland to Frederick William by the Treaty of Labiau in November to ensure the maintenance of the alliance. The Treaty of Radnot , concluded in December by Sweden and her allies, further awarded Greater Poland to Brandenburg-Prussia in case of

3432-514: The Battle of Waterloo ). Its provisions included: Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal , Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway , and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817. Subsequently, Ferdinand IV , the Bourbon King of Sicily, regained control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat , the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in

3575-667: The Bishopric of Minden and Principality of Halberstadt , also the succession in the Farther Pomerania (incorporated in the Treaty of Stettin of 1653 ), and the Duchy of Magdeburg (incorporated later in 1680 ). With the Treaty of Bromberg (1657), these concluded during the Second Northern War ( 1655 - 1660 ), the electors were also freed of old Polish vassalage and loyalty by the Treaty of Cracow gaining more independence for

3718-546: The Brandenburger Gold Coast and Arguin . Frederick William , known as "The Great Elector", opened up his realm of Brandenburg-Prussia to large-scale immigration (" Peuplierung ") of mostly Protestant refugees from all across Europe (" Exulanten "), most notably Huguenot immigration from France following the Edict of Potsdam . Frederick William also started to centralize Brandenburg-Prussia's administration and reduce

3861-560: The Chaumont agreement , but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814) : Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding

4004-640: The Duchy of Parma ). The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa . In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat , was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples , but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to

4147-510: The Electorate of Brandenburg , the main branch of the Hohenzollern intermarried with the branch ruling the Duchy of Prussia , and secured succession upon the latter's extinction in the male line in 1618. Another consequence of the intermarriage between the nobility was the acquisition / incorporation of the lands far to the west of Brandenburg-Prussia located in western Germany of the Holy Roman Empire (A.D. c. 800 / 962 to 1806), and situated in

4290-649: The Great Sleigh Drive . However, when Louis XIV of France concluded the Dutch War by the Nijmegen treaties , he marched his armies east to relieve his Swedish ally, and forced Frederick William to basically return to the status quo ante bellum by the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679) . Though the Scanian War resulted only in minor territorial gains, attaching a small strip of the Swedish Pomeranian right bank of

4433-620: The Guelders War , and William was forced to accept the Treaty of Venlo . William also spent a lot of his reign developing his lands by constructing fortresses and residencies. William also set two major laws, the Privilegium Unionis and Priviligium Successionis. The Privilegium Unionis had declared that the Duchies of Jülich, Cleves, and Berg would remain united rather than divided during succession. The Priviligium Successionis declared that in

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4576-674: The Habsburg emperor , with whom he concluded an alliance on 22 December 1686. For this alliance, Frederick William relinquished rights on Silesia in favor of the Habsburgs, and in turn received the Silesian County of Schwiebus which bordered the Neumark . Frederick III, present at the negotiations as crown prince, assured the Habsburgs of the continuation of the alliance once he was in power, and secretly concluded an amendment to return Schwiebus to

4719-650: The Habsburgs from their war against France . For this plan to work out, Poland-Lithuania had to first conclude her war against the Ottoman Empire , which French diplomacy despite great efforts failed to achieve. Furthermore, Sobieski was opposed by the Papacy , by Polish gentry who saw the Ottomans as the greater threat, and by Polish magnates bribed by Berlin and Vienna . Inner-Polish Catholic opposition to an intervention on

4862-431: The Hundred Days and started the 1815 Neapolitan War by attacking Austria. The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris , were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw ) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and

5005-410: The Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised

5148-510: The Kreditwerk came under the aegis of the elector. Frederick William's excise tax ( Akzise ), which since 1667 replaced the property tax raised in Brandenburg for Brandenburg-Prussia's standing army with the estates' consent, was raised by the elector without consultation of the estates. The conclusion of the Second Northern War had strengthened the elector politically, enabling him to reform

5291-634: The Peace of Oliva , which ended the war in 1660. Brandenburg-Prussian campaigns in Swedish Pomerania did not result in permanent gains. In 1672, the Franco-Dutch War broke out, with Brandenburg-Prussia involved as an ally of the Dutch Republic . This alliance was based on a treaty of 1669, and resulted in French occupation of Brandenburg-Prussian Cleves . In June 1673, Frederick William abandoned

5434-582: The Royal Prussian towns in the Treaty of Rinsk , but had to yield Swedish military supremacy and withdraw to his Prussian duchy. Pursued by Swedish forces to the Prussian capital , Frederick William made peace and allied with Sweden, taking the Duchy of Prussia and Ermland (Ermeland, Warmia) as fiefs from Charles X Gustav of Sweden in the Treaty of Königsberg in January 1656. The alliance proved victorious in

5577-536: The Swedish Empire entered the war and advanced into Brandenburg , George William again claimed neutrality, yet Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden compelled George William to join Sweden as an ally by occupying substantial territory in Brandenburg-Prussia and concentrating an army before the town walls of Berlin . George William did not conclude an alliance, but granted Sweden transit rights, two fortresses and subsidies. Consequently, Roman Catholic armies repeatedly ravaged Brandenburg and other Hohenzollern lands. During

5720-409: The Thirty Years' War , George William was succeeded by Frederick William , born 1620, who became known as "The Great Elector" ( Der Große Kurfürst ). The character of the young elector had been stamped by his Calvinist nurturer Calcum , a long stay in the Dutch Republic during his grand tour , and the events of the war, of which a meeting with his uncle Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in Pomerania

5863-488: The Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition , and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia . The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814. The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however,

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6006-399: The Wappen von Brandenburg sold a barrel of brandy to Africans in a territory claimed by the Dutch West Indies Company , the latter confiscated the ship in March. The crew of the remaining ship Morian managed to have three Guinean chieftains sign a contract on 16 May, before the Dutch expelled the vessel from the coastal waters. This treaty, officially declared as trade agreement, included

6149-427: The Wettin dukes of Saxony —the former particularly worrying to Henry IV of France and the Dutch Republic , who feared any strengthening of the Habsburg Netherlands . The Lutheran Anna of Prussia was married to John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg , whereas Roman Catholic Anna of Cleves was married to Philip Louis, Count Palatine of Neuburg . As a result, after the War of the Jülich Succession (one of

6292-407: The constitutional order of the European ancien régime . At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of Britain , Prussia , Austria , and Russia , partly due to the military strategy of its leader, Napoleon Bonaparte , over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while

6435-461: The monarchy . Frederick William's testament would have divided Brandenburg-Prussia among his sons, yet firstborn Frederick III with the emperor's backing succeeded in becoming the sole ruler based on the Treaty of Gera , which forbade a division of Hohenzollern territories. In 1689, a new central chamber for all Brandenburg-Prussian territories was created, called Geheime Hofkammer (since 1713: Generalfinanzdirektorium ). This chamber functioned as

6578-403: The "better or worse of the country", in all legal commitments, and in all issues concerning pawn or sale of the elector's real property. To reduce the influence of the estates, Joachim Frederick in 1604 created a council called Geheimer Rat für die Kurmark ("Privy Council for the Electorate"), which instead of the estates was to function as the supreme advisory council for the elector. While

6721-516: The 20th century, however, historians and politicians looking backward came to praise the Congress as well, because they saw it did prevent another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914) and a significant step in the transition to a new international order in which peace was largely maintained through diplomatic dialogue. Among these is Henry Kissinger , who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation , A World Restored , on it and Paul Schroeder. Historian and jurist Mark Jarrett argues that

6864-462: The Bergish capital becoming the seat of the Electorate of the Palatinate , until the line inherited Bavaria in 1777. In 1701, the Margrave-Electors of Brandenburg became Kings in Prussia ; with Cleves-Mark as their first possession in western Germany, it was the seed of the future Prussian Rhineland . Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon

7007-406: The Brandenburg-Prussian government with an attempt to establish the Geheimer Rat as a central authority for all territories in 1651, but this project proved to be unfeasible. Instead, the elector continued to appoint a governor ( Kurfürstlicher Rat ) for each territory, who in most cases was a member of the Geheimer Rat . The most powerful institution in the territories remained the governments of

7150-505: The Brandenburgian Uckermark in 1674, starting the German theater of the Scanian War (Brandenburg-Swedish War). Frederick William reacted promptly by marching his armies from the Rhine to northern Brandenburg, and encountered the rear of the Swedish army, which was in the process of crossing a swamp, in the Battle of Fehrbellin (1675). Though a minor skirmish from a military perspective, Frederick William's victory turned out to be of huge symbolic significance. The "Great Elector" started

7293-592: The Concert of Europe was built on came about through closed-doors dealing among the five Great Powers – Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia and France. The first four of the five dominant peacemakers held sway simply because they brought to the table "negotiating power" that came of hard-won victory in the Napoleonic Wars; France enjoyed her advantageous position largely through the brilliant diplomatic maneuvering by senior statesman Talleyrand . Lesser powers, like Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, were given few opportunities to advocate their interests and only occasionally partook in

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7436-534: The Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost a century. The name "Congress of Vienna" was not meant to suggest a formal plenary session , but rather the creation of a diplomatic organizational framework bringing together stakeholders of all flocks to enable the expression of opinions, interests and sentiments and facilitate discussion of general issues among them. The Congress format had been developed by Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich , assisted by Friedrich von Gentz , and

7579-458: The Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would like to become king of Poland. Austria analysed, this could make Russia too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed

7722-567: The Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally, conservative leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republican , liberal , and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended

7865-417: The Congress's success. Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand

8008-415: The Duchy of Prussia and gained territories of Lauenburg–Bütow and Draheim . The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679) expanded the province of Brandenburgian Pomerania to the lower Oder River . The second half of the 17th century laid the basis for Prussia to become one of the great players in European politics. The emerging Brandenburg-Prussian military potential, based on the introduction of

8151-432: The Dutch alliance and concluded a subsidy treaty with France, who in return withdrew from Cleves. When the Holy Roman Empire declared war on France, a so-called Reichskrieg , Brandenburg-Prussia again changed sides and joined the imperial forces. France pressured her ally Sweden to relieve her by attacking Brandenburg-Prussia from the north. Charles XI of Sweden , dependent on French subsidies, reluctantly occupied

8294-443: The European royals ignored Brandenburg-Prussia's claims in the Treaty of Rijswijk (1697). Frederick decided to raise the Duchy of Prussia to a kingdom. Within the Holy Roman Empire, no one could call himself king except the emperor and the king of Bohemia. However, Prussia was outside the empire, and the Hohenzollerns were fully sovereign over it. The practicability of this plan was doubted by some of his advisors, and in any case

8437-471: The Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz of 1801 ". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted

8580-479: The Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later . Some authors have suggested that the Congress of Vienna may provide a model for settling multiple interlocking conflicts in Eastern Europe that arose after

8723-413: The German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia ). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania . Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played

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8866-458: The Habsburgs, which he eventually did in 1694. Throughout his reign, Brandenburg-Prussia remained a Habsburg ally and repeatedly deployed troops to fight against France. In 1693, Frederick III began to sound out the possibility of an elevation of his status at the Habsburg court in Vienna , and while the first attempt was unsuccessful, elevation to a king remained the central goal on his agenda. The envisioned status elevation did not merely serve

9009-419: The Ionian Islands . The Congress of Vienna has been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians and politicians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order , in which democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized. In

9152-437: The Netherlands, and in 1646 married educated Luise Henriette of the Dutch House of Orange-Nassau . After the Thirty Years' War , Frederick William tried to acquire finances to rebuild the country by participating in oversea trade, and attempted to found a Brandenburg-Prussian East Indies Company. He engaged former Dutch admiral Aernoult Gijsels van Lier as advisor and tried to persuade the Holy Roman Emperor and princes of

9295-462: The Polish–Lithuanian nobility accept Frederick's royal status, seeing the Polish province of Royal Prussia endangered, and only in 1764 was the Prussian kingship accepted. Since Brandenburg was still legally part of the Holy Roman Empire, the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia technically continued until the empire's dissolution in 1806. However, the emperor's power was only nominal by this time, and Brandenburg soon came to be treated as

9438-516: The Protestant Hungarian rebels' side added to the resentments. Thus, while Treaty of Żurawno ended the Polish-Ottoman war in 1676, Sobieski sided with the emperor instead, and the plan for a Prussian campaign was dropped. By 1678, Frederick William had cleared Swedish Pomerania and occupied most of it , with the exception of Rügen which was held by Denmark–Norway . This was followed by another success against Sweden, when Frederick William cleared Prussia of Swedish forces in what became known as

9581-442: The Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and, to the present day, this issue remains unresolved. The United Kingdom received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland . Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII France ceded to Britain

9724-425: The balance of powers, and respecting spheres of influence and which guided foreign policy among the nations of Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. To reach amiable consensus among the many different nations holding great interest in the settlement proceedings, informal, face-to-face deliberative sessions were held where opinions and proposed solutions could be inventoried. The policy work on which

9867-438: The break-up of the Soviet Union. 48°12′31″N 16°21′50″E  /  48.2085°N 16.3638°E  / 48.2085; 16.3638 Brandenburg-Prussia Brandenburg-Prussia ( German : Brandenburg-Preußen ; Low German : Brannenborg-Preußen ) is the historiographic denomination for the early modern realm of the Brandenburgian Royal dynasty of the House of Hohenzollern between 1618 and 1701. Based in

10010-421: The capital city of Berlin . The Margraviate of Brandenburg had been the seat of the main branch of the Hohenzollerns, who were prince-electors in the Holy Roman Empire , since 1415. In 1525, by the Treaty of Krakow , the Duchy of Prussia was created through partial secularization of the State of the Teutonic Order . It was a vassal of the Kingdom of Poland and was governed by Duke Albert of Prussia ,

10153-407: The case of the extinction of the male line, the duchies would pass to a female line. Only a century after John III's marriage, however, the male line of the House of La Marck , which ruled the duchies, fell extinct, prompting the War of the Jülich Succession over the right to inherit the united duchies. William's son — Duke John William — died without issue in 1609. His inheritance was claimed by

10296-562: The coastline (" dominium maris baltici ") thwarted Frederick William's ambitions to gain control over the Oder estuary with Stettin (Szczecin) in Pomerania . The Brandenburgian margraves had long sought to expand northwards , connecting land-locked Brandenburg to the Baltic Sea. The Treaty of Grimnitz (1529) guaranteed Brandenburgian succession in the Duchy of Pomerania upon the extinction of

10439-514: The company was underfunded, and expeditions were financed also by private capital, including payments by Raule and Frederick William. In July 1682, an expedition under East Prussian Otto Friedrich von der Groeben was sent to Guinea to erect the fortress Großfriedrichsburg . On 24 February 1684, another treaty with indigenous chiefs was signed that allowed the erection of a second fort in nearby Accada (now Akwida ), named Dorotheenschanze after Frederick William's second wife. On 4 February 1685,

10582-401: The constitution of Cleves and Mark in 1660 and 1661 to introduce officials loyal to him and independent of the local estates. In the Duchy of Prussia, he confirmed the traditional privileges of the estates in 1663, but the latter accepted the caveat that these privileges were not to be used to interfere with the exertion of the elector's sovereignty. As in Brandenburg, Frederick William ignored

10725-578: The conversion of the estates by the rule of cuius regio, eius religio . Thus, on 5 February 1615, he granted the Lutherans religious freedom, while the Elector's court remained largely Calvinist. When Frederick William I rebuilt Brandenburg-Prussia's war-torn economy, he attracted settlers from all Europe, especially by offering religious asylum, most prominently by the Edict of Potsdam which attracted more than 15,000 Huguenots . Brandenburg-Prussia established

10868-474: The council was permanently established in 1613, it failed to gain any influence until 1651 due to the Thirty Years' War . Until after the Thirty Years' War, the territories of Brandenburg-Prussia were politically independent from each other, connected only by the common feudal superior. Frederick William , who envisioned the transformation of the personal union into a real union , started to centralize

11011-552: The countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia , Modena , Naples–Sicily , Parma , Piedmont–Sardinia , Tuscany , and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland , remaining under Russian control. The arrangements made by

11154-593: The course of forming alliances for the War of the Spanish Succession and the Great Northern War . From 1701 onward, the Hohenzollern dynasty domains were referred to as the Kingdom of Prussia , or simply Prussia. Legally, the personal union between Brandenburg and Prussia continued until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1806. However, by this time the emperor's overlordship over

11297-520: The crown was only valuable if recognized by the European nobility, most important the Holy Roman Emperor . In 1699, negotiations were renewed with emperor Leopold I , who in turn was in need of allies since the War of the Spanish Succession was about to break out. On 16 November 1700, the emperor approved Frederick's coronation in the Crown Treaty . With respect to Poland-Lithuania , who held

11440-430: The diaries of the master of affairs Von Gentz that diplomatic tactics possibly included bribing. He notes that at the Congress he received £22,000 through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII , while Castlereagh gave him £600, accompanied by " les plus folles promesses " ("the wildest promises"); his diary is full of such entries. The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before

11583-501: The diplomatic congress format marked "the true beginning of our modern era". To his analyses the Congress organisation was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution." Historian Paul Schroeder argues that

11726-567: The dominance of the Electorate of Saxony in the Upper Saxon Circle . The Brandenburg-Saxon antagonism rendered the defense of the circle ineffective, and it was subsequently overrun by Albrecht von Wallenstein during the Thirty Years' War . While George William had claimed neutrality before, the presence of Wallenstein's army forced him to join the Catholic-Imperial camp in the Treaty of Königsberg (1627) and accept garrisons. When

11869-504: The duchy continued to be held as a fief under the Polish Crown until 1656/7. Since John Sigismund had suffered a stroke in 1616 and as a consequence was severely handicapped physically as well as mentally, his wife Anna ruled the Duchy of Prussia in his name until John Sigismund died of a second stroke in 1619, aged 47. From 1619 to 1640, George William was elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia. He strove, but proved unable to break

12012-410: The elector approved. In July 1680, Frederick William issued respective orders, and two ships were selected to establish trade contacts with African tribes and explore places where colonies could be established. On 17 September, frigate Wappen von Brandenburg ("Seal of Brandenburg") and Morian (poetic for "Mohr", "Negro") left for Guinea. The ships reached Guinea in January 1681. Since the crew of

12155-601: The elector introduced an Akzise to Pomerania and in 1688 to Magdeburg, while in Cleves and Mark an Akzise was introduced only between 1716 and 1720. Due to Frederick William's reforms, the state income increased threefold during his reign, and the tax burden per subject reached a level twice as high as in France . Under the rule of Frederick III (I) , the Brandenburg Prussian territories were de facto reduced to provinces of

12298-548: The empire had become in recent decades of a "figleaf" legal fiction . Hence, after 1701, Brandenburg was de facto treated as part of the Prussian kingdom. Frederick and his successors continued to centralize and expand the state, transforming the personal union of politically diverse principalities typical for the Brandenburg-Prussian era into a system of provinces subordinate to the Stadtschloss, Berlin (Royal or Berlin Palace) in

12441-454: The empire to participate. The emperor, however, declined the request as he considered it dangerous to disturb the interest of the other European powers. In 1651, Frederick William bought Danish Fort Dansborg and Tranquebar for 120,000 reichstalers . As Frederick William was unable to raise this sum, he asked several people and Hanseatic towns to invest in the project, but since none of these were able or willing to give sufficient money,

12584-708: The estates ( Landständische Regierung , named Oberratsstube in Prussia and Geheime Landesregierung in Mark and Cleves), which were the highest government agencies regarding jurisdiction, finances and administration. The elector attempted to balance the estates' governments by creating Amtskammer chambers to administer and coordinate the elector's domains, tax income and privileges. Such chambers were introduced in Brandenburg in 1652, in Cleves and Mark in 1653, in Pomerania in 1654, in Prussia in 1661 and in Magdeburg in 1680. Also in 1680,

12727-463: The exact border in the Treaty of Stettin (1653) . Sweden retained the western part including the lower Oder ( Swedish Pomerania ), while Brandenburg gained the eastern part ( Farther Pomerania ). Frederick William was dissatisfied by this outcome, and the acquisition of the whole Duchy of Pomerania was to become one of the main goals of his foreign policy. In the Peace of Westphalia, Frederick William

12870-624: The former Dutch Seven Provinces together with formerly Austrian territory, and was meant to serve as a buffer between the German Confederation and France. The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814 , which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during

13013-608: The formerly exclusive club of the prince-electors now had nine members, six of whom were secular princes, and further changes seemed possible. Within the circle of prince-electors, August the Strong , Elector of Saxony , had secured the Polish crown in 1697, and the House of Hanover had secured succession of the British throne . From Frederick III's perspective, stagnation in status meant loss of power, and this perspective seemed to be confirmed when

13156-451: The fort soon after. On 27 July 1685, an expedition was mounted by Frederick William and Raule, who took possession of the vacated colony on 1 October. Subsequently, the fort was rebuilt and contacts to the indigenous population established. France was alarmed and sent a vessel to re-conquer the fort in late 1687, but the attack of a French frigate and a smaller vessel was beaten back by the Brandenburg-Prussian garrison. The victory improved

13299-399: The heirs of his two eldest sisters. Whilst the dukes, inspired by the humanism of Desiderius Erasmus , had managed to bear a " via media " between the confessional disputes ensuing from the Protestant Reformation , the heirs of the last duke's two eldest sisters were on opposite sides of the divide. The situation was further complicated by acquisitive desires of Emperor Rudolph II and

13442-428: The important towns of Berlin-Cölln and Frankfurt an der Oder , the population drop was one third and two-thirds, respectively. Some of the territories gained after the war were likewise devastated: in Pomerania , only one third of the population survived , and Magdeburg , once among the wealthiest cities of the empire, was burned down with most of the population slain . Least hit were the Duchy of Prussia , which

13585-602: The influence of the outlying landed estates. In 1701 , Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg , succeeded in elevating his status to the title of King in Prussia . This was made possible by the Duchy of Prussia 's sovereign status outside the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation , and approval by the Royal House of Habsburg in Vienna in Austria , and the Holy Roman Emperor and other European royals in

13728-449: The island in 1735. Their last remains were sold by auction in 1738. Brandenburg-Prussia tried to claim Crab Island in 1687, but the island was also claimed by other European powers beforehand, and when a second expedition in 1692 found the island under Danish control, the plan was abandoned. In 1689, Brandenburg-Prussia claimed Peter Island , but the small rock proved unsuitable for trade or settlement. In 1691, Brandenburg-Prussia and

13871-570: The islands of " Tobago and Saint Lucia , and of the Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles ", and under the Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815) , Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of

14014-511: The king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden . This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on 17 May 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden . Austria gained Lombardy–Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , the Duchy of Modena , and

14157-437: The lands back and forth, killing, burning, seizing men and confiscating any food or useful supplies. It is estimated that upwards of half the population of Central Europe / Germany of the late Medieval / Middle Ages period were killed or dislocated. Berlin and the other major cities were in ruins, and recovery took decades. By the Peace of Westphalia , which ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648 , Brandenburg also gained

14300-404: The local House of Pomerania , and would have come into effect by the death of Pomeranian duke Bogislaw XIV in 1637. By the Treaty of Stettin (1630) however, Bogislaw XIV had also effectively handed over control of the duchy to Sweden, who refused to give in to the Brandenburgian claim. The Peace of Westphalia settled for a partition of the duchy between Brandenburg and Sweden, who determined

14443-436: The lower Rhenish / Rhine River of the principalities of the Duchy of Cleves , County of Mark and County of Ravensberg after the signing and agreements in the Treaty of Xanten in 1614 . The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) was especially devastating. The Elector changed sides three times, and as a result Protestant groups of Evangelical Lutheran / Reformed / Calvinist and opposing Roman Catholic armies swept

14586-513: The lower Rhine river. The Treaty of Xanten , which had ended the War of the Jülich succession between Brandenburg and the count palatines in 1614, had partitioned the once united Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg among the belligerents, and Jülich-Berg was since ruled by the Catholic counts of Palatinate-Neuburg . After the Thirty Years' War , Wolfgang William, Count Palatine of Neuburg , disregarded

14729-556: The lower Oder to Brandenburg-Prussian Pomerania , the war resulted in a huge gain of prestige for the elector. Frederick III of Brandenburg , since 1701 also Frederick I of Prussia , was born in Königsberg in 1657. Already in the last years of the reign of his father, the friendly relations with France established after Saint Germain (1679) had cooled, not least because of the Huguenot question . In 1686, Frederick William turned toward

14872-495: The main Brandenburg-Prussian naval base. From Pillau, part of the shipyard, the admiral's house and the wooden church of the employees was transferred to Emden. While Emden was not part of Brandenburg-Prussia, the elector owned a nearby castle, Greetsiel , and negotiated an agreement with the town to maintain a garrison and a port. In 1679, Raule presented Frederick William a plan to establish colonies in African Guinea , and

15015-473: The major figure of Brandenburg-Prussia's emerging naval and colonial enterprise. The Brandenburg-Prussian navy was established from ten ships which Frederick William leased from Raule, and achieved first successes in the war against Sweden supporting the siege of Stralsund and Stettin and the invasion of Rügen . In Pillau (now Baltiysk) on the East Prussian coast, Raule established shipyards and enlarged

15158-472: The margrave's finances were controlled by the Kreditwerk , an institution not controlled by the elector, and the Großer Ausschuß ("Great Committee") of the estates. This was due to concessions made by Joachim II in 1541 in turn for financial aid by the estates, however, the Kreditwerk went bankrupt between 1618 and 1625. The margraves further had to yield the veto of the estates in all issues concerning

15301-579: The meetings held between the great powers. However, because all representatives were gathered in one city it was relatively easy to communicate, to hear and spread news and gossip, and to present points of view for both powerful and less powerful nations. Also of great importance to the parties convened in Vienna were the opportunities presented at wine and dinner functions to establish formal relationships with one another and build-up diplomatic networks. The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by

15444-611: The more important Congress of Vienna. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades. Other partial settlements had already occurred at

15587-440: The northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria. Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel , Norway had been ceded by

15730-416: The old formulae for " balance of power " were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe , which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as

15873-462: The other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: Swedish Pomerania , most of the Kingdom of Saxony , and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw . Austria gained much of northern Italy . Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands , which had been created just months before from

16016-549: The parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s . Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony, much of which became part of the new Province of Saxony from 1816 (the now-Prussian parts of Lower Lusatia and some other areas instead became part of the Province of Brandenburg , with Prussian Upper Lusatia becoming part of the Province of Silesia by 1825); the remainder of Saxony returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony . It can be learned from

16159-478: The port facilities. After the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1679) , the navy was used to hijack Swedish ships in the Baltic Sea , and in 1680, six Brandenburg-Prussian vessels captured the Spanish vessel Carolus Secundus near Ostend to pressure Spain to pay promised subsidies. The Spanish ship was renamed Markgraf von Brandenburg ("Margrave of Brandenburg") and became the flagship of an Atlantic fleet that

16302-515: The power of the Habsburg emperor by strengthening the Hohenzollern , and while Frederick William valued these territories lower than Western Pomerania, they became step-stones for the creation of a closed, dominant realm in Germany in the long run. Of all Brandenburg-Prussian territories, the Electorate of Brandenburg was among the most devastated at the end of the Thirty Years' War. Already before

16445-607: The precursors to the Thirty Years' War ) was settled at Xanten , the Protestant territories (Cleves, Mark and Ravensburg) passed to Brandenburg-Prussia with the Catholic lands (Jülich and Berg) being awarded to the Palatinate-Neuburg . Years of being trampled by armies had destroyed much of the lands' wealth that had been so renowned under William the Rich. Philip Louis' grandson Philip William became Elector Palatine in 1685, with

16588-743: The present-day North Rhine-Westphalia that was not within the ecclesiastical territories of Electoral Cologne and Münster . During the reign of Duke William the Rich , the United Duchies challenged Emperor Charles V for control of the Duchy of Guelders . Controlling Guelders would allow for the disconnected lands of the duchies to be connected by land. To counter the Habsburg Emperor, William attempted to form several alliances. For example, his sister, Anne of Cleves , married King Henry VIII of England to create an alliance between England and Jülich-Cleves-Berg. Nonetheless, Charles V defeated William in

16731-405: The privilege of the Prussian estates to confirm or veto taxes raised by the elector: while in 1656, an Akzise was raised with the estates' consent, the elector by force collected taxes not approved by the Prussian estates for the first time in 1674. Since 1704, the Prussian estates had de facto relinquished their right to approve the elector's taxes while formally still entitled to do so. In 1682,

16874-623: The procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador. Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately,

17017-470: The provinces of Royal Prussia and Ermland , it was agreed that Frederick would call himself King in Prussia , instead of King of Prussia. Great Britain and the Dutch Republic , for similar reasons as the emperor, accepted Frederick's elevation prior to the coronation. On 17 January 1701, Frederick dedicated the royal coat of arms, the Prussian black eagle, and motto, " suum cuique ". On 18 January, he crowned himself and his wife Sophie Charlotte in

17160-590: The region despite the Peace of Westphalia, to intervene on his side, and Frederick William sought support of the Dutch Republic . The latter however followed a policy of neutrality and refused to aid Frederick William's campaign, which was furthermore opposed by the Imperial estates as well as the local ones. Politically isolated, Frederick William aborted the campaign after the Treaty of Cleves negotiated by Imperial mediators in October 1651. The underlying religious dispute

17303-536: The relations to the indigenous people, many of whom were carried off as slaves by the French before. While Arguin did not reach the economic importance of Großfriedrichsburg, it temporarily advanced to the world's primary staple port for slaves. The African colonies enabled Brandenburg-Prussia to participate in the Triangular trade , yet it lacked its own trading post in the Caribbean Sea . In 1684, Brandenburg-Prussia

17446-502: The right of succession in the Prussian duchy as well as in Cleves . Upon George Frederick's death in 1603, the regency of the Prussian duchy passed to Joachim Frederick. Also in 1603, the Treaty of Gera was concluded by the members of the House of Hohenzollern , ruling that their territories were not to be internally divided in the future. The Electors of Brandenburg inherited the Duchy of Prussia upon Albert Frederick's death in 1618, but

17589-489: The same year, and thereafter he showed signs of mental disorder. Because of the duke's illness, Prussia was governed by Albert's nephew George Frederick of Hohenzollern-Ansbach-Jägersdorf (1577–1603). In 1573, Albert Frederick married Marie Eleonore of Jülich-Cleves-Berg , with whom he had several daughters. In 1594, Albert Frederick's then 14-year-old daughter Anna married the son of Joachim Frederick of Hohenzollern-Brandenburg , John Sigismund . The marriage ensured

17732-483: The state budget. Ensuring a solid financial basis for the army, undisturbed by the estates, was the foremost objective of Frederick William's administrative reforms. He regarded military success as the only way to gain international reputation. The Swedish invasion of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the following year started the Second Northern War . Frederick William offered protection to

17875-515: The throne. A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange , including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands, which gave way to the formation of a democratic state, formally headed by a constitutional monarch . Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for

18018-468: The towns had to contribute not soldiers, but monetary payments to the army, and since 1665, the estates were able to free themselves from contributing soldiers by additional payments. The initial army size of 8,000 men had risen to 25,000 to 30,000 men by 1688. By then, Frederick William had also accomplished his second goal, to finance the army independently of the estates. By 1688, these military costs amounted to considerable 1,500,000 talers or half of

18161-509: The treaty with Denmark was nullified in 1653. In 1675, after the victory at Fehrbellin and the Brandenburg-Prussian advance in Swedish Pomerania during the Scanian War , Frederick William decided to establish a navy. He engaged Dutch merchant and shipowner Benjamin Raule as his advisor, who after a first personal meeting with Frederick William in 1675 settled in Brandenburg in 1676 and became

18304-457: The tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. However, the majority of Greater Poland and Kuyavia , as well as the Chełmno Land , were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen ( Poznań ), while Kraków became a free city as a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was forbidden from uniting his new realm with

18447-415: The upholding of serfdom ( Leibeigenschaft , Bauernlegen ). Initially, the estates' contributions were limited to six years, yet Frederick William obliged the estates to continue the payments thereafter and created a dedicated office to collect the contributions. The contributions were confirmed by the estates in 1662, but transformed in 1666 by decree from a real estate tax to an excise tax. Since 1657,

18590-401: The war, the population density and wealth in the electorate had been low compared to other territories of the empire, and the war had destroyed 60 towns, 48 castles and about 5,000 villages. An average of 50% of the population was dead, in some regions only 10% survived. The rural population, due to deaths and flight to the towns, had dropped from 300,000 before the war to 75,000 thereafter. In

18733-427: Was a privilege of the estates, yet Frederick William envisioned a standing army financed independently of the estates. He succeeded in getting the consent and necessary financial contributions of the estates in a landtag decree of 26 July 1653. In turn, he confirmed several privileges of the knights, including tax exemption, assertion of jurisdiction and police powers on their estates ( Patrimonialgerichtsbarkeit ) and

18876-641: Was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies. The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814. Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against

19019-482: Was allotted an area near the capital city Charlotte Amalie , called Brandenburgery , and other territories named Krum Bay and Bordeaux Estates further west. In 1688, 300 Europeans and several hundred slaves lived on the Brandenburgian estates. In November 1695, French forces looted the Brandenburgian (not the Danish) colony. In 1731, the Brandenburg-Prussian company on Saint Thomas (BAAC) became insolvent, and abandoned

19162-417: Was among the most impressive. Frederick William took over Brandenburg-Prussia in times of a political, economical and demographic crisis caused by the war. Upon his succession, the new elector retired the Brandenburgian army, but had an army raised again in 1643/44. Whether or not Frederick William concluded a truce and neutrality agreement with Sweden is disputed: while a relevant 1641 document exists, it

19305-543: Was compensated for Western Pomerania with the secularized bishoprics of Halberstadt and Minden and the right of succession to the likewise secularized Archbishopric of Magdeburg . With Halberstadt, Brandenburg-Prussia also gained several smaller territories: the Lordship of Derenburg , the County of Regenstein , the Lordship of Klettenberg and the Lordship of Lohra . This was primarily due to French efforts to counterbalance

19448-605: Was denied the purchase of the French islands Sainte Croix and Saint Vincent . In November 1685, after a failed attempt to purchase Saint Thomas from Denmark–Norway , a Brandenburg-Danish agreement was reached that allowed the Brandenburg African Company to rent part of Saint Thomas as a base for 30 years, while the sovereignty remained with Denmark and administration with the Danish West Indies and Guinean Company . The first Brandenburgian vessel arrived in 1686 with 450 slaves from Großfriedrichsburg . Brandenburg-Prussia

19591-579: Was established at the Arguin archipelago off the West African coast (now part of Mauritania ). In contrast to the Guinean colony, Arguin had been a colony before: In 1520, Portugal had built a fort on the main island, which with all of Portugal came under Spanish control in 1580. In 1638 it was conquered by the Dutch Republic , and in 1678 by France , who due to high maintenance costs abandoned it and demolished

19734-473: Was never ratified and has repeatedly been described as a falsification. However, it is not disputed that he established the growth of Brandenburg-Prussia. At the time, the forces of the Swedish Empire dominated Northern Germany, and along with her ally France , Sweden became guarantee power of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Swedish aim of controlling the Baltic Sea by establishing dominions on

19877-458: Was not accepted by the Teutonic Order , who despite the secularization of the Duchy of Prussia in 1525 upheld claims to the region. The Grand Master protested at the emperor's court, and the pope sent a circular to all Catholic regents to not accept Frederick's royal status. Until 1787, papal documents continued to speak of the Prussian kings as "Margraves of Brandenburg". Neither did

20020-564: Was only peripherally involved in the war , and Minden . In 1670, the Great Elector invited Jews expelled from Vienna to settle in Brandenburg. Despite efforts to resettle the devastated territories, it took some of them until the mid-18th century to reach the pre-war population density. In June 1651, Frederick William broke the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia by invading Jülich-Berg , bordering his possessions in Cleves-Mark at

20163-409: Was only solved in 1672. While military confrontations were avoided and the Brandenburg-Prussian army was primarily occupied with stealing cattle (hence the name), it considerably lowered Frederick William's reputation. Due to his wartime experiences, Frederick William was convinced that Brandenburg-Prussia would only prevail with a standing army . Traditionally, raising and financing army reserves

20306-455: Was ordered to capture Spanish vessels carrying silver; it was not successful in this mission. In the following years, the navy was expanded, and the policy of leasing ships was replaced by the policy of building or purchasing them. On 1 October 1684 Frederick William bought all ships that had been leased for 110,000 talers . Also in 1684, the East Frisian port of Emden replaced Pillau as

20449-402: Was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives and other stakeholders came together in one city at the same time to discuss and formulate the conditions and provisions of treaties. Before the Congress of Vienna the common method of diplomacy involved the exchange of notes sent back and forth among the several capitals and separate talks in different places,

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