Misplaced Pages

#97902

134-601: The hot springs have been used as a spa since at least the 2nd century BCE, with many patrons retiring or dying there as evidenced by the large necropolis filled with tombs, most famously that of Marcus Aurelius Ammianos , which bears a relief depicting the earliest known example of a crank and rod mechanism, and the Tomb of Philip the Apostle . Hierapolis was added as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988. The Italian Archaeological Mission of Hierapolis of Frigia (MAIER) has operated at

268-454: A diagnostic technique which relied upon distinguishing different types of pulse. He, and his contemporary, Erasistratus of Chios , researched the role of veins and nerves , mapping their courses across the body . Erasistratus connected the increased complexity of the surface of the human brain compared to other animals to its superior intelligence . He sometimes employed experiments to further his research, at one time repeatedly weighing

402-488: A teleological view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design; for example suggesting that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and generally giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man—the scala naturae or Great Chain of Being . He held that

536-509: A U-shaped plan and sits on the continuation of the main colonnaded road. The stone pavement columns and other architectural remains mark a great part of the colonnaded road which ran through the city in a north–south direction. It has statues and shops around it, underneath which passed canals. The road had a base covered with stone blocks, now under the pool of the Private Administration. There are two huge doors which were constructed at

670-410: A caged bird and noting its weight loss between feeding times. Following his teacher's researches into pneumatics , he claimed that the human system of blood vessels was controlled by vacuums , drawing blood across the body. In Erasistratus' physiology, air enters the body, is then drawn by the lungs into the heart, where it is transformed into vital spirit, and is then pumped by the arteries throughout

804-524: A capacity of 15,000 and was bisected by the main aisle. It featured an imperial box . The lower part originally had twenty rows and the upper part twenty five, but only thirty rows altogether have survived. The auditorium is segmented into nine aisles by means of eight vertical passageways with steps. The proscenium consisted of two stories with ornately decorated niches to the sides. Several statues, reliefs (including depictions of Apollo , Dionysus , and Diana ), and decorative elements have been excavated by

938-548: A city, as opposed to tombs within cities, which were common in various places and periods of history. They are different from grave fields , which did not have structures or markers above the ground. While the word is most commonly used for ancient sites, the name was revived in the early 19th century and applied to planned city cemeteries, such as the Glasgow Necropolis . Ancient Egypt is noted for multiple necropoleis. Ancient Egyptian funerary practices and beliefs about

1072-556: A comprehensive education that prepared him for a successful career as a physician and philosopher. Born in Pergamon (present-day Bergama , Turkey), Galen traveled extensively, exposing himself to a wide variety of medical theories and discoveries before settling in Rome , where he served prominent members of Roman society and eventually was given the position of personal physician to several emperors . Galen's understanding of anatomy and medicine

1206-577: A few ancient atomists such as Lucretius challenged the teleological viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, natural theology ) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. In the words of Ernst Mayr , "Nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance." Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly. Aelius Galenus

1340-519: A fortification system built at Hierapolis in Theodosian times (late 4th century) and is its monumental entrance, matched by a symmetrical gate to the south of the city. Built of reused material from the demolition of the Agora, it is flanked by two square towers, as in other nearby cities such as Blaundus. Four large marble brackets with heads of lions, of panther and of a Gorgon were found collapsed in front of

1474-538: A geologist of the Italian National Research Council recognized that the origin of both the Temple of Apollo and of the nearby Ploutonion was linked to the existence of the surface trace of a seismic fault , on which both sanctuaries were purposely built and which was revered as Gateway of Hades. The Ploutonion was the oldest religious centre of the native community, the place where Apollo met with Cibele. It

SECTION 10

#1732837333098

1608-544: A larger brain and thinking capacity . However, there is no actual observable difference in the number of skill sutures in men or women. He likewise claims that men have more teeth than women, which correlates with a longer lifespan in men, despite the fact that both men and women have the same number of teeth. Aristotle's successor at the Lyceum , Theophrastus , wrote a series of books on botany—the History of Plants —which survived as

1742-617: A lasting influence on Islamic medicine and medieval European medicine until many of their findings eventually became obsolete in the 14th century. The earliest known Greek medical school opened in Cnidus in 700 BC. Alcmaeon , author of the first anatomical compilation, worked at this school, and it was here that the practice of observing patients was established. Despite their known respect for ancient Egyptian medicine , attempts to discern any particular influence on Greek practice at this early time have not been dramatically successful because of

1876-447: A local miller , depicts the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod . On the pediment a waterwheel fed by a mill race is shown powering via a gear train two frame saws cutting rectangular blocks by the way of connecting rods and, through mechanical necessity, cranks (see diagram). The accompanying inscription is in Greek . In June 2014 the sarcophagus

2010-453: A man to study medicine and become a doctor. She did so by cutting her hair and changing into men’s clothing. While under the guise of practicing as a man, Agnodice was able to secure an apprenticeship under the then physician and gynecologist, Herophilus and learn the skills necessary to practice medicine herself. To provide comfort to her patients, it is believed that Agnodice would expose herself to female patients in order to prove that she

2144-568: A physician to Roman emperors. Galen’s extensive body of work, originally written in Greek, provided a foundation for the preservation of medical knowledge that would later be translated into Latin. These translations facilitated the enduring legacy of Greek medical ideas in Roman and, ultimately, in Western medical traditions. The son of Aelius Nicon , a wealthy architect with scholarly interests, Galen received

2278-400: A row of astragali and beads and which, on the decorated below with a row of astragali and beads and which, on the echinus, bear a series of ovolos . The new temple was reconstructed in the 3rd century in Roman fashion, recycling the stone blocks from the older temple. The reconstruction had a smaller area and now only its marble floor remains. Following studies carried out on site in 1998,

2412-613: A series of authors over several decades. Thus its theories and concepts about the human body are not fully systematized and have some inconsistencies . Nonetheless it is significant in that it was one of the first attempts to theorized a biological system and biological causes for disease in Greek Science. This is stated in its treatise, " the Sacred Disease ", which argues that if all diseases were derived from supernatural sources, biological medicines would not work. The establishment of

2546-477: A series of translations of the Classical texts, mainly from Arabic translations but occasionally from the original Greek. In the Renaissance, more translations of Galen and Hippocrates directly from the Greek were made from newly available Byzantine manuscripts. Galen's influence was so great that even after Western Europeans started making dissections in the thirteenth century, scholars often assimilated findings into

2680-409: A system of medicine based on an empirico-rational approach, such that they relied ever more on naturalistic observation, enhanced by practical trial and error experience, abandoning magical and religious justifications of human bodily dysfunction." However, in some instances, the fault of the ailment was still placed on the patient and the role of the physician was to conciliate with the gods or exorcise

2814-465: A vital role in the healthcare system of ancient Greece. Overall, the role of women in medicine in ancient Greece was limited. However, there were some exceptions, such as Agnodice, who were able to break through the barriers and become respected doctors. While there is little information available about other female doctors in ancient Greece, it is likely that there were others who practiced medicine. Additionally, female healers played an important role in

SECTION 20

#1732837333098

2948-412: Is a small cave just large enough for one person to enter through a fenced entrance, beyond which stairs go down and from which emerges suffocating carbon dioxide gas caused by subterranean geologic activity. Behind the 3 square metres (32 sq ft) roofed chamber is a deep cleft in the rock, through which fast-flowing hot water passes while releasing a sharp-smelling gas. During the early years of

3082-477: Is attracted to pleasant smells, causing the womb to move closer to it and repelled from putrid smells, causing it to flee. This belief led to the treatment using sweet smells held above the vagina as a means to entice the womb to move back down if it is choking the thorax and pungent smells held below the nose for the same reason of it being prolapsed. Symptoms from a woman’s womb moving upwards includes sluggishness, vertigo, headache, and exhaustion while symptoms for

3216-425: Is frequently confused with Caduceus , which was a staff wielded by the god Hermes. The Rod of Asclepius embodies one snake with no wings whereas Caduceus is represented by two snakes and a pair of wings depicting the swiftness of Hermes. Ancient Greek physicians did not regard disease as being of supernatural origin, i.e., brought about from the dissatisfaction of the gods or demonic possession: "The Greeks developed

3350-502: Is still a home remedy used by many today. The patients were encouraged to sleep in the facilities too. Their dreams were interpreted by the doctors and their symptoms were then reviewed. Dogs would occasionally be brought in to lick open wounds for assistance in their healing. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus , three large marble boards dated to 350 BC preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to

3484-418: Is thought to be Elamite in origin. The depiction is part of a larger image, most of which was removed at the command of Bahram II . Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the rock face at a considerable height above the ground. The tombs are known locally as the " Persian crosses ", after the shape of the facades of the tombs. Later, Sassanian kings added a series of rock reliefs below

3618-642: Is unlikely that many women were able to become doctors. It is believed that there were some exceptions, for example, the daughters of wealthy families who could receive an education. In addition to Agnodice, there were female healers in ancient Greece who were not trained as formal doctors, but who had significant medical knowledge. These women used herbal remedies and other natural treatments to help their patients. They were often called upon to help with childbirth and other women's health issues, similar to current-day midwives and nurses. While they were not officially recognized as doctors during their time, they played

3752-571: The New Kingdom onward. The Theban Necropolis is home to some of the few Ancient Egyptian tombs that remained essentially intact until discovery by modern archaeologists, including the Tomb of Tutankhamun and the Tomb of Kha and Merit . Other ancient Egyptian necropoleis of note are the necropolis of Saqqara , home to the Step Pyramid of Djoser and other royal burials; the necropolis of Dahshur , site of

3886-687: The Red Pyramid of Sneferu , the oldest "true" pyramid; and Abydos , site of a necropolis containing burials from the Predynastic through the Late Period . A pair of small necropoleis of Theban-style rock-cut tombs started to take shape in the wadis east of Akhetaten (modern Amarna ) during the Amarna Period of the New Kingdom; while it appears that the tombs were not ultimately used for burials due to

4020-587: The Sassanid Shapur II in 370, the emperor Valens made the last-ever imperial visit to the city. During the 4th century, the Christians filled Pluto's Gate (a ploutonion ) with stones, suggesting that Christianity had become the dominant religion and begun displacing other faiths in the area. Originally a see of Phrygia Pacatiana , the Byzantine emperor Justinian raised the bishop of Hierapolis to

4154-435: The efficient cause . Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages. The biological/teleological ideas of Aristotle and Theophrastus, as well as their emphasis on a series of axioms rather than on empirical observation, cannot be easily separated from their consequent impact on Western medicine. Nomenclature, methods and applications for

Hierapolis - Misplaced Pages Continue

4288-417: The humoral theory of medicine focused on the balance between blood, yellow and black bile, and phlegm in the human body. Being too hot, cold, dry or wet disturbed the balance between the humors, resulting in disease and illness. Gods and demons were not believed to punish the patient, but attributed to bad air ( miasma theory ). Physicians who practiced humoral medicine focused on reestablishing balance between

4422-681: The "Father of Modern Medicine", established a medical school at Cos and is the most important figure in ancient Greek medicine. Hippocrates and his students documented numerous illnesses in the Hippocratic Corpus , and developed the Hippocratic Oath for physicians, which is still in use today. He and his students also created medical terminology that is part of our vocabulary today. Medical words included acute, chronic, epidemic, exacerbation, relapse, and others. The contributions to ancient Greek medicine of Hippocrates, Socrates and others had

4556-456: The "New Plutonium" also bears an inscription mentioned by the ancient authors. Next to the Apollo temple and within its sacred area is the oldest local sanctuary, Pluto's Gate , a ploutonion ( Ancient Greek : Πλουτώνειον ) or plutonium, which here means a shrine to the Greek god Pluto . This plutonion was described by several ancient writers, including Strabo , Cassius Dio , and Damascius . It

4690-456: The 19th century. Galen conducted many nerve ligation experiments that supported the theory, which is still accepted today, that the brain controls all the motions of the muscles by means of the cranial and peripheral nervous systems . Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher . Galen

4824-463: The 7th century caused the collapse of the entire building as well as the ultimate abandonment of the city. Since the 18th century, the monument's striking ruins have become a recurrent theme in European travellers’ descriptions and engravings. Septimius Severus is portrayed in a relief together with his wife Julia Domna , his two sons Caracalla and Geta , and the god Jupiter . In AD 352, the orchestra

4958-558: The Byzantine period were also unearthed, including an 11th-century courtyard house. Many statues and friezes were transported to museums in London, Berlin, and Rome. The Hellenistic city was built on a grid with streets running parallel or perpendicular to the main thoroughfare. This main street ran from north to south close to a cliff with the travertine terraces. It was about 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) long and 13.5 metres (44 ft) wide and

5092-477: The Christian times and has just been recently unearthed. The Nymphaeum is located inside the sacred area in front of the Apollo temple. It dates from the 2nd century AD. It was a shrine of the nymphs , a monumental fountain distributing water to the houses of the city via an ingenious network of pipes. The Nymphaeum was repaired in the 5th century during the Byzantine era. A retaining wall was built with elements from

5226-590: The Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). After AD 750, Arab, Persian and Andalusi scholars translated Galen's and Dioscorides' works in particular. Thereafter the Hippocratic-Galenic medical tradition was assimilated and eventually expanded, with the most influential Muslim doctor-scholar being Avicenna . Beginning in the late eleventh century, the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition returned to the Latin West with

5360-543: The Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain. Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of Alcmaeon . Due to Aristotle's interest in creating a more systemic empirical understanding of nature, his theories of female anatomy were generally more consistently grounded in observation compared to Hippocratic theories. The Primary difference between Aristotle’s concept of

5494-466: The Elder was a vocal critic, suggesting that Greek doctors were unskilled and motivated by profit rather than healing. In his Natural History , Pliny expressed concerns about Greek practitioners, accusing them of exploiting patients rather than genuinely caring for their health. Nevertheless, historian of medicine Vivian Nutton cautions against taking Pliny’s criticism at face value, noting that it underestimates

Hierapolis - Misplaced Pages Continue

5628-554: The Galenic model that otherwise might have thrown Galen's accuracy into doubt. Over time, however, Classical medical theory came to be superseded by increasing emphasis on scientific experimental methods in the 16th and 17th centuries. Nevertheless, the Hippocratic-Galenic practice of bloodletting was practiced into the 19th century, despite its empirical ineffectiveness and riskiness. Not all Roman perspectives were favorable toward Greek medicine. The Roman author and natural philosopher Pliny

5762-646: The Great was defeated by the Roman ally Eumenes II . Following the Treaty of Apamea ending the Syrian War , Eumenes annexed much of Asia Minor , including Hierapolis. Hierapolis became a healing centre where doctors used the thermal springs as a treatment for their patients. The city began minting bronze coins in the 2nd century BC. These coins give the name Hieropolis . It remains unclear whether this name referred to

5896-481: The Greek colonization, the area was seen as a gateway to the underworld and a place of communication with the underworld deities because of the toxic gasses that emerge from a hot spring inside the cave. According to Strabon and Damascius the temple built on top of the cave was linked to the mother goddess Cybele. The eunuch priests of the Mother Goddess were believed to be the only ones that would not be asphyxiated by

6030-465: The Hellenistic Period (1st and 2nd centuries BC), and are Tumulus graves, which are located on the east side of the foothill. The stone is cut properly limited to the drum cylinder which bonds the top of the burial chamber. The grave room is accessible from the corridor dramos. These tombs belonged to rich families. Poor families' tombs were carved into the rock and are simple. On the north side of

6164-507: The Italian archaeological team and can be seen in the local museum. The theatre has been the object of important restorations between 2004 and 2014. A temple was raised to Apollo Lairbenos, the town's principal god during the late Hellenistic period . This Apollo was linked to the ancient Anatolian sun god Lairbenos and the god of oracles Kareios. The site also included temples or shrines to Cybele , Artemis , Pluto , and Poseidon . Now only

6298-522: The Patriarchal views of “Female Inferiority” in Ancient Greek society. For instance the theory on the ‘loose and porous nature’ of women's’ flesh was framed as a general inefficiency in female bodies compared to the more “fit and tight” male body, which was better at managing it’s humors. Menstruation was seen as an adaptation to an inherently inferior constitution that didn't manage the blood humor well. It

6432-555: The Phrygian inhabitants of the valley were gradually Hellenized , Hierapolis was a Greek foundation from the start. Antiochus the Great sent 2,000 Jewish families to Lydia and Phrygia from Babylon and Mesopotamia, later joined by more from Judea . The Jewish congregation grew in Hierapolis and has been estimated as high as 50,000 in 62 BC. The city was expanded with the booty from the 190 BC Battle of Magnesia where Antiochus

6566-403: The Roman province of Asia . Unlike other cities in the region, it was never reconstituted as a Roman colony, though some Romanization took place. In AD 17, during the rule of the emperor Tiberius , a major earthquake destroyed the city. The philosopher Epictetus was born as a slave in the city in 50 AD. Through the influence of the Christian apostle Paul , a church was founded here while he

6700-409: The Roman style with imperial financial support. It was during this period that the city attained its present form. The theatre was built in 129 for a visit by the emperor Hadrian . It was renovated under Septimius Severus (193–211). When Caracalla visited the town in 215, he bestowed the much-coveted title of neocoros upon it, according the city certain privileges and the right of sanctuary . This

6834-572: The Womb, Hippocratic scholars believed the Wandering Womb theory; that it was a detached organ within the female body and had the ability to migrate. The migration of the Womb was assumed to be the cause of many maladies and symptoms of discomfort or bad mood in women. These Hippocratic theories assumed that the male body was the normal/ideal body, and that female differences were abnormal and inferior. Thus Hippocratic theories of Female anatomy aligned with

SECTION 50

#1732837333098

6968-725: The afterlife led to the construction of several extensive necropoleis to secure and provision the dead in the hereafter. These necropoleis are therefore major archaeological sites for Egyptology . Probably the best-known ancient Egyptian necropolis is the Giza Necropolis . Made famous by the Great Pyramid of Giza , which was included in the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World , the necropolis includes three major pyramid tombs of Old Kingdom kings and several smaller pyramids related to

7102-467: The ancient Greek world however. Sparta was notable for continuing the practice of burial within the city. Naqsh-e Rostam is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km (7.5 mi) northwest of Persepolis , in Fars Province, Iran . The oldest relief at Naqsh-i Rustam dates to c.  1000 BC . Though it is severely damaged, it depicts a faint image of a man with unusual headgear and

7236-478: The ancient Greeks believed that illnesses were "divine punishments" and that healing was a "gift from the Gods". As trials continued wherein theories were tested against symptoms and results, the pure spiritual beliefs regarding "punishments" and "gifts" were replaced with a foundation based in the physical, i.e., cause and effect. Humorism (or the four humors) refers to blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black bile. Each of

7370-520: The ancient city. The ruins were slowly covered with a thick layer of limestone. Hierapolis was first excavated by the German archaeologist Carl Humann during June and July 1887. His excavation notes were published in his 1889 book Altertümer von Hierapolis . His excavations were rather general and included a number of drilling holes. He would gain fame for his later discovery of the Pergamon Altar , which

7504-497: The area came under the control of the Seljuk sultanate of Konya before falling to crusaders under Frederick Barbarossa and their Byzantine allies in 1190. About thirty years later, the town was abandoned before the Seljuks built a castle in the 13th century. The new settlement was abandoned in the late 14th century. In 1354, the great Thracian earthquake toppled the remains of

7638-410: The blood, leaving evil to set in on itself due to the bad condition of the blood. Medical treatments for women were generally womb-centered, focused on an emphasis on the misplacement of the uterus, also known as the “wandering womb”. In ancient Greek medicine, women were thought to contain an organ that resembles an animal; for it would move to its own accord and is often subject to displacement. It

7772-430: The body, which was then expelled through Menstruation as a way of regulating the blood humor. Likewise the “looseness” of female flesh was used to account for the existence of Female breasts. It was believed that in both male and female bodies, the breast was a gland that absorbs fluids and moisture, and thus the loose porous nature of women’s flesh allowed their breast to absorb more and grow larger . Finally, in regards to

7906-505: The body. Some of this vital spirit reaches the brain , where it is transformed into animal spirit, which is then distributed by the nerves. Herophilus and Erasistratus performed their experiments upon criminals given to them by their Ptolemaic kings. They dissected these criminals alive , and "while they were still breathing they observed parts which nature had formerly concealed, and examined their position, colour, shape, size, arrangement, hardness, softness, smoothness, connection." Though

8040-486: The cavea into two, was entered by two vaulted passages (the vomitoria ). There is an Imperial loge at the middle of the cavea and a 6-foot-high (1.83 m) wall surrounding the orchestra. During the reign of Septimius Severus at the beginning of the 3rd century, the old scaenae frons was replaced by a new, more monumental one, organized on three storeys and flanked by two imposing side entry buildings. Sculptural reliefs, displaying mythological subjects, were placed on

8174-455: The channel and reach the womb; following this procedure was the implementation of inflammatory drugs to induce menstruation through a culmination of cow dung, beef bile, myrrh, galbanum, and anything similar . Patients played an important role in their treatment. Stated in the treatise " Aphorisms " , "[i]t is not enough for the physician to do what is necessary, but the patient and the attendant must do their part as well". Patient compliance

SECTION 60

#1732837333098

8308-426: The city, the graves made as the 2nd and the 3rd, are generally surrounded by walls and they have gardens decorated with flowers and trees (especially cypress). Grave monuments which are completely made of travertine, show different types; like simple lahids, and home kind graves which has two or more lahids on it. On the sarcophagus that holds the lahid, there is an inscription written in Greek ( bomas , "altar"). "Bomas"

8442-472: The city. In Mycenae , for example, the royal tombs were located in a precinct within the city walls. The way the large stones fit together so perfectly in the round shape of the underground tomb is one of the most amazing building achievements of the Mycenaean Age. This changed during the ancient Greek period when necropoleis usually lined the roads outside a city. There existed some degree of variation within

8576-604: The collapse of the Amarna regime about 20 years after the foundation of Akhetaten, the tomb decorations provide much information about that era of ancient Egyptian history. The Etruscans took the concept of a "city of the dead" quite literally. The typical tomb at the Banditaccia necropolis at Cerveteri consists of a tumulus which covers one or more rock-cut subterranean tombs. These tombs had multiple chambers and were elaborately decorated like contemporary houses. The arrangement of

8710-407: The demon with prayers, spells, and sacrifices. Originally, in ancient Greece, women were not allowed to become doctors, however, there are some accounts of female doctors who practiced medicine. One such account was that of the female doctor Agnodice . The validity of Agnodice’s story has been debated by scholars but according to legend, Agnodice was a woman in ancient Greece who disguised herself as

8844-480: The different storeys, while dedicatory inscriptions ran along the entablatures . The transformation was outstanding due to the size of the structures, the high quality of workmanship and materials employed. The auditorium was rebuilt as well, substituting the ancient limestone seats with others in marble, and realizing a high podium on the orchestra in order to adapt the building to the organization of venationes and gladiator schools. An earthquake in Hierapolis in

8978-456: The direction the wind blew influenced the health of the local populace. Due to it's primary focus on Pathology (rather than physiology), Hippocratic theories on the female anatomy were generally not fully comprehensive . However there were some consistent themes to their theories of the Female body. In particular, Hippocratic authors had similar views of menstruation, the development of breasts, and

9112-691: The disease, the patient and the physician. The physician is the servant of science, and the patient must do what he can to fight the disease with the assistance of the physician". Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle was the most influential scholar of the living world from antiquity . Aristotle's biological writings demonstrate great concern for empiricism , biological causation, and the diversity of life. Aristotle did not experiment, however, holding that items display their real natures in their own environments, rather than controlled artificial ones. While in modern-day physics and chemistry this assumption has been found unhelpful, in zoology and ethology it remains

9246-410: The dominant practice, and Aristotle's work "retains real interest". He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, which he devoted considerable attention to categorizing . In all, Aristotle classified 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle believed that formal causes guided all natural processes. Such

9380-521: The eastern and southern sections of the old city. Most of the tombs have been excavated. This necropolis is one of the best preserved in Turkey. Most of the about 1,200 tombs were constructed with local varieties of limestone, though marble has been used, as well. Most tombs date from the late Hellenic period, but there are also a considerable number from the Roman and early Christian periods. People who came for medical treatment to Hierapolis in ancient times and

9514-413: The end of the 1st century AD and left outside the city walls. Beyond the city walls and meadow, following the main colonnaded road and passing the outer baths ( thermae extra muros ), an extensive necropolis extends for over 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) on both sides of the old road to Phrygian Tripolis and Sardis . The other goes south from Laodicea to Closae. The necropolis extends from the northern to

9648-399: The entrance. It was covered by a thick layer of suffocating gas, killing anyone who dared to enter it. The priests sold birds and other animals to the visitors, so that they could try out how deadly this enclosed area was. Visitors could (for a fee) ask questions of Pluto's oracle . This provided a considerable source of income for the temple. The entrance to the plutonion was walled off during

9782-425: The father of anatomy ), who differed from Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between veins and arteries , noting that the latter had a pulse while the former do not. He did this using an experiment involving cutting certain veins and arteries in a pig's neck until the squealing stopped. In the same vein, he developed

9916-584: The female body and a Hippocratic concept was that saw the female body as being from the same general Physis (or same essential biological system) as the male one, with variation existing primarily in sexual organs . Likewise, unlike Hippocratic theorist, he believed the womb to be a natural part of the female body that was normally fixed in place (like the womb of other animals), though it could be displaced due to certain health conditions . However Aristotle’s theories of female anatomy were still inflected with patriarchal values of Greek society. For instance, Mensuration

10050-467: The first time in Hierapolis. There are round huts belonging to a large settlement believed to cover the side of the Çökelez Mountain overlooking the wide plain of the Lykos River. Before the Greek colony was established the cult area dedicated to Cybele around a cave and the surrounding rocks was the center of the archaic settlement. The Phrygians built a temple dedicated to the mother goddess Cybele on

10184-574: The foundations of the Hellenistic temple remain. The temple stood within a peribolos (15 by 20 metres (49 by 66 ft)) in Doric style. The structures of the temple are later, though the presence of two Ionic capitals in the Museum (see under Museum), as well as of a Corinthian capital of the 1st century AD and other architectural fragments lead archaeologists to suppose the existence of an earlier temple on

10318-430: The four humors were linked to an organ, temper, season and element. It was also theorized that sex played a role in medicine because some diseases and treatments were different for females than for males. Moreover, geographic location and social class affected the living conditions of the people and might subject them to different environmental issues such as mosquitoes, rats, and availability of clean drinking water. Diet

10452-517: The gases of the cave. The hot springs were a major draw to city. After the process of assimilation into Greek culture, it was associated with Hades (Pluton) and Persephone instead of Cybele and the temple was named Plutonium. Hierapolis was founded by the Seleucids in the time of Antiochus I (281 - 261 BC) and received polis status by Eumenes of Permgamon (197-160 BC). The city was famous for its high quality woolen fabrics and dye products. While

10586-500: The gate. They are quite expressive and, while belonging to antique buildings, were evidently reused as apotropaic elements on the two sides of the gate so as to ward off evil influence. The Theatre was probably constructed under the reign of Hadrian after the earthquake of 60 AD. The facade is 300 feet (91 m) long, the full extent of which remains standing. In the cavea there are 50 rows of seats divided into seven parts by eight intermediate stairways. The diazoma , which divided

10720-405: The growth of patient compliance in Greek medicine, consent became an important factor between the doctor and patient relationship. Presented with all the information concerning the patient's health, the patient makes the decision to accept treatment. Physician and patient responsibility is mentioned in the treatise " Epidemics " , where it states, "there are three factors in the practice of medicine:

10854-504: The healer-god Asclepius, known as Asclepieia ( Greek : Ἀσκληπιεῖα ; sing. Ἀσκληπιεῖον Asclepieion ), functioned as centers of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known as "enkoimesis" ( Greek : ἐγκοίμησις ) not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance from the deity in a dream or were cured by surgery. Asclepeia provided carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of

10988-647: The healthcare system of ancient Greece, even if they were not officially recognized as doctors. The Hippocratic Corpus was a body of writing that opposed ancient beliefs, offering biologically based approaches to disease instead of magical intervention. The Hippocratic Corpus was primarily focused on Pathology rather than creating a comprehensive Physiology of the human body . It is a collection of about seventy early medical works from ancient Greece that are associated with Hippocrates and his students. Although once thought to have been written by Hippocrates himself, many scholars today believe that these texts were written by

11122-579: The hot springs. Hierapolis was located on the main road from Iconium to Ephesus , which facilitated trade with the Aegean region. In 2016, excavations were carried out in the Northern Necropolis area of Hierapolis at the entrance of the Archaeological Park by the archaeologists from Denizli Hierapolis Archeology Museum. During these excavations, Iron Age settlement structures were unearthed for

11256-417: The hot water pool of one hotel was retained, and (for a fee) it is possible to swim amongst ancient stone remains. Excavations began in earnest in 1957 when Italian scientists, led by Paolo Verzone , began working on the site. These studies continued into 2008 when a restoration of the site began. Large columns along the main street near the gate named for Domitian were erected again. A number of houses from

11390-406: The humors. The shift from supernatural disease to biological disease did not completely abolish Greek religion, but offered a new method of how physicians interacted with patients. Ancient Greek physicians who followed humorism emphasized the importance of environment. Physicians believed patients would be subjected to various diseases based on the environment they resided. The local water supply and

11524-511: The lack of sources and the challenge of understanding ancient medical terminology . It is clear, however, that the Greeks imported Egyptian substances into their pharmacopoeia , and the influence became more pronounced after the establishment of a school of Greek medicine in Alexandria . Asclepius was espoused as the first physician, and myth placed him as the son of Apollo . Temples dedicated to

11658-488: The level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not foreordained by that form. Yet another aspect of his biology divided souls into three groups: a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth; a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation; and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection. He attributed only the first to plants, the first two to animals, and all three to humans. Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, and like

11792-400: The mind played a role in healing, or that it might also be the sole basis for the illness. Ancient Greek medicine began to revolve around the theory of humors. The humoral theory states that good health comes from a perfect balance of the four humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Consequently, poor health resulted from improper balance of the four humors. Hippocrates , known as

11926-452: The most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the Middle Ages . Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as carpos for fruit, and pericarpium for seed vessel. Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of

12060-536: The native people of the city buried their dead in tombs of several types according to their traditions and socio-economic status. The tombs and funeral monuments can be divided into four types: The monuments are situated in the large area, together with many travertine lahids, inscribed with Soros suffixes written in Greek (some over 2,000 years old) generally in the epigraphs on lahids. There are many architectural grave monuments in Hierapolis and they show different architectural techniques. The oldest graves are of

12194-425: The nature of afflictions that women experienced, as well as the remedies for these afflictions. The concept of humoral imbalance played a crucial role in the diagnosis and treatment of women in ancient Greek society. With blood being one of the four humors, it can be seen as a reason for a woman to become manic and crazy with changes in mood because of the imbalance in the aforementioned humors. Blood’s relationship to

12328-573: The nature of the womb. Hippocratic views in the Breasts and Menstruation were rooted in an assumption that the Flesh of a woman was of a completely different essential nature (or physis) compared to that of a man. For instance, they believed women’s Flesh to be “Spongy, loose and porous” (Diseases of Women 1.1 (=8.2) whereas the flesh of a man was more firm and compact . It was believed that this nature of female flesh caused it to soak up excess blood generated by

12462-502: The original temple ( ἱερόν , hieron ) or honoured Hiera , the wife of Telephus , son of Heracles and the Mysian princess Auge , the supposed founder of Pergamon 's Attalid dynasty . This name eventually changed into Hierapolis ("holy city"), according to the Byzantine geographer Stephanus on account of its large number of temples. In 133 BC, when Attalus III died, he bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. Hierapolis thus became part of

12596-480: The peribolos of the Apollonian temple. By doing so, the early Christians cut off the view of the pagan temple. The Byzantine gate was constructed in the 6th century. Now only the back wall and the two side walls remain. The walls and the niches in the walls were decorated with statues. The Italian archaeological team has excavated two statues of priestesses, which are now on display at the local museum. The Nymphaeum has

12730-402: The rank of metropolitan in 531. The Roman baths were transformed to a Christian basilica. During the Byzantine period, the city continued to flourish and also remained an important centre for Christianity. In the early 7th century, the town was devastated first by Persian armies and then by another destructive earthquake, from which it took a long time to recover. In the 12th century,

12864-449: The requirements of institutions created for healing. The Temple of Asclepius in Pergamum had a spring that flowed down into an underground room in the Temple. People would come to drink the waters and to bathe in them because they were believed to have medicinal properties. Mud baths and hot teas such as chamomile were used to calm them or peppermint tea to soothe their headaches, which

12998-667: The royal burials, as well as mastabas (a typical royal tomb of the early Dynastic period) and tombs and graveyards for lesser personages. Almost as well-known as Giza is the Theban Necropolis , on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes (modern Luxor ). This necropolis is known for the rock-cut tombs of the Valley of the Kings , the Valley of the Queens , and the various tombs of nobles and others from

13132-463: The seminal work De humani corporis fabrica by Andreas Vesalius where Galen's physiological theory was accommodated to these new observations. Galen's theory of the physiology of the circulatory system endured until 1628, when William Harvey published his treatise entitled De motu cordis , in which he established that blood circulates, with the heart acting as a pump. Medical students continued to study Galen's writings until well into

13266-449: The site probably in the first half of the 7th century BC. This temple, originally used by the indigenous communities living in the Lycus valley would later form the center of Hierapolis. When the Greek colonists arrived and built the city on the pre-existing pattern of settlement, the ancient cult of Cybele was gradually assimilated into the Greek religion. From well before the time of

13400-615: The site since 1957 and is currently directed by Grazia Semeraro , Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Salento. Hierapolis is located on terrace three hundred feet above the Lycus river (modern Çürüksu), a tributary Büyük Menderes (the classical Meander), across the valley from ancient Laodicea on the Lycus and modern Denizli . It is adjacent to the geological formation of Pamukkale, meaning "cotton castle" in Turkish , famous for its travertine limestone terraces deposited by

13534-477: The site. The temple, which has a marble staircase, lies within a sacred area, about 70 metres (230 ft) long. It was surrounded by an enclosure wall ( temenos ). The back of the temple was built against the hill, the peribolos was surrounded on the remaining southern, western and northern sides, by a marble portico , which has been partially excavated. This portico has pilasters bearing fluted Doric semi-columns supporting capitals that are decorated below with

13668-751: The spread of Greek medical theories throughout the Roman Empire, and thus a large portion of the West. The most influential Roman scholar to continue and expand on the Hippocratic tradition was Galen (d. c. 207). Study of Hippocratic and Galenic texts, however, all but disappeared in the Latin West in the Early Middle Ages , following the collapse of the Western Empire, although the Hippocratic-Galenic tradition of Greek medicine continued to be studied and practiced in

13802-508: The study of anatomy all date back to the Greeks. After Theophrastus (d. 286 BC), the extent of original work produced was diminished. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly. It is not until the age of Alexandria under the Ptolemies that advances in biology can be again found. The first medical teacher at Alexandria was Herophilus of Chalcedon (

13936-405: The temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium. The Rod of Asclepius is a universal symbol for medicine to this day. However, it

14070-544: The tombs. The site of Bin Tepe served as a necropolis for Sardis , the capital of the Lydian Empire . It consists of over 100 tumuli including the monumental Tumulus of Alyattes which was commented on by ancient writers including Herodotus and still marks the landscape today. Though Lydian elites also used other burial styles, tumuli are so numerous throughout Lydia that they are used to track settlement patterns. The style

14204-417: The town, castrated priests of Cybele descended into the plutonion, crawling over the floor to pockets of oxygen or holding their breath. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air and so tends to settle in hollows. The priests would then come up to show that they were miraculously immune to the gas and infused with divine protection. An enclosed area of 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft) stood in front of

14338-483: The tumuli in a grid of streets gave it an appearance similar to the cities of the living. The art historian Nigel Spivey considers the name cemetery inadequate and argues that only the term necropolis can do justice to these sophisticated burial sites. Etruscan necropoli were usually located on hills or slopes of hills. In the Mycenean Greek period predating ancient Greece , burials could be performed inside

14472-512: The uses and actions of some 600 plants drugs, based on empirical observation. Unlike other works of Classical antiquity, Dioscorides' manuscript was never out of publication; it formed the basis for the Western pharmacopeia through the 19th century, a true testament to the efficacy of the medicines described; moreover, the influence of work on European herbal medicine eclipsed that of the Hippocratic Corpes . Herodicus ( Greek : Ἡρóδιĸος )

14606-443: The uterus was considered crucial to the well-being and health of the individual. Hippocrates believed and stated that if a woman’s period blood is not expelled from her body in full amount, it would rush to her heart and to her lungs, causing her affected organs to slow down; this would lead to shivering and fevers called ‘erratic fevers’ which would instill feelings of murderous feelings of madness because she tries to choke herself with

14740-565: The whole settlement, exiting a gate at the opposite side, to connect with the road that goes to Laodicea on the Lykos and then Colossae. It is worth admiring the well preserved structure with three openings, in carefully squared travertine blocks, with elegant arches decorated with a simple cornice moulding, flanked by two round towers that recall Hellenistic city Gates such as that of the Pamphilian city of Perge, near Antalya. The north gate forms part of

14874-415: The womb moving down to the hypochondriac regions include heartburn, irregular and intermittent heartbeat, loss of speech, choking, and death . One of the medical treatments for a prolapsed womb was to put the woman in a vapor bath, then put wild figs into wine, then boil it, and then cut a hole at the top of the container used to store the wine, typically a gourd; the vapor from the wine must reach through

15008-439: Was a Greek physician of the 5th century BC, who is considered to be the father of sports medicine . The first use of therapeutic exercise for the treatment of disease and maintenance of health is credited to him, and he is believed to have been one of the tutors of Hippocrates . He also recommended good diet and massage using beneficial herbs and oils, and his theories are considered the foundation of sports medicine . He

15142-448: Was a compilation of theories and practices that were constantly expanding through new ideologies and trials. The Greek term for medicine was iatrikē ( Ancient Greek : ἰατρική ). Many components were considered in ancient Greek medicine, intertwining the spiritual with the physical. Specifically, the ancient Greeks believed health was affected by the humors , geographic location, social class, diet, trauma, beliefs, and mindset. Early on

15276-518: Was a prominent Greek physician , surgeon and philosopher in the Roman Empire . Arguably the most accomplished of all medical researchers of antiquity , Galen influenced the development of various scientific disciplines , including anatomy , physiology , pathology , pharmacology , and neurology , as well as philosophy and logic . Galen also spent over 50 years in Rome, where he served as

15410-450: Was a woman. Eventually, she was discovered and put on trial for practicing medicine as a woman. Once again, she exposed herself to the court to prove the truth about her existence as a woman practicing medicine. The outcome was that she was found as violating the law, specifically against women being able to learn medicine. However, her female patients came to her defense and testified that she had helped them when no male doctor could. Agnodice

15544-569: Was acquitted and soon after the law was changed in Athens. After her trial, all free-born women were then legally allowed to practice medicine. After the ruling and change in law, Agnodice then went on to become a well-respected doctor in Athens by all. While Agnodice is the most well-known female doctor in ancient Greece, there were likely others who practiced medicine. However, there is little information available about them. In general, women in ancient Greece were not allowed to receive an education, so it

15678-650: Was adopted around 600 BC, likely inspired by similar Phrygian tombs at Gordion . It continued after the Persian conquest of Lydia, into the Hellenistic and Roman eras. Necropoleis have been built in modern times. The world's largest remaining operating necropolis from the Victorian era , for example, is Rookwood Necropolis , in New South Wales , Australia. A modern era example is Colma, California , United States. Ancient Greek medicine Ancient Greek medicine

15812-465: Was also dismantled to make room for a large Nympheum. At least two structures are identified as the "Ploutonion" at the ancient site of Hierapolis. One is located adjacent to the Temple of Apollo (identified as the Plutonium in the 60s), the second one is located some 200 meters to the east which has been identified as "the Plutonium" mentioned in the historic sources. The second one, conventionally called

15946-451: Was assumed that these “inefficiencies” in the female body made them unfit for male labor or male roles . Likewise, the theory that the womb migrated was partially based on observations that the male body did not contain a womb. Because the male body was seen as "the norm", it was assumed that the womb had no specified place in the body and thus naturally migrated. These patriarchal views, consequentially, affected Hippocratic conceptions about

16080-458: Was at Ephesus . The Christian apostle Philip spent the last years of his life here. The town's Martyrium was alleged to have been built upon the spot where Philip was crucified in AD 80. His daughters were also said to have acted as prophetesses in the region. In the year 60, during the rule of Nero , an even more severe earthquake left the city completely in ruins. Afterwards, the city was rebuilt in

16214-491: Was bordered on both sides by an arcade . At both ends of the main street, there was a monumental gate flanked by square towers built of massive blocks of stone. The side streets were about 3 metres (9.8 ft) wide. Another gate, the Domitian Gate, was close to the northern city gate. This triumphal arch flanked by circular towers consists of three arches and was built by the proconsul Julius Frontinus (84–86). The town

16348-498: Was principally influenced by the then-current theory of humorism , as advanced by ancient Greek physicians such as Hippocrates. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for more than 1,300 years. His anatomical reports, based mainly on dissection of monkeys , especially the Barbary macaque , and pigs , remained uncontested until 1543, when printed descriptions and illustrations of human dissections were published in

16482-494: Was probably transformed into an arena for aquatic shows, which had become fashionable. The stage, which is 12 ft (3.7 m) high, had five doors and six niches. In front of these there were ten marble columns, decorated with alternate rectilinear and curved segments. The wall behind the scene was decorated with three rows of columns one behind another. The columns on the front row do not have grooves and stood on octagonal bases. The auditorium consisted of stacked seating with

16616-431: Was repeatedly rebuilt following major earthquakes and improved prior to various imperial visits to the healing springs. In addition, Septimius Severus had a number of new buildings constructed in Hierapolis in gratitude for his secretary Antipater , a native of Hierapolis who also tutored the emperor's two sons. This is the monumental entrance to the Roman city and leads onto the large plateia, 14 m wide, which crosses

16750-465: Was rooted in their respect for the physician. According to the treatise " Prognostic " , a physician was able to increase their reputation and respect through "prognosis", knowing the outcome of the disease. Physicians had an active role in the lives of patients, taking into consideration their residence. Distinguishing between fatal diseases and recoverable disease was important for patient trust and respect, positively influencing patient compliance. With

16884-461: Was said that only the priest of the Great Mother could enter the cave without being overpowered by the noxious underground fumes. Temples dedicated to Apollo were often built over geologically active sites, including his most famous, the temple at Delphi . When the Christian faith was granted official primacy in the 4th century, this temple underwent a number of desecrations . Part of the peribolos

17018-451: Was specific in the manner that a massage should be given. He recommended that rubbing be initially slow and gentle, then subsequently faster, with the application of more pressure, which was to be followed by more gentle friction. Through long contact with Greek culture, and their eventual conquest of Greece, the Romans adopted a favorable view of Hippocratic medicine. This acceptance led to

17152-534: Was still seen as a evidence of inefficiencies of Female biology. Though it was no longer seen as the result of inherently inferior constitution, Menstruation was now seen as the cause of "Physical Weakness" when compared to men. Likewise, some of Aristotle's theories on differences in biological sex seem to be based entirely on Patriarchal assumptions of male superiority, rather that empirical evidence. For instance, in his writings "History of Animals" he states that men have more skull sutures than women, which demonstrates

17286-517: Was stored at the Hierapolis Museum and not displayed. Necropolis A necropolis ( pl. : necropolises, necropoles, necropoleis, necropoli ) is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name stems from the Ancient Greek νεκρόπολις nekropolis ( lit.   ' city of the dead ' ). The term usually implies a separate burial site at a distance from

17420-481: Was the golden age of Hierapolis. Thousands of people came to benefit from the medicinal properties of the hot springs. New building projects were started: two Roman baths, a gymnasium , several temples, a main street with a colonnade, and a fountain at the hot spring. Hierapolis became one of the most prominent cities in the Roman Empire in the fields of the arts, philosophy, and trade. The town grew to 100,000 inhabitants and became wealthy. During his campaign against

17554-406: Was thought to be an issue as well and might be affected by a lack of access to adequate nourishment. Trauma, such as that suffered by gladiators, from dog bites or other injuries, played a role in theories relating to understanding anatomy and infections. Additionally, there was significant focus on the beliefs and mindset of the patient in the diagnosis and treatment theories. It was recognized that

17688-488: Was transferred to Berlin and reconstructed in the Pergamon Museum . After the large white limestone formations of the hot springs became famous again in the 20th century, it was turned into a tourist attraction named "Cotton Castle" ( Pamukkale ). The ancient city was rediscovered by travellers, but also partially destroyed by new hotels that were built there. These buildings have been removed in recent years; however,

17822-530: Was used as symbol which stresses that with the connection of a dead body of a person in high position, his or her remembrance will be exalted. These monuments have the same functions with heroon. (The grave monuments made for celebrating are for the heroes' and important persons’ who are believed to become gods after they die.) A raised relief on the Sarcophagus of a certain Marcus Aurelius Ammianos ,

17956-530: Was very interested in the debate between the rationalist and empiricist medical sects, and his use of direct observation, dissection and vivisection represents a complex middle ground between the extremes of those two viewpoints. The first century AD Greek physician, pharmacologist , botanist, and Roman army surgeon Pedanius Dioscorides authored an encyclopedia of medicinal substances commonly known as De Materia Medica . This work did not delve into medical theory or explanation of pathogenesis, but described

#97902