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56-573: The original oath was written in Ionic Greek , between the fifth and third centuries BC. Although it is traditionally attributed to the Greek doctor Hippocrates and it is usually included in the Hippocratic Corpus , some modern scholars do not regard it as having been written by Hippocrates himself. The oldest partial fragments of the oath date to circa AD 275. The oldest extant version dates to roughly

112-445: A pessary to cause abortion. But I will keep pure and holy both my life and my art. I will not use the knife, not even, verily, on sufferers from stone , but I will give place to such as are craftsmen therein. Into whatsoever houses I enter, I will enter to help the sick, and I will abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm, especially from abusing the bodies of man or woman, bond or free. And whatsoever I shall see or hear in

168-594: A commission as an army surgeon, Inman settled in Liverpool as house-surgeon to the Royal Infirmary. He obtained a good practice as a physician, and was for many years physician to the Royal Infirmary. In 1871 he gave up practice and retired to Clifton, near Bristol, where he died on 3 May 1876. He was a man of handsome presence, and his genial temperament made him generally popular. Inman's publications on personal hygiene are practical advice. On 21 October 1844 he became

224-442: A deep, almost monastic devotion to the art of medicine. He who keeps to the oath is promised "reputation among all men for my life and for my art". This contrasts heavily with Galenic writings on professional ethics, which employ a far more pragmatic approach, where good practice is defined as effective practice, without reference to deities. The oath's importance among the medical community is nonetheless attested by its appearance on

280-400: A description of an abortion, without any implication that it was morally wrong, and descriptions of abortifacient medications are numerous in the ancient medical literature. The oath's stance on abortion was unclear even in the ancient world where physicians debated whether the specification of pessaries was a ban on simply pessaries , or a blanket ban on all abortion methods. Scribonius Largus

336-447: A fever chart, a cancerous growth, but a sick human being, whose illness may affect the person's family and economic stability. My responsibility includes these related problems, if I am to care adequately for the sick. I will prevent disease whenever I can, for prevention is preferable to cure. I will remember that I remain a member of society, with special obligations to all my fellow human beings, those sound of mind and body as well as

392-713: A high social group that everywhere spoke the same kind of "civilized Ionic". However, local speech by the "man in the street" must have shown differences. An inkling of this may be witnessed in the language of Ephesian "beggar poet" Hipponax , who often used local slang (νικύρτας, σάβαυνις: terms of abuse; χλούνης, thief ; κασωρικός, whorish ) and Lydian loanwords (πάλμυς, king ). Proto-Greek ā > Ionic ē ; in Doric , Aeolic , ā remains; in Attic , ā after e, i, r , but ē elsewhere. Proto-Greek e, o > East/Central Ionic ei, ou : compensatory lengthening after loss of w in

448-459: A literary form of the Ionic dialect, known as Epic or Homeric Greek . The oldest Greek prose , including that of Heraclitus , Herodotus , Democritus , and Hippocrates , was also written in Ionic. By the end of the 5th century BC, Ionic was supplanted by Attic, which had become the dominant dialect of the Greek world. The Ionic dialect appears to have originally spread from the Greek mainland across

504-553: A member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, to whose Proceedings he contributed papers, mainly on archæological subjects. He read widely, was no scholar, but wrote with ingenuity. From Godfrey Higgins he derived the suggestion that the key to all mythology is to be sought in phallic worship . On 5 February 1866 he first propounded this theory in a paper on The Antiquity of certain Christian and other Names . The subject

560-502: A mere formality". In Nazi Germany , medical students did not take the Hippocratic Oath, although they knew the ethic of "nil nocere"—do no harm. In the 1960s, the Hippocratic Oath was changed to require "utmost respect for human life from its beginning", making it a more secular obligation, not to be taken in the presence of any gods, but before only other people. When the oath was rewritten in 1964 by Louis Lasagna , Academic Dean of

616-528: A more general prohibition on, for example, doing physical or other harm to other persons. In the United States, several major judicial decisions have made reference to the classical Hippocratic Oath, either upholding or dismissing its bounds for medical ethics: Roe v. Wade , Washington v. Harper , Compassion in Dying v. State of Washington (1996), and Thorburn v. Department of Corrections (1998). In antiquity,

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672-470: A patient's recovery. I will respect the privacy of my patients, for their problems are not disclosed to me that the world may know. Most especially must I tread with care in matters of life and death. If it is given me to save a life, all thanks. But it may also be within my power to take a life; this awesome responsibility must be faced with great humbleness and awareness of my own frailty. Above all, I must not play at God. I will remember that I do not treat

728-434: A profession that's committed to a shared set of essential ethical values." There is no direct punishment for breaking the Hippocratic Oath, although an arguable equivalent in modern times is medical malpractice , which carries a wide range of punishments, from imprisonment to civil penalties. Medical professionals may also be subject to other parts of the criminal and civil law for conduct contrary to both an oath taken and to

784-644: A result of a long pre-Homeric epic tradition. This Epic Ionic was used in all later hexametric and elegiac poetry, not only by Ionians, but also by foreigners such as the Boeotian Hesiod . Ionic would become the conventional dialect used for specific poetical and literary genres. Ιt was used by many authors, regardless of their origin; like the Dorian Tyrtaeus , composing elegies in a form of Ionic. This ability of poets to switch between dialects would eventually temper regional differences, while contributing to

840-580: A very early time the /h/ sound ( psilosis ) ( Herodotos should therefore properly be called Erodotos). The /w/ sound ( digamma ) is also completely absent from Eastern Ionic, but was sometimes retained in Western and Cycladic Ionic. Also pronouns that begin with /hop-/ in Western and Cycladic Ionic (ὅπου where , ὅπως how ), begin with ok- (conventionally written hok-) in Eastern Ionic (ὅκου/ὄκου, ὅκως/ὄκως). Western Ionic differs from Cycladic and Eastern Ionic by

896-557: Is a part of the original Hippocratic oath. A related phrase is found in Epidemics, Book I, of the Hippocratic school: "Practice two things in your dealings with disease: either help or do not harm the patient". Although no such phrase from which "First" or "Primum" can be translated appears in any well recognized version of the oath, a similar intention is vowed by, "I will abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm". " Primum non nocere "

952-560: Is taken in place of or in addition to the Hippocratic Oath. The Osteopathic Oath was first used in 1938, and the current version has been in use since 1954. In France, it is common for new medical graduates to sign a written oath. In 1995, Sir Joseph Rotblat , in his acceptance speech for the Nobel Peace Prize , suggested a Hippocratic Oath for Scientists . In November 2005, Saparmurat Niyazov , then leader of Turkmenistan , declared that doctors should swear an oath to him instead of

1008-622: The Aegean at the time of the Dorian invasions , around the 11th century BC, during the early Greek Dark Ages . According to tradition, the ancestors of Ionians first set out from Athens, in a series of migrations, to establish their colonies on the coast of Asia Minor and the islands of the Cyclades, around the beginning of the Protogeometric period (1075/1050   BC). Between the 11th and 9th century BC,

1064-2269: The 10th–11th century, held in the Vatican Library . A commonly cited version, dated to 1595, appears in Koine Greek with a Latin translation. In this translation, the author translates πεσσὸν to the Latin fœtum . Below is the Hippocratic Oath, in Greek, from the 1923 Loeb edition, followed by the English translation: ὄμνυμι Ἀπόλλωνα ἰητρὸν καὶ Ἀσκληπιὸν καὶ Ὑγείαν καὶ Πανάκειαν καὶ θεοὺς πάντας τε καὶ πάσας, ἵστορας ποιεύμενος, ἐπιτελέα ποιήσειν κατὰ δύναμιν καὶ κρίσιν ἐμὴν ὅρκον τόνδε καὶ συγγραφὴν τήνδε: ἡγήσεσθαι μὲν τὸν διδάξαντά με τὴν τέχνην ταύτην ἴσα γενέτῃσιν ἐμοῖς, καὶ βίου κοινώσεσθαι, καὶ χρεῶν χρηΐζοντι μετάδοσιν ποιήσεσθαι, καὶ γένος τὸ ἐξ αὐτοῦ ἀδελφοῖς ἴσον ἐπικρινεῖν ἄρρεσι, καὶ διδάξειν τὴν τέχνην ταύτην, ἢν χρηΐζωσι μανθάνειν, ἄνευ μισθοῦ καὶ συγγραφῆς, παραγγελίης τε καὶ ἀκροήσιος καὶ τῆς λοίπης ἁπάσης μαθήσιος μετάδοσιν ποιήσεσθαι υἱοῖς τε ἐμοῖς καὶ τοῖς τοῦ ἐμὲ διδάξαντος, καὶ μαθητῇσι συγγεγραμμένοις τε καὶ ὡρκισμένοις νόμῳ ἰητρικῷ, ἄλλῳ δὲ οὐδενί. διαιτήμασί τε χρήσομαι ἐπ᾽ ὠφελείῃ καμνόντων κατὰ δύναμιν καὶ κρίσιν ἐμήν, ἐπὶ δηλήσει δὲ καὶ ἀδικίῃ εἴρξειν. οὐ δώσω δὲ οὐδὲ φάρμακον οὐδενὶ αἰτηθεὶς θανάσιμον, οὐδὲ ὑφηγήσομαι συμβουλίην τοιήνδε: ὁμοίως δὲ οὐδὲ γυναικὶ πεσσὸν φθόριον δώσω. ἁγνῶς δὲ καὶ ὁσίως διατηρήσω βίον τὸν ἐμὸν καὶ τέχνην τὴν ἐμήν. οὐ τεμέω δὲ οὐδὲ μὴν λιθιῶντας, ἐκχωρήσω δὲ ἐργάτῃσιν ἀνδράσι πρήξιος τῆσδε. ἐς οἰκίας δὲ ὁκόσας ἂν ἐσίω, ἐσελεύσομαι ἐπ᾽ ὠφελείῃ καμνόντων, ἐκτὸς ἐὼν πάσης ἀδικίης ἑκουσίης καὶ φθορίης, τῆς τε ἄλλης καὶ ἀφροδισίων ἔργων ἐπί τε γυναικείων σωμάτων καὶ ἀνδρῴων, ἐλευθέρων τε καὶ δούλων. ἃ δ᾽ ἂν ἐνθεραπείῃ ἴδω ἢ ἀκούσω, ἢ καὶ ἄνευ θεραπείης κατὰ βίον ἀνθρώπων, ἃ μὴ χρή ποτε ἐκλαλεῖσθαι ἔξω, σιγήσομαι, ἄρρητα ἡγεύμενος εἶναι τὰ τοιαῦτα. ὅρκον μὲν οὖν μοι τόνδε ἐπιτελέα ποιέοντι, καὶ μὴ συγχέοντι, εἴη ἐπαύρασθαι καὶ βίου καὶ τέχνης δοξαζομένῳ παρὰ πᾶσιν ἀνθρώποις ἐς τὸν αἰεὶ χρόνον: παραβαίνοντι δὲ καὶ ἐπιορκέοντι, τἀναντία τούτων. I swear by Apollo Healer, by Asclepius , by Hygieia , by Panacea , and by all

1120-591: The American Medical Association's Code of Medical Ethics (first adopted in 1847), and the British General Medical Council's Good Medical Practice . These documents provide a comprehensive overview of the obligations and professional behaviour of a doctor to their patients and wider society. Doctors who violate these codes may be subjected to disciplinary proceedings, including the loss of their license to practice medicine. Nonetheless,

1176-562: The Christian Gospels and the book of Acts . On the basis of inscriptions, three subdialects of Ionic may be discerned: 1. Western Ionic, the dialect of Euboea and parts of Attica , like Oropos ; 2. Central or Cycladic Ionic, the dialect of the Cycladic Islands ; 3. Eastern Ionic, the dialect of Samos , Chios , and the west coast of Asia Minor . Eastern Ionic stands apart from both other dialects because it lost at

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1232-550: The Corpus: the Physician mentions the obligation to keep the "holy things" of medicine within the medical community (i.e. not to divulge secrets); it also mentions the special position of the doctor with regard to his patients, especially women and girls. However, several aspects of the oath contradict patterns of practice established elsewhere in the Corpus. Most notable is its ban on the use of

1288-514: The Declaration of Geneva, sixty-seven used a modified Hippocratic Oath, four used the Oath of Maimonides , one used a covenant, eight used another oath, one used an unknown oath, and two did not use any kind of oath. Seven medical schools did not reply to the survey. As of 1993, only 14% of medical oaths prohibited euthanasia, and only 8% prohibited abortion. In a 2000 survey of US medical schools, all of

1344-498: The Hippocratic Oath. In 2007, US citizen Rafiq Abdus Sabir was convicted for making a pledge to al-Qaeda , thus agreeing to provide medical aid to wounded terrorists. As of 2018, all US medical school graduates made some form of public oath but none used the original Hippocratic Oath. A modified form or an oath unique to that school is often used. A review of 18 of these oaths was criticized for their wide variability: "Consistency would help society see that physicians are members of

1400-449: The Ionians continued to spread around those areas. The linguistic affinity of Attic and Ionic is evident in several unique features, like the early loss of /w/, or the merger of /ā/ and /ē/, as seen in both dialects. By the end of Archaic Greece and early Classical Greece in the 5th century BC, the central west coast of Asia Minor , along with the islands of Chios and Samos , formed

1456-473: The School of Medicine at Tufts University, the prayer was omitted, and that version has been widely accepted and is still in use today by many US medical schools: I swear to fulfill, to the best of my ability and judgment, this covenant: I will respect the hard-won scientific gains of those physicians in whose steps I walk, and gladly share such knowledge as is mine with those who are to follow. I will apply, for

1512-463: The author intended to prohibit any and all abortions. Olivia De Brabandere writes that regardless of the author's original intention, the vague and polyvalent nature of the relevant line has allowed both professionals and non-professionals to interpret and use the oath in several ways. While many Christian versions of the Hippocratic Oath, particularly from the Middle Ages, explicitly prohibited abortion,

1568-651: The awareness of the Greekness that all dialects had in common. The poet Archilochus wrote in late Old Ionic. The most famous New Ionic authors are Anacreon , Theognis , Herodotus , Hippocrates , and, in Roman times, Aretaeus , Arrian , and the Lucianic or Pseudo-Lucianic On the Syrian Goddess . Ionic acquired prestige among Greek speakers because of its association with the language used by both Homer and Herodotus and

1624-426: The benefit of the sick, all measures [that] are required, avoiding those twin traps of overtreatment and therapeutic nihilism . I will remember that there is art to medicine as well as science, and that warmth, sympathy, and understanding may outweigh the surgeon's knife or the chemist's drug. I will not be ashamed to say "I know not", nor will I fail to call in my colleagues when the skills of another are needed for

1680-508: The close linguistic relationship with the Attic dialect as spoken in Athens. This was further enhanced by the writing reform implemented in Athens in 403   BC, whereby the old Attic alphabet was replaced by the Ionic alphabet, as used by the city of Miletus . This alphabet eventually became the standard Greek alphabet, its use becoming uniform during the Koine era. It was also the alphabet used in

1736-465: The course of my profession, as well as outside my profession in my intercourse with men, if it be what should not be published abroad, I will never divulge, holding such things to be holy secrets. Now if I carry out this oath, and break it not, may I gain for ever reputation among all men for my life and for my art; but if I break it and forswear myself, may the opposite befall me. It is often said that "First do no harm" ( Latin : Primum non nocere )

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1792-562: The fourth or fifth century BC. Alternatively, classical scholar Ludwig Edelstein proposed that the oath was written by the Pythagoreans , an idea that others questioned for lack of evidence for a school of Pythagorean medicine. While Pythagorean philosophy displays a correlation to the Oath's values, the proposal of a direct relationship has been mostly discredited in more recent studies. Its general ethical principles are also found in other works of

1848-492: The gods and goddesses, making them my witnesses, that I will carry out, according to my ability and judgment, this oath and this indenture. To hold my teacher in this art equal to my own parents; to make him partner in my livelihood; when he is in need of money to share mine with him; to consider his family as my own brothers, and to teach them this art, if they want to learn it, without fee or indenture; to impart precept, oral instruction, and all other instruction to my own sons,

1904-590: The heartland of Ionia proper. The Ionic dialect was also spoken on islands across the central Aegean and on the large island of Euboea north of Athens. The dialect was soon spread by Ionian colonization to areas in the northern Aegean, the Black Sea , and the western Mediterranean, including Magna Graecia in Sicily and Italy . The Ionic dialect is generally divided into two major time periods, Old Ionic (or Old Ionian) and New Ionic (or New Ionian). The transition between

1960-399: The infirm. If I do not violate this oath, may I enjoy life and art, respected while I live and remembered with affection thereafter. May I always act so as to preserve the finest traditions of my calling and may I long experience the joy of healing those who seek my help. In a 1989 survey of 126 US medical schools, only three of them reported use of the original oath, while thirty-three used

2016-458: The knife, even for small procedures such as lithotomy , even though other works in the Corpus provide guidance on performing surgical procedures. Providing poisonous drugs would certainly have been viewed as immoral by contemporary physicians if it resulted in murder. However, the absolute ban described in the oath also forbids euthanasia . Several accounts of ancient physicians willingly assisting suicides have survived. Multiple explanations for

2072-523: The length of these documents has made their distillations into shorter oaths an attractive proposition. In light of this fact, several updates to the oath have been offered in modern times, some facetious. The oath has been modified numerous times. One of the most significant revisions was first drafted in 1948 by the World Medical Association (WMA), called the Declaration of Geneva . "During

2128-507: The northern Cyclades (Central Ionic), and from c.  1000   BC onward in Asiatic Ionia (East Ionic), where Ionian colonists from Athens founded their cities. Ionic was the base of several literary language forms of the Archaic and Classical periods, both in poetry and prose. The works of Homer and Hesiod are among the most popular poetic works that were written in

2184-751: The other Cycladic Islands this distinction was not made, Η and Ε were used there interchangeably. Within Eastern Ionic, Herodotus recognized four subgroups ( Histories , I.142), three of them apparently influenced by a neighbouring language: a. The dialect of Miletus , Myus , and Priene , and their colonies, influenced by Carian ; b. The Ionic of Ephesos , Kolophon , Lebedos , Teos , Klazomenai , and Phokaia , and their colonies, influenced by Lydian ; c. The dialect of Chios and Erythrai and their colonies, influenced by Aeolic Greek; d. The dialect of Samos and its colonies. Differences between these four groups are not clearly visible from inscriptions, probably because inscriptions were usually ordered by

2240-475: The post World War II and immediately after its foundation, the WMA showed concern over the state of medical ethics in general and over the world. The WMA took up the responsibility for setting ethical guidelines for the world's physicians. It noted that in those years the custom of medical schools to administer an oath to its doctors upon graduation or receiving a license to practice medicine had fallen into disuse or become

2296-455: The prohibition is often omitted from many oaths taken in US medical schools today, though it remains controversial. The oath stands out among comparable ancient texts on medical ethics and professionalism through its heavily religious tone, a factor which makes attributing its authorship to Hippocrates particularly difficult. Phrases such as "but I will keep pure and holy both my life and my art" suggest

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2352-512: The prohibition of euthanasia in the oath have been proposed: it is possible that not all physicians swore the oath, or that the oath was seeking to prevent widely held concerns that physicians could be employed as political assassins. The interpreted AD 275 fragment of the oath contains a prohibition of abortion that is in contradiction to original Hippocratic text On the Nature of the Child , which contains

2408-642: The punishment for breaking the Hippocratic oath could range from a penalty to losing the right to practice medicine. In 2022, at a college in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu , medical students took the Charaka shapath , a Sanskrit oath attributed to ancient sage and physician Maharishi Charak instead of the Hippocratic oath. The state government subsequently dismissed the Dean of the Madurai medical college for this act. However, he

2464-595: The sequences enw-, erw-, onw-, orw- . In Attic and West Ionic, e, o are not lengthened. East Ionic generally removes initial aspiration (Proto-Greek h V - > Ionic V-). Ionic contracts less often than Attic. Proto-Greek *kʷ before o > Attic, West/Central Ionic p , some East Ionic k . Proto-Greek *ťť > East/Central Ionic ss , West Ionic, Attic tt . This feature of East and Central Ionic made it into Koine Greek. Proto-Greek Mycenaean Ancient Koine Medieval Modern Thomas Inman Thomas Inman (27 January 1820 – 3 May 1876)

2520-449: The sons of my teacher, and to indentured pupils who have taken the Healer's oath, but to nobody else. I will use those dietary regimens which will benefit my patients according to my greatest ability and judgment, and I will do no harm or injustice to them. Neither will I administer a poison to anybody when asked to do so, nor will I suggest such a course. Similarly I will not give to a woman

2576-502: The sounds -tt- and -rr- where the other two have -ss- and -rs- (τέτταρες vs. τέσσαρες, four ; θάρρος vs. θάρσος, bravery ). Western Ionic also stands apart by using the form ξένος (xenos, foreigner, guest ), where the other two use ξεῖνος (xeinos). Cycladic Ionic may be further subdivided: Keos , Naxos , and Amorgos retained a difference between two /æ/ sounds, namely original /æ/ (written as Ε), and /æ/ evolved from /ā/ (written as Η); for example ΜΗΤΕΡ = μήτηρ < μάτηρ, mother . On

2632-479: The then extant medical schools administered some type of professional oath. Among schools of modern medicine, sixty-two of 122 used the Hippocratic Oath, or a modified version of it. The other sixty schools used the original or modified Declaration of Geneva, Oath of Maimonides, or an oath authored by students or faculty or both. All nineteen osteopathic schools in the United States used the Osteopathic Oath , which

2688-553: The tombstones of physicians, and by the fourth century AD it had come to stand for the medical profession. The oath continued to be in use in the Byzantine Christian world with its references to pagan deities replaced by a Christian preamble, as in the 12th-century manuscript pictured in the shape of a cross. The Hippocratic Oath has been eclipsed as a document of professional ethics by more extensive, regularly updated ethical codes issued by national medical associations, such as

2744-458: The two is not clearly defined, but 600   BC is a good approximation. The works of Homer ( The Iliad , The Odyssey , and the Homeric Hymns ) and of Hesiod were written in a literary dialect called Homeric Greek or Epic Greek , which largely comprises Old Ionic, but with some admixture from the neighboring Aeolic dialect to the north, as well as with some Mycenean elements as

2800-570: Was a house-surgeon to the Liverpool Royal Infirmary . In his lifetime he had numerous medical papers published. He was also an amateur mythologist , and wrote Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism, first published in 1869 and then again in 1875. In it he elucidated the origins of common symbols, some of them medical. Many of the symbols he discusses are in use today. Born on 27 January 1820 in Rutland Street, Leicester , he

2856-538: Was adamant in AD 43 (the earliest surviving reference to the oath) that it precluded abortion. In the 1st or 2nd century AD work Gynaecology , Soranus of Ephesus wrote that one party of medical practitioners followed the Oath and banished all abortifacients, while the other party—to which he belonged—was willing to prescribe abortions, but only for the sake of the mother's health. William Henry Samuel Jones states that "abortion   [...] though doctors are forbidden to cause it,

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2912-464: Was claimed by the 19th-century English surgeon Thomas Inman to date from the 17th-century English physician Thomas Sydenham , but Sydenham's available writings contain no such phrase or equivalent, and it more likely took shape from longstanding popular nonmedical expression. The oath is arguably the best known text of the Hippocratic Corpus , although most modern scholars do not attribute it to Hippocrates himself, estimating it to have been written in

2968-450: Was possibly not condemned in all cases". He believed that the oath prohibited abortions, though not under all circumstances. John M. Riddle argues that because Hippocrates specified pessaries, he only meant pessaries and therefore it was acceptable for a Hippocratic doctor to perform abortions using oral drugs, violent means, a disruption of daily routine or eating habits, and more. Other scholars, most notably Ludwig Edelstein , believe that

3024-412: Was pursued in other papers, and in three works on Ancient Faiths , which he published between 1868 and 1876. His major works are: Inman married in 1844 Jennet Leighton, daughter of Daniel Newham of Douglas, Isle of Man , and had six sons and two daughters, of whom two sons and two daughters survived him. Attribution [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in

3080-552: Was reinstated by the Tamil Nadu government and assumed office 4 days later. Ionic Greek Ionic or Ionian Greek ( Ancient Greek : Ἰωνική , romanized :  Iōnikḗ ) was a subdialect of the Eastern or Attic –Ionic dialect group of Ancient Greek . The Ionic group traditionally comprises three dialectal varieties that were spoken in Euboea (West Ionic),

3136-570: Was second son of Charles Inman , a partner in Pickfords carrying company, and later director of the Bank of Liverpool ; William Inman was his younger brother. Thomas went to school at Wakefield , and in 1836 was apprenticed to his uncle, Richard Inman, M.D., at Preston, Lancashire . He entered King's College, London , where he graduated M.B. in 1842 and M.D. in 1844 at the University of London. Declining

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