Geumsansa ( Korean : 금산사 ; lit. Golden Mountain Temple) is a temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism standing on the slopes of Moaksan in Gimje City, Jeollabuk-do , South Korea.
129-536: The first Geumsansa was built during the reign of King Beop of Baekje (r. 599–600 AD). While some sources say "established 600" and others "built 599", the 1635 compilation, Geumsansa sajeok ( hanja :金山寺事蹟, Chronicle of Geumsan Temple ) records that the temple was established in 600 by Baekje (18 BCE–660 CE), one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea that ruled the Korean peninsula during this period. The year indicates both
258-456: A coup d'état and succeeded. King Uijong went into exile and King Myeongjong was placed on the throne. Effective power, however, lay with a succession of generals who used an elite guard unit known as the Tobang to control the throne: military rule of Goryeo had begun. In 1179, the young general Kyŏng Tae-sŭng rose to power and began an attempt to restore the full power of the monarch and purge
387-497: A Jin vassal (tributary). However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable. The Inju Yi clan married women to the kings from
516-651: A Liao princess. As the Khitan Empire expanded and became more powerful, it demanded that Goryeo cede the Six Garrison Settlements, but Goryeo refused. In 1009, Kang Cho staged a coup d'état , assassinating Mokjong and installing Hyeonjong on the throne. Goryeo sent an envoy to the Khitans telling them that the previous king had died and a new king had ascended the throne. In the following year, some Jurchen tribesmen who had been in conflict with Goryeo fled to
645-544: A coup by general Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn , who assassinated Yi Ui-min and took supreme power in 1197. For the next 61 years, the Ch'oe house ruled as military dictators, maintaining the Kings as puppet monarchs; Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was succeeded in turn by his son Ch'oe U , his grandson Ch'oe Hang and his great-grandson Ch'oe Ŭi . When he took control, Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn forced Myeongjong off the throne and replaced him with King Sinjong . What
774-559: A naturalized Chinese official from the Later Zhou dynasty, Gwangjong implemented the gwageo civil service examinations, based primarily on the imperial examination of the Tang dynasty . This, too, was to consolidate monarchical authority. The gwageo remained an important institution in Korea until its abolition in 1894. In contrast to Goryeo's traditional "dual royal/imperial structure under which
903-403: A potential threat and, with tensions rising, invaded in 993. The Jurchens warned Goryeo of the invasion twice. At first Goryeo did not believe the information but came around upon the second warning and took up a defensive strategy. The Koreans were defeated in their first encounter with the Khitans, but successfully halted their advance at Anyung-jin (in modern Anju , South Pyongan Province ) at
1032-577: A proposal by the Confucian scholar Ch'oe Sŭng-no , the separation of government and religion. In addition, Seongjong laid the foundation for Goryeo's educational system: he founded the Gukjagam national university in 992, supplementing the schools already established in Kaesong and Pyongyang by Taejo, and national libraries and archives in Kaesong and Pyongyang that contained tens of thousands of books. Following
1161-461: A roof stone. It is designed to support the finial at the top of the pagoda and gives the pagoda a distinct appearance. Geumsansabangdeunggyedan (Ordination altar of Geumsansa Temple). Bangdeunggyedan is a stone pagoda in the shape of a bell, which appeared during the late Silla Dynasty and is thought to have been adapted from the Indian Buddhist temple style. This stone pagoda stands on top of
1290-605: A series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens. In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages. In 1080, Munjong of Goryeo led a force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by
1419-597: A single agenda in terms of identity amongst its people. During the time of its existence, Goryeo also accepted a large amount of skilled workers from Medieval China and Tamna as well. Although Goryeo had unified the Korean Peninsula , the hojok regional lords remained quasi-independent within their walled domains and posed a threat to the monarchy. To secure political alliances, Taejo married 29 women from prominent hojok families, siring 25 sons and 9 daughters. His fourth son, Gwangjong , came to power in 949 to become
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#17331260771721548-475: A strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country", and protected the Balhae refugees. This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae. Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved
1677-483: A strong slope along the outer surface of the roof, which gently curves on the edge of the eaves in keeping with the typical of architectural style of the Goryeo period. The location of the pagoda deep in the mountain has contributed to its near perfect condition. Although the broad roof stones and the strong slope of the eaves are typical of a style of the pagodas of the Silla (57 BC-935 AD) period, this pagoda actually dates to
1806-559: A stylobate, a wide two story square stone platform found on the north side of the temple complex. The stylobate is engraved on each side with images of Buddha and the Four Devas , the guardians of Buddhist temple. Stone railings were probably supported on the stone posts still found surrounding the lower layer of the stylobate. The stone posts have carved images of the Four Deva's faces on each of their four corners. The engravings with images of
1935-451: A victory against the Liao. The Liao decided to split up their forces with one part heading south. The Goryeo army under the leadership of Kang Cho lost the second battle and suffered heavy casualties. The army was dispersed and many commanders were captured or killed, including Kang Cho himself. Later, Pyongyang was successfully defended, but the Liao army marched toward Kaesong. Hyeonjong, upon
2064-488: Is Bangdeunggyedan. Judging from the fine structure of the sculptures and ornamentation historians believe this pagoda was built during the early period of the Goryeo Dynasty. Geumsansayukgakdacheungseoktap (Hexagonal multi-storied stone pagoda of Geumsansa Temple). This hexagonal multi-stored 2.18 metres (7 ft 2 in) high stupa , Yukgak Tachung Soktap, differs from typical square shaped granite pagodas in that it
2193-422: Is a hexagonal stone pagoda made of black-and-white clay slate. From the engraving methods used on the main body and the roof stone it is estimated to have been built around the early Goryeo period (918-1392) and was moved here from the nearby Bongcheonwon Hermitage . The pagoda is assumed to have had a single story stone core for the main body of the pagoda. Now only the top two stories remain. A lotus flower pattern
2322-456: Is believed to date from the early Goryeo period or the 10th century. The function or purpose of this relic remains unknown. With the small sculpture of a bud positioned on the top removed, it may have served as a square pedestal for an image of the Buddha. Noju is constructed of three stone pedestals neatly layered at the bottom, middle and top. The bud-shaped magic stone ornament found at the peak of
2451-576: Is claimed that one of Goryeo monarchs was the most beloved grandson of Kublai Khan . The Goryeo dynasty survived under the Yuan until King Gongmin began to push the Mongolian garrisons of the Yuan back in the 1350s. By 1356 Goryeo regained its lost northern territories. When King Gongmin ascended to the throne, Goryeo was under the influence of the Mongol Yuan China. He was forced to spend many years at
2580-486: Is engraved on the stylobate. The roof stones slope gently on the outer surface of the roof, but curve sharply at the corners. Due to the disappearance of the original capstone, a decorated granite finial was added later. The pagoda creates a unique mood through the use of clay slate, the main ingredient of ink-stones, and maintains a gentle and delicate ratio as it ascends. Geumsansa Dangganjiju ( 금산사 당간지주 , Buddhist flagpole supports of Geumsansa Temple). Dangganjiju are
2709-405: Is greatly enhanced by this small simple modified hall. Geumsansaseokdeung (Stone lantern of Geumsansa Temple). Geumsansa Seokdeung (Stone Lamp), or the "lamp of enlightenment", is located in the front yard of Daejangjeon Hall, where it was used to light the front of the worship hall. Made of granite and measuring 3.9 metres (13 ft) high, the lamp dates back to the Goryeo period (918-1392). It
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#17331260771722838-702: The Buddhist faith. [1] Beop's brief reign is mostly remembered for his ban on all killing, including hunting and butchering. He ordered the release of falcons and the burning of fishing and hunting tools. According to the Samguk yusa , this ban was established in the twelfth lunar month of 599. He began construction on the Wangheungsa temple, which was completed late in his successor's reign. Goryeo Goryeo ( Korean : 고려 ; Hanja : 高麗 ; MR : Koryŏ ; [ko.ɾjʌ] )
2967-587: The Gukjagam . In the early 12th century, local schools called hyanghak were established. Goryeo's reverence for learning is attested to in the Gaoli tujing , or Goryeo dogyeong , a book by an envoy from the Song dynasty who visited Goryeo in 1123. The reign of Munjong, from 1046 to 1083, was called a "Reign of Peace" ( 태평성대 ; 太平聖代 ) and is considered the most prosperous and peaceful period in Goryeo history. Munjong
3096-544: The Later Three Kingdoms . Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions of Later Silla, which, along with its capital located in modern-day Kaesong , North Korea, were the strongholds of the Goguryeo refugees. Among the Goguryeo refugees was Wang Kŏn , a member of a prominent maritime hojok based in Kaesong, who traced his ancestry to a great clan of Goguryeo. Wang Kŏn entered military service under Kung Ye at
3225-455: The Wanyan clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region. As the geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed
3354-471: The Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Taejo of Goryeo (r. 918-943), who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat Later Baekje . The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain
3483-491: The minheullim style , meaning the pillar gets thinner as it ascends. Mireukjeon is constructed using a multi-beam style where the eaves beams are not only placed above the pillars supporting the eaves, but also amongst the supporting pillars. Geumsansa Noju ( 금산사 노주 , Noju of the Geumsansa Temple). Described as a relic, Noju is found between two of the temple's buildings, Daejeokgwangjeon Hall and Daejanggak Hall. Noju
3612-559: The "Manbu Bridge Incident" of 942, Goryeo prepared itself for a conflict with the Khitan Empire: Jeongjong established a military reserve force of 300,000 soldiers called the "Resplendent Army" in 947, and Gwangjong built fortresses north of the Chongchon River , expanding toward the Yalu River . However an attempt to control the Yalu River basin in 984 failed due to conflict with the Jurchens. The Khitans considered Goryeo
3741-668: The "Unification of the Samhan ", referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Silla organized a new central army called the Guseodang ( 구서당 ; 九誓幢 ) that was divided into 3 units of Silla people, 3 units of Goguryeo people, 2 units of Baekje people, and 1 unit of Mohe people. However, the Baekje and Goguryeo refugees retained their respective collective consciousnesses and maintained a deep-seated resentment and hostility toward Silla. Later Silla
3870-401: The "Western Capital", and before he died, he placed great importance on it in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants. In contrast to Kung Ye, who had harbored vengeful animosity toward Silla, Taejo (Wang Kŏn) was magnanimous toward the weakened kingdom. In 927, Kyŏn Hwŏn, who had vowed to avenge the last king of Baekje when he founded Later Baekje, sacked the capital of Later Silla, forced
3999-431: The 1030s. There were developments in printing and publishing, spreading the knowledge of philosophy, literature, religion, and science. Goryeo prolifically published and imported books, and by the late 11th century, exported books to China; the Song dynasty transcribed thousands of Korean books. The first Tripitaka Koreana , amounting to about 6,000 volumes, was completed in 1087. The Munheon gongdo private academy
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4128-459: The 11th century, Goryeo was viewed as "the state that could give either the Song or Liao military ascendancy". When imperial envoys, who represented the emperors of Liao and Song, went to Goryeo, they were received as peers, not suzerains. Goryeo's international reputation was greatly enhanced. Beginning in 1034, merchants from Song and envoys from various Jurchen tribes and the Tamna kingdom attended
4257-471: The 14th century. A final proposed attack against the Ming dynasty resulted in a coup d'état led by General Yi Sŏng-gye that ended the Goryeo dynasty. The name "Goryeo" ( 고려 ; 高麗 ; Koryŏ ), which is the source of the name "Korea", was originally used by Goguryeo ( 고구려 ; 高句麗 ; Koguryŏ ) of the Three Kingdoms of Korea beginning in the early 5th century. Other attested variants of
4386-470: The Balhae crown prince in the Goryeo royal family, unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo and, according to Korean historians, achieving a "true national unification" of Korea. According to the Goryeosa jeolyo , the Balhae refugees who accompanied the crown prince numbered in the tens of thousands of households. As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasts were related. Taejo felt
4515-514: The Buddha of the future, and received a book on divination in two rolls along with 189 divination sticks from Maitreya. Jinpyo thereafter created a statue of the Maitreya to be enshrined in the main hall which became the basis of the East Asian Yogācāra school. As a result of the expansion, Geumsansa became the headquarters for practicing the Maitreya faith during Later Silla (668-935). After
4644-511: The Chongchon River. Negotiations began between the Goryeo commander, Sŏ Hŭi , and the Liao commander, Xiao Sunning. In conclusion, Goryeo entered a nominal tributary relationship with Liao, severing relations with Song , and Liao recognized Goryeo sovereignty to the land east of the Yalu River. Goryeo was left free to deal with the Jurchens south of the Yalu and in 994-996, Sŏ Hŭi led an army into
4773-491: The Four Devas on the stylobate and the stone railings posts indicate that there was once a sarira stair to store the Buddha's own sarira. The main body of the pagoda has engravings of lion's faces around the edge and a lotus flower in the center. Near the top are nine carved dragons with their heads protruding out under the two stone plates engraved with a lotus flower. The oldest stone bell pagoda still existing in Korea today
4902-512: The Goryeo period (918-1392). Geumsansadaejangjeon (Daejangjeon Hall of Geumsansa Temple). Daejangjeon at Geumsansa was originally an octagonal wooden pagoda erected in the 600s CE during the Baekje period. It was rebuilt in 1635 as a hall, during the Joseon period (July 1392 – August 1910) and in 1922 was moved to its present location. Visible on the roof ridge beam is a portion of the finial that topped
5031-521: The Goryeo–Khitan War, a balance of power was established in East Asia between Goryeo, Liao, and Song. With its victory over Liao, Goryeo was confident in its military ability and no longer worried about a Khitan military threat. Fu Bi, a grand councilor of the Song dynasty, had a high estimate of Goryeo's military ability and said that Liao was afraid of Goryeo. Furthermore, regarding the attitude of
5160-513: The Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ". The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the Balhae people in the Liao dynasty . The Jin went on to conquer
5289-467: The Khitans and told them of the coup. Under the pretext of avenging Mokjong, Emperor Shengzong of Liao led an invasion of Goryeo with an army of 400,000 soldiers. Meanwhile, Goryeo tried to establish relations with Song but was ignored, as Song had agreed to the Chanyuan Treaty in 1005. Goryeo gathered a 300,000 strong army under Kang Cho. In the first battle, the Goryeo forces led by Yang Kyu won
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5418-525: The Khitans in 1219. The royal court moved to Ganghwado in the Bay of Gyeonggi in 1232. The military ruler of the time, Ch'oe U , insisted on fighting back. Goryeo resisted for about 30 years but finally sued for peace in 1259. Meanwhile, the Mongols began a campaign from 1231 to 1259 that ravaged parts of Gyeongsang and Jeolla . There were six major campaigns: 1231, 1232, 1235, 1238, 1247, 1253; between 1253 and 1258,
5547-592: The Korean Peninsula. After 1270 Goryeo became a semi-autonomous client state of the Yuan dynasty . The Mongols and the Kingdom of Goryeo tied with marriages and Goryeo became khuda (marriage alliance) vassal of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years and monarchs of Goryeo were mainly imperial sons in-law ( khuregen ). The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and
5676-633: The Koreans, he said: "Among the many tribes and peoples which, depending on their power of resistance, have been either assimilated or made tributary to the Khitan, the Koreans alone do not bow their heads." Song regarded Goryeo as a potential military ally and maintained friendly relations as equal partners. Meanwhile, Liao sought to build closer ties with Goryeo and prevent a Song–Goryeo military alliance by appealing to Goryeo's infatuation with Buddhism, and offered Liao Buddhist knowledge and artifacts to Goryeo. During
5805-578: The Later Three Kingdoms period. Goryeo proceeded to incorporate a major portion of the Balhae people whose links to Goguryeo were shared with Goryeo, accepting most of their royalty and nobility in their fold. Following the destruction of Balhae by the Khitan Liao dynasty in 927, the last crown prince of Balhae and much of the ruling class sought refuge in Goryeo, where they were warmly welcomed and given land by Taejo. In addition, Taejo included
5934-424: The Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of Kaifeng in 1127 ( Jingkang incident ). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, Yi Cha-gyŏm was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself
6063-586: The Middle East. The capital in modern-day Kaesong , North Korea was a center of trade and industry. Goryeo was a period of great achievements in Korean art and culture. During its heyday, Goryeo constantly wrestled with northern empires such as the Liao ( Khitans ) and Jin ( Jurchens ). It was invaded by the Mongol Empire and became a vassal state of the Yuan dynasty in the 13th–14th centuries, but attacked
6192-532: The Mongols ravaged the whole land, resulting in a weakened defense ability, and also the power of the military regime waned. Fleeing from the Mongols , in 1216 the Khitans invaded Goryeo and defeated the Korean armies multiple times, even reaching the gates of the capital and raiding deep into the south, but were defeated by Korean General Kim Ch'wi-ryŏ ( 김취려 ; 金就礪 ) who pushed them back north to Pyongan , where
6321-548: The Mongols under Möngke Khan 's general Jalairtai Qorchi launched four devastating invasions against Korea at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean peninsula. Civilian resistance was strong, and the Imperial Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Korea won several victories but the Korean military could not withstand the waves of invasions. The repeated Mongol invasions caused havoc, loss of human lives and famine in Korea. In 1236, Gojong ordered
6450-502: The Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the Wanyan clan . It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of
6579-410: The Six Garrison Settlements. The only peace treaty stipulations formalized in 1022 were a "declaration of vassalage" and the release of a detained Liao envoy. A Liao envoy was sent in the same year to formally invest the Goryeo king and upon his death in 1031, his successor Wang Hŭm was also invested as king by the Liao. After 1022, Goryeo did not have diplomatic relations with the Song until 1070, with
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#17331260771726708-534: The Song dynasty, and the Tripitaka Koreana , which was described by UNESCO as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world", with the original 81,258 engraved printing blocks still preserved at Haeinsa Temple . In the early 13th century, Goryeo developed movable type made of metal to print books, 200 years before Johannes Gutenberg in Europe. The Jurchens in
6837-518: The Yalu River and many drowned. Afterward, Hyeonjong did not fulfill his promise to pay homage in person to the Liao emperor, and when demanded to cede the Six Garrison Settlements, he refused. The Khitans built a bridge across the Yalu River in 1014 and attacked in 1015, 1016, and 1017: victory went to the Koreans in 1015, the Khitans in 1016, and the Koreans in 1017. Goryeo lost the Poju ( Uiju ) region. In 1018, Liao launched an invasion led by Xiao Paiya,
6966-521: The Yuan and reclaimed territories as the Yuan declined. This is considered by modern Korean scholars to be Goryeo's Northern Expansion Doctrine ( 북진 정책 ) to reclaim ancestral lands formerly owned by Goguryeo. As much as it valued education and culture, Goryeo was able to mobilize sizable military might during times of war. It fended off massive armies of the Red Turban Rebels from China and professional Japanese pirates in its twilight years of
7095-538: The Yuan court, being sent there in 1341 as a virtual prisoner before becoming king. He married the Mongol princess Princess Noguk (also known as Queen Indeok). But in the mid-14th century the Yuan was beginning to crumble, soon to be replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. King Gongmin began efforts to reform the Goryeo government and remove Mongolian influences. His first act was to remove all pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officers from their positions. Mongols had annexed
7224-496: The advice of Kang Kam-ch'an , evacuated south to Naju. Shortly afterward, the Liao won a pitched battle outside Kaesong and sacked the city. He then sent Ha Gong-jin and Go Yeong-gi to sue for peace, with a promise that he would pay homage in person to the Liao emperor. The Khitans, who were sustaining attacks from previously surrendered districts and the regrouped Korean army which disrupted their supply lines, accepted and began their withdrawal. The Liao army became bogged down in
7353-406: The age of 19 in 896, before Later Goguryeo had been established, and over the years accumulated a series of victories over Later Baekje and gained the public's confidence. In particular, using his maritime abilities, he persistently attacked the coast of Later Baekje and occupied key points, including modern-day Naju . Kung Ye was unstable and cruel: he moved the capital to Cheorwon in 905, changed
7482-424: The allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications. These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by the Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind
7611-544: The annual Palgwanhoe in Kaesong, the largest national celebration in Goryeo; the Song merchants attended as representatives of China while the Jurchen and Tamna envoys attended as members of Goryeo's tianxia . During the reign of Munjong , the Heishui Mohe and Japan, among many others, attended as well. The Tamna kingdom of Jeju Island was incorporated into Goryeo in 1105. Goryeo's golden age lasted about 100 years into
7740-450: The area and built forts. Afterward, Goryeo established the "Six Garrison Settlements East of the River" in its new territory. In 994, Goryeo proposed to Song a joint military attack on Liao, but was declined; previously, in 985, when Song had proposed a joint military attack on Liao, Goryeo had declined. For a time, Goryeo and Liao enjoyed an amicable relationship. In 996, Seongjong married
7869-560: The base and upper part of the pedestal. It also offers temple stay programs where visitors can experience Buddhist culture. Beop of Baekje Beop (died 600) (r. 599–600) was the 29th king of Baekje , one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea . He was the eldest son of King Hye . He reigned as Baekje power declined, having lost the Seoul region to the rival Silla kingdom. He may have chosen his name, which translates as "law king" or " dharma king", to emphasize his identification with
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#17331260771727998-417: The base is short and narrows at the top where it holds the cap stone. The large square base supporting the main body of the pagoda is oversized. Each of the pagoda's stories diminish in size as they ascend and each story has reliefs carved into each of the four corners. The eaves of the roof stone form gentle upturned curves. A distinguishing feature of this pagoda is the base of pagoda finial, which looks like
8127-489: The camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident". Taejo proposed to Gaozu of Later Jin that they attack the Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the Zizhi Tongjian . Furthermore, in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against. Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until
8256-399: The capital to Pyongyang and expanding into Manchuria . The other one, led by Kim Bu-sik (author of the Samguk sagi ), wanted to keep the status quo. Myocheong failed to persuade the king; he rebelled and established the state of Daebang, but it failed and he was killed. Although Goryeo was founded by the military, its authority was in decline. In 1014, a coup occurred but the effects of
8385-610: The corruption of the state. However, he died in 1183 and was succeeded by Yi Ŭi-min , who came from a nobi (slave) background. During this period, despite nearly three centuries of Goryeo rule, loyalty to the old Silla kingdom and Silla traditions remained latent in the Kyŏngju area. There were multiple rebellions by the Silla restoration movement to overthrow Goryeo's rule over the Sillan people. Yi's unrestrained corruption and cruelty led to
8514-528: The death of Gongmin's wife Noguk in 1365, he fell into depression. In the end, he became indifferent to politics and entrusted that great task to the Buddhist monk Sin Ton . But after six years, Sin Ton lost his position. In 1374, Gongmin was killed by Hong Ryun ( 홍륜 ), Ch'oe Man-saeng ( 최만생 ), and others. After his death, a high official Yi In-im assumed the helm of the government and enthroned eleven-year-old, King U,
8643-427: The earlier Three Kingdoms of Korea . According to Korean historians, it was during the Goryeo period that the individual identities of Goguryeo , Baekje and Silla were successfully merged into a single entity that became the basis of the modern-day Korean identity. The name " Korea " is derived from the name of Goryeo, also romanized as Koryŏ , which was first used in the early 5th century by Goguryeo; Goryeo
8772-447: The early 12th century and was a period of commercial, intellectual, and artistic achievement. The capital was a center of trade and industry, and its merchants developed one of the earliest systems of double-entry bookkeeping in the world, called the sagae chibubeop , that was used until 1920. The Goryeosa records the arrival of merchants from Arabia in 1024, 1025, and 1040, and hundreds of merchants from Song each year, beginning in
8901-479: The early 12th century during the reign of King Yejong. Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeoic population in Goryeo is speculated to have become dominant in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms. By the end of the Later Three Kingdoms, territories populated by
9030-530: The early Goryeo Dynasty. The pedestal is constructed from one solid piece of stone with the top surface cut level and pierced by two square holes at the top, which are believed to have accommodated an image of the Buddha. The middle belt is embossed with a floral pattern while the top belt has a hexagonal pattern. In general, this stone pedestal utilizes the style and form typical of that from the Unified Silla Dynasty. Hyedeogwangsa Jineungtapbi (Monument to
9159-508: The exception of an isolated embassy in 1030. The sole embassy was probably related to the rebellion of Balhae people in the Liao dynasty. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the Khitans, who returned to enforce Goryeo's tributary obligations. Goryeo adopted the reign title of the Liao in the fourth month of 1022. The History of Liao claims that Hyeonjong "surrendered" and Shengzong "pardoned" him, but according to Hans Bielenstein , "[s]horn of its dynastic language, this means no more than that
9288-474: The expansion, Kyŏn Hwŏn (r. 900-935) who is the founder of Later Baekje (892–936) protected the temple. Although it is said that he issued orders to carry out partial repairs for Geumsansa, there is no certainty over whether the repairs actually occurred. Kyŏn Hwŏn was held captive at Geumsansa when his son, Kyŏn Sin-gŏm , usurped the throne. In 1079 as the Royal Preceptor Hyedeok was appointed as
9417-444: The first and second levels are supported by six pillars across the front and back of the building, with five pillars running along each side. On the third level the roof is supported by four pillars running across the front and back and three pillars along the sides. Clusters of brackets support the eaves of the roofs while the main wooden support pillar on the inside of the hall is made of multiple pieces. These pillars are constructed in
9546-454: The foundation for a centralized political order. Seongjong filled the bureaucracy with new bureaucrats, who as products of the gwageo civil service examinations were educated to be loyal to the state, and dispatched centrally-appointed officials to administrate the provinces. As a result, the monarch controlled much of the decision making, and his signature was required to implement important decisions. Seongjong supported Confucianism and, upon
9675-412: The fourth ruler of Goryeo and instituted reforms to consolidate monarchical authority. In 956, Gwangjong freed the prisoners of war and refugees who had been enslaved by the hojok during the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period, in effect decreasing the power and influence of the regional nobility and increasing the population liable for taxation by the central government. In 958, advised by Shuang Ji,
9804-468: The government on January 21, 1963. Geumsansa simwonam hwagangam cheungseoktap (Three storied granite pagoda of Simwonam Hermitage at Geumsansa Temple). This three story stone pagoda mounted on a two-story stylobate is located near the peak to the north of Simwonam Rock at Simwonam (hermitage). The pagoda maintains the engraved pole pattern on its four edges and at the center of the pagoda's main body. Three flat broad roof stones cover each body stone forming
9933-406: The head master of Geumsasa, he completely renovated the temple by erecting various additional sanctuaries. This led to Geumsansa's era of cultural blooming. During the first Japanese military campaign of Hideyoshi Toyotomi in 1592, Geumsansa also played a defensive role. The Buddhist volunteer corps, with over a thousand monks led by Master Noemuk (뇌묵대사) used Geumsansa for a training ground. During
10062-399: The high priest Hyedeogwangsa of Geumsansa Temple). This tortoise shaped pedestal carved out of a piece single stone is a tombstone believed to have been made to memorialize the renowned monk Hyedeo Gwangsa of the middle era of the Goryeo Dynasty. The tombstone's foundation stone has been lost and the epitaph is badly damaged to the extent that deciphering what is written is difficult. Hyedeo
10191-584: The holes in this manner is indicative of the style used during the Unified Silla period and is similar to those seen at Bomun-ri from the Gyeongju period, and at the Mireuksa (Temple) site. Dangganjiju is the only flag pole support in Korea still retaining its original base. Historians believe these supports were erected during the late 8th century Silla period. It was designated as the 28th "Treasure" ( bomul ) by
10320-535: The king to commit suicide, and installed a puppet on the throne. Taejo came to Later Silla's aid but suffered a major defeat at the hand of Gyeon Hwon near modern-day Daegu ; Taejo barely escaped with his life thanks to the self-sacrifices of Generals Sin Sung-gyŏm and Kim Nak, and, thereafter, Later Baekje became the dominant military power of the Later Three Kingdoms. However, the balance of power shifted toward Goryeo with victories over Later Baekje in 930 and 934, and
10449-469: The last empress of the Yuan dynasty, Empress Gi , was a daughter of a Goryeo lower-ranked official; Empress Gi was sent to Yuan as one of the many kongnyŏ (貢女; lit. 'tribute women', who were in effects slaves sent over as a sign of Goryeo submission to the Mongols) and became empress in 1365. Empress Gi had great political influence both the Yuan and the Goryeo court, and even manage to significantly increase
10578-452: The mountains during the winter and had to abandon much of their armour. The Khitans were ceaselessly attacked during their withdrawal; Yang Kyu rescued from over 10,000 to over 30,000 prisoners of war, but died in battle. According to the Goryeosa , due to continued attacks and heavy rain, the Khitan army was devastated and lost its weapons crossing the Yalu. They were attacked while crossing
10707-507: The name "Goryeo". Their historiographical names were implemented in the Samguk sagi in the 12th century. Goryeo also used the names Samhan and Haedong , meaning "East of the Sea". In the late 7th century, the kingdom of Silla unified the Three Kingdoms of Korea and entered a period known in historiography as " Unified Silla " or "Later Silla". Later Silla implemented a national policy of integrating Baekje and Goguryeo refugees called
10836-480: The name have also been recorded as Gori (高離/槀離/稾離) and Guryeo (句麗). There have been various speculations for the breakdown of Goguryeo as a name, the most common being go meaning "high", "noble" and guri meaning "castle", related to the word gol used during medieval Goryeo meaning "place". In 918, Goryeo was founded as the successor to Goguryeo and inherited its name. Historically, Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD), Later Goguryeo (901–918), and Goryeo (918–1392) all used
10965-416: The name of his kingdom back to "Goryeo", adopted the era name of "Heaven's Mandate", and moved the capital back to his home of Kaesong. Goryeo regarded itself as the successor to Goguryeo and laid claim to Manchuria as its rightful legacy. One of Taejo's first decrees was to repopulate and defend the ancient Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang , which had been in ruins for a long time; afterward, he renamed it
11094-483: The name of his kingdom to Majin in 904 then Taebong in 911, changed his era name multiple times, proclaimed himself the Maitreya Buddha, claimed to read minds, and executed numerous subordinates and family members out of paranoia. In 918, Kung Ye was deposed by his own generals, and Wang Kŏn was raised to the throne. Wang Kŏn, who would posthumously be known by his temple name of Taejo or "Grand Progenitor", changed
11223-530: The northern provinces of Goryeo after the invasions and incorporated them into their empire as the Ssangseong and Dongnyeong Prefectures . The Goryeo army retook these provinces partly thanks to defection from Yi Jachun , a minor Korean official in service of Mongols in Ssangseong, and his son Yi Sŏng-gye . In addition, Generals Yi Sŏng-gye and Chi Yong-su ( 지용수 ; 池龍壽 ) led a campaign into Liaoyang . After
11352-525: The older brother of Xiao Sunning, with an army of 100,000 soldiers. The Liao army tried to head straight for Kaesong. Goryeo gathered an army of 208,000 under Kang Kam-ch'an and ambushed and Liao army, which suffered heavy casualties. The Goryeo commander Kang Kam-ch'an had dammed a large tributary of the Yalu River and released the water on the unsuspecting Khitan soldiers, who were then charged by 12,000 elite cavalry. The Liao army pushed on toward Kaesong under constant enemy harassment. After arriving within
11481-494: The original Silla people and considered that of "Silla proper" (原新羅) were reduced to Gyeongju and bits of the vicinity. Later Baekje fared only little better than Later Silla before its fall in 936. Meanwhile, of the three capitals of Goryeo, two were Kaesong and Pyongyang which were initially populated by Goguryeoic settlers from the Paeseo Region ( 패서 ; 浿西 ) and Balhae. Nonetheless, Goryeo proceeded to peacefully absorbing
11610-512: The original wooden pagoda. Images of the Sakyamuni Buddha and his two most capable disciples, Kasyapa and Ananda are now enshrined within Daejangjeon. The Sakyamuni Buddha is seated on an elaborately engraved Sumidan pedestal. This single story hall has three rooms along the sides and incorporates a hipped and gabled roof representing the most elaborate style of this era. A few images along
11739-421: The pagoda "Jineung." Ocheung Seoktap (Five storied stone pagoda of Geumsansa Temple). This five storied stone pagoda is situated on the top of Songdae, the two-story stylobate , a large tall pedestal at the north side of Geumsansa Temple. A sarira stair is found behind the pagoda. Although only five stories tall, the roof of the pagoda causes it appear to be more like a six-storied structure. The bottom layer of
11868-526: The peaceful annexation of Later Silla in 935. Taejo graciously accepted the capitulation of the last king of Silla and incorporated the ruling class of Later Silla. In 935, Kyŏn Hwŏn was removed from his throne by his eldest son over a succession dispute and imprisoned at Geumsansa Temple , but he escaped to Goryeo three months later and was deferentially received by his former archrival. In 936, upon Kyŏn Hwŏn's request, Taejo and Kyŏn Hwŏn conquered Later Baekje with an army of 87,500 soldiers, bringing an end to
11997-597: The principle Buddhist centers in the region and is one of the largest temples in South Korea . Most of the treasures were created prior to the time of present buildings. Geumsansa Mireukjeon (Mireukjeon Hall of the Geumsansa Temple): Maitreya Hall is a three-story wooden structure making it unique among Korean Buddhist halls. Mireukjeon houses a large statue of Mireuksa Buddha (Buddha of the Future) . The hall
12126-482: The rebellion did not last long, only making generals discontent with the current supremacy of the civilian officers. In addition, under the reign of King Uijong , military officers were prohibited from entering the Security Council, and even at times of state emergency, they were not allowed to assume commands. After political chaos, Uijong started to enjoy traveling to local temples and studying sutra , while he
12255-422: The recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship. Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens. The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under the reign of Jurchen leader Wuyashu (r. 1103–1113) of
12384-472: The recreation of the Tripitaka Koreana , which was destroyed during the 1232 invasion. This collection of Buddhist scriptures took 15 years to carve on some 81,000 wooden blocks, and is preserved to this day. In March 1258, the dictator Ch'oe Ŭi was assassinated by Kim Chun . Thus, dictatorship by his military group was ended, and the scholars who had insisted on peace with Mongolia gained power. Goryeo
12513-478: The region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju ( Uiju ), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain. Later, Wuyashu's younger brother Aguda founded the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) . When
12642-418: The relic is similar to that found at the apex of a wooden pagoda. Pole patterns are engraved on the back and edge of the bottom pedestal with eight longish ovals on the surface. The 16 petals of a lotus flower are engraved on the front. The middle pedestal has no decoration on its sides. The 16 petals of the lotus flower motif found at the bottom is repeated on the top pedestal, but with the lotus flower petals on
12771-481: The remaining Khitans were finished off by allied Mongol-Goryeo forces in 1219. Tension continued through the 12th century and into the 13th century, when the Mongol invasions started. After nearly 30 years of warfare, Goryeo swore allegiance to the Mongols, with the direct dynastic rule of Goryeo monarchy. In 1231, Mongols under Ögedei Khan invaded Goryeo following the aftermath of joint Goryeo-Mongol forces against
12900-540: The rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached Chongju while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Im Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Im Gan
13029-465: The ruler was at once king, emperor and Son of Heaven", according to Remco E. Breuker, Gwangjong used a "full-blown imperial system". All those who opposed or resisted his reforms were summarily purged. Gwangjong's successor, Gyeongjong , instituted the "Stipend Land Law" in 976 to support the new central government bureaucracy established on the foundation of Gwangjong's reforms. The next ruler, Seongjong , secured centralization of government and laid
13158-452: The ruling class of both countries and incorporated them under its bureaucracy; conducting political marriages and distributing positions according to their previous status in their respective countries. In contrast to Silla's bone-rank system, these open policies implemented by Wang Geon enabled Goryeo to enjoy a larger pool of highly skilled bureaucrats and technicians with the addition of those coming from Silla and Baekje; later on instilling
13287-493: The second Japanese military campaign, the Buddhist volunteer corps established their headquarters at Geumsansa. However, the entire temple complex subsequently suffered a tragic fate when the pavilion and outlying hermitages were burned to the ground by the invading Japanese forces. The present buildings were rebuilt in 1635 after the previous ones were destroyed by the Japanese invasions of Korea. The temple currently serves as one of
13416-488: The second year of King Beop's short-lived reign (r. 599–600) and the first year of the subsequent ruler and his son, King Mu (r. 600–641). According to the document, as a faithful Buddhist, King Beop issued a royal edict to prohibit the killing of any living creatures in 599 and ordained 38 Buddhist monks . Conversely, according to the Cultural Heritage Administration of South Korea and others, Geumsasa
13545-616: The son of King Gongmin. During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered Liaoyang in 1356, repulsed two large invasions by the Red Turbans in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General Ch'oe Yŏng defeated an invading Mongol tumen in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the Wokou menace and used naval artillery created by Ch'oe Mu-sŏn to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships. In 1388, King U (son of King Gongmin and
13674-470: The status and influence of her family members, including her father who was formally made into a king in the Yuan and her brother Gi Cheol who at some point manage to get more authority than the Goryeo king. In 1356, King Gongmin purged the family of Empress Gi. The kings of Goryeo held an important status like other important families of Mardin, the Uyghurs and Mongols ( Oirats , Khongirad , and Ikeres). It
13803-495: The time of Munjong to the 17th King, Injong . Eventually the Inju Yi clan gained more power than the monarch himself. This led to the coup of Yi Cha-gyŏm in 1126. It failed, but the power of the monarch was weakened; Goryeo underwent a civil war among the nobility. In 1135, Myocheong argued in favor of moving the capital to Seogyeong (now Pyongyang ). This proposal divided the nobles. One faction, led by Myocheong, believed in moving
13932-425: The top pedestal being longer and slimmer than those found on the bottom pedestal. Each side of the base is 1.2 metres (3 ft 11 in) long making the relic 2.3 metres (7 ft 7 in) tall. Geumsansaseogyeondae (Stone lotus pedestal of Geumsansa Temple). Seogyeondae is a finely detailed lotus-shaped stone pedestal that historians believe dates back to the 10th century between the Unified Silla Dynasty and
14061-432: The top the hall's roof line reveal a hint of its past as a wooden pagoda. Daejangjeon's ceiling is latticed while the interior construction utilizes two tiered multiclustered brackets on top of the columns in the middle section. Single tiered multiclustered brackets are utilized on top of the columns on the outer tie beams between the columns in each of the side sections. The architectural study of this era's wooden pagodas
14190-423: The two flag pole supports used to support the flag for a ceremony at a Buddhist temple. When a ceremony is held, the event and location of the temple are indicated by a flag mounted on a stone or iron flag pole. The two posts forming the flag pole support are 3.5 metres (11 ft) tall and lie in a north–south orientation. There are three holes one above the other in the supports to hold the flag pole. Placement of
14319-531: The two states concluded peace as equal partners (formalized in 1022)". Bielenstein claims that Hyeonjong kept his reign title and maintained diplomatic relations with the Song dynasty. Kaesong was rebuilt, grander than before, and, from 1033 to 1044, the Cheolli Jangseong , a wall stretching from the mouth of the Yalu River to the east coast of the Korean Peninsula, was built for defense against future invasions. Liao never invaded Goryeo again. Following
14448-443: The vicinity of the well-defended capital, a contingent of 300 cavalry sent as scouts was annihilated, upon which the Liao army decided to withdraw. The Liao troops soldiered on and headed toward the capital, but were met with stiff resistance and constant attacks, and were forced to retreat back north. During the retreat, 10,000 Liao army troops were annihilated by the Goryeo army under Kang Min-cheom of Goryeo. The retreating Liao army
14577-422: The weakening of the central government and the rise of the "hojok" ( 호족 ; 豪族 ) regional lords. The military officer Kyŏn Hwŏn revived Baekje in 892 with the descendants of the Baekje refugees, and the Buddhist monk Kung Ye revived Goguryeo in 901 with the descendants of the Goguryeo refugees; these states are called Later Baekje and Later Goguryeo in historiography, and together with Later Silla form
14706-406: Was (re-)constructed in 1635. The first floor is called Daejabojeon ("Hall of Great Mercy and Treasure"), the second Yonghwajihoe ("Gathering of Dragon and Beauty") and the third Mireukjeon ("Hall of Maitreya"). On the first and second floors there are five rooms at the front and four rooms off to the side. On the third floor there are three rooms at the front and two rooms off to the side. The roofs of
14835-508: Was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unification" by Korean historians as it not only unified the Later Three Kingdoms but also incorporated much of the ruling class of the northern kingdom of Balhae , who had origins in Goguryeo of
14964-400: Was a successor state to Later Goguryeo and Goguryeo . Throughout its existence, Goryeo, alongside Unified Silla, was known to be the "Golden Age of Buddhism" in Korea. As the state religion , Buddhism achieved its highest level of influence in Korean history, with 70 temples in the capital alone in the 11th century. Commerce flourished in Goryeo, with merchants coming from as far as
15093-476: Was almost always accompanied by a large group of civilian officers. The military officers were largely ignored and were even mobilized to construct temples and ponds. Beginning in 1170, the government of Goryeo was de facto controlled by a succession of powerful families from the warrior class, most notably the Ch'oe family, in a military dictatorship akin to a shogunate . In 1170, a group of army officers led by Chŏng Chung-bu , Yi Ŭi-bang and Yi Ko launched
15222-455: Was born in the fourth year of King Jeongjong of Goryeo (1038). He started learning Buddhist teachings at the age of four and became a Buddhist monk shortly thereafter. In 1079 King Sukjong promoted Hyedeo to the position of chief of the temple. He was later assigned as the chief of the Buddhist body of the state by King Sukjong. After Hyedeo died at the age of 59, King Sukjong raised Hyedeo's status to "State Mentor" and renamed him "Hyedeok" and
15351-474: Was built in 599, the first year of King Beop. Regardless of the founding date, it was assumed not to have been a significant temple in the scope of its scale and character. From 722, during the reign of King Gyeongdeok of Silla until 766 in King Hyegong 's reign, Geumsansa was rebuilt and greatly expanded under the direction of Master Jinpyo. According to the tradition, Master Jinpyo had a vision of Maitreya ,
15480-501: Was different from former military leaders was the active involvement of scholars in Ch'oe's control, notably Prime Minister Yi Kyu-bo who was a Confucian scholar-official. After Sinjong died, Ch'oe forced his son to the throne as Huijong . After 7 years, Huijong led a revolt but failed. Then, Ch'oe found the pliable King Gojong instead. Although the House of Ch'oe established strong private individuals loyal to it, continuous invasion by
15609-463: Was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by Yun Kwan , but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace. Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the Byeolmuban (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. It existed apart from the main army and
15738-451: Was established in 1055 by Ch'oe Ch'ung , who is known as the " Haedong Confucius", and soon afterward there were 12 private academies in Goryeo that rivaled the Gukjagam national university. In response, several Goryeo rulers reformed and revitalized the national education system, producing prominent scholars such as Kim Bu-sik . In 1101, the Seojeokpo printing bureau was established at
15867-411: Was highly praised and described as "benevolent" and "holy" (賢聖之君) in the Goryeosa . In addition, he achieved the epitome of cultural blossoming in Goryeo. Munjong had 13 sons: the three eldest succeeded him on the throne, and the fourth was the prominent Buddhist monk Uicheon . Goryeo was a period of great achievements in Korean art and culture, such as Koryŏ celadon , which was highly praised in
15996-400: Was initially a period of peace, without a single foreign invasion for 200 years, and commerce, as it engaged in international trade from as distant as the Middle East and maintained maritime leadership in East Asia. Beginning in the late 8th century, Later Silla was undermined by instability because of political turbulence in the capital and class rigidity in the bone-rank system , leading to
16125-415: Was intercepted by Kang Kam-ch'an in modern-day Kusong and suffered a major defeat, with only a few thousand soldiers escaping. Shengzong intended to invade again and amassed another large expeditionary army in 1019 but faced internal opposition. In 1020, Goryeo sent tribute and Liao accepted, thus resuming nominal tributary relations. Shengzong did not demand that Hyeonjong pay homage in person or cede
16254-427: Was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch'on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue,
16383-471: Was moved to its present location in 1922. Its square foundation stone is carved with a double lotus pattern while the octagonal base has straight lines engraved along the length to represent the cosmos or to emulate pillars. The upper section of the lamp is carved as a lotus in full bloom. The upper pedestal forms the base of the light camber, which in its upper octagonal section has windows on four sides. Decorative engravings of lotus petals are found on both
16512-415: Was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent Crown Prince Wonjong to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; Kublai Khan accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince. Khubilai, who became khan of the Mongols and emperor of China in 1260, did not impose direct rule over most of Goryeo. Goryeo Korea, in contrast to Song China,
16641-469: Was treated more like an Inner Asian power. The dynasty was allowed to survive, and intermarriage with Mongols was encouraged, even with the Mongol imperial family, while the marriage between Chinese and Mongols was strictly forbidden when the Song dynasty was ended. Some military officials who refused to surrender formed the Sambyeolcho Rebellion and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of
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