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127-576: George Jefferson was born in Harlem in 1929, an ambitious African-American entrepreneur who started and managed a successful chain of seven dry cleaning stores in New York City . The only background on the Jefferson family is that they were Alabama sharecroppers . In a very early episode, George's wife Louise makes mention of a conversation she had with George's father after she and George were married about

254-565: A global security threat due to its use in scapegoating some populations and inciting others to commit violent acts towards them and how this can endanger individuals, countries, and the international community. The word prejudice has been used since Middle English around the year 1300. It comes from the Old French word préjudice, which comes from Latin praeiūdicium which comes from prae (before) and iūdicium (judgment). The first psychological research conducted on prejudice occurred in

381-475: A Dutch village, formally organized in 1658, it is named after the city of Haarlem in the Netherlands. Harlem's history has been defined by a series of economic boom-and-bust cycles, with significant population shifts accompanying each cycle. Harlem was predominantly occupied by Jewish and Italian Americans in the late 19th century, while African-American residents began to arrive in large numbers during

508-453: A meta-analysis of 515 studies involving a quarter of a million participants in 38 nations to examine how intergroup contact reduces prejudice. They found that three mediators are of particular importance: Intergroup contact reduces prejudice by (1) enhancing knowledge about the outgroup, (2) reducing anxiety about intergroup contact, and (3) increasing empathy and perspective-taking. While all three of these mediators had mediational effects,

635-560: A bus. Although this is later contradicted in a Season Six episode of The Jeffersons, "The First Store". George's brother Henry Jefferson, played by veteran character actor Mel Stewart , appeared in All in the Family during the lead-up to the spin-off of The Jeffersons . That character was created only because Sherman Hemsley was starring in the Broadway musical Purlie and not yet available to take on

762-558: A chapel on 128th Street in 2005. Many of the area's churches are " storefront churches ", which operate in an empty store, or a basement, or a converted brownstone townhouse. These congregations may have fewer than 30–50 members each, but there are hundreds of them. Others are old, large, and designated landmarks. Especially in the years before World War II, Harlem produced popular Christian charismatic "cult" leaders, including George Wilson Becton and Father Divine . Mosques in Harlem include

889-598: A cognitive-evolutionary account of human adaptation to social diversity that explains general resistance to multiculturalism, and offer a reorienting call for scholars and policy-makers who seek intervention-based solutions to the problem of prejudice. The contact hypothesis predicts that prejudice can only be reduced when in-group and out-group members are brought together. In particular, there are six conditions that must be met to reduce prejudice, as were cultivated in Elliot Aronson 's "jigsaw" teaching technique . First,

1016-453: A decrease in prejudice. Individuals or groups may be treated unfairly based solely on their use of language. This use of language may include the individual's native language or other characteristics of the person's speech, such as an accent or dialect , the size of vocabulary (whether the person uses complex and varied words), and syntax . It may also involve a person's ability or inability to use one language instead of another. In

1143-505: A difficult time assimilating or fitting into neurotypical standards and society may be label " low-functioning ". People with neurological disorders or conditions observed to have low intelligence, lack of self-control, suicidal behavior, or any number of factors may be discriminated on this basis. Institutions such as mental asylums, Nazi Concentration Camps , unethical pediatric research/care facilities, and eugenics labs have been used to carry out dangerous experiments or to torture

1270-612: A gender that does not align with their assigned sex at birth . Refusal to call them by their preferred pronouns, or claims that they are not the gender they identify as could be considered discrimination, especially if the victim of this discrimination has expressed repetitively what their preferred identity is. Gender identity is now considered a protected category of discrimination. Therefore, severe cases of this discrimination can lead to criminal penalty or prosecution in some countries , and workplaces are required to protect against discrimination based on gender identity. Nationalism

1397-478: A generous, sentimental side that he takes pains to keep hidden from his family and friends. In the Season 4 Christmas episode "984 W. 124th Street, Apt. 5C," Louise discovers that George regularly makes anonymous donations of money and gifts to the family that now lives in the decrepit Harlem apartment where he lived as a young boy, to fulfill a childhood promise he made to himself that if he ever became wealthy, nobody in

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1524-506: A loving, hard-working father and husband. Unlike Archie, however, George was quicker thinking, and usually cleverer. Frequently, plots in The Jeffersons revolved around George's usually dishonest schemes, which always ended in comedic failure. In the Season 3 episode "A Case of Black and White", George schemes to obtain a new client (a mixed-race couple) by inviting them and the Willises (also

1651-415: A mixed-race couple) to dinner. When the Willises realize that George is using them, they leave before the new client shows up. This makes George bribe Florence the maid and Ralph the doorman into pretending to be the Willises. Eventually the Willises return, and by pretending to be Florence and Ralph, they help George land the client, while trapping George into throwing them an extravagant anniversary party. In

1778-455: A natural resource or a threat to income. Symbolic threats arise from a perceived difference in cultural values between groups or a perceived imbalance of power (for example, an ingroup perceiving an outgroup's religion as incompatible with theirs). Intergroup anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness experienced in the presence of an outgroup or outgroup member, which constitutes a threat because interactions with other groups cause negative feelings (e.g.,

1905-568: A necessity to simplify social classifications because of limited brain capacity and at the same time can be mitigated through education is that the two contradict each other, the combination amounting to saying that the problem is a shortage of hardware and at the same time can be mitigated by stuffing even more software into the hardware one just said was overloaded with too much software. The distinction between men's hostility to outgroup men being based on dominance and aggression and women's hostility to outgroup men being based on fear of sexual coercion

2032-472: A particular political goal. Nationalism usually involves a push for conformity, obedience, and solidarity amongst the nation's people and can result not only in feelings of public responsibility but also in a narrow sense of community due to the exclusion of those who are considered outsiders. Since the identity of nationalists is linked to their allegiance to the state, the presence of strangers who do not share this allegiance may result in hostility. Classism

2159-498: A positive effect on people as far as prejudice is concerned. This difference in results may be attributed to the differences in religious practices or religious interpretations amongst the individuals. Those who practice "institutionalized religion", which focuses more on social and political aspects of religious events, are more likely to have an increase in prejudice. Those who practice "interiorized religion", in which believers devote themselves to their beliefs, are most likely to have

2286-405: A preconceived notion about someone due to any characteristic they find to be unusual or undesirable. A few commonplace examples of prejudice are those based on someone's race, gender, nationality, social status, sexual orientation, or religious affiliation, and controversies may arise from any given topic. Transgender and non-binary people can be discriminated against because they identify with

2413-405: A qualified white woman employee quits, so she can work at George's biggest competitor, Cunningham Cleaners 3] Louise and Mother Jefferson allied with one another against George's sexist attitude. In the last episode of the series "Red Robins", George's dishonest "business advice" to his granddaughter Jessica Jefferson and her "Red Robins" girl scout troop about selling their uneatable candy results in

2540-411: A start at the school. By the 2010s, new dining hotspots were opening in Harlem around Frederick Douglass Boulevard. At the same time, some residents fought back against the powerful waves of gentrification the neighborhood is experiencing. In 2013, residents staged a sidewalk sit-in to protest a five-days-a-week farmers market that would shut down Macombs Place at 150th Street. Uptown Night Market

2667-517: A term for such hatred based upon one's sexual orientation is homophobia . However, more specific words for discrimination directed towards specific sexualities exist under other names, such as biphobia . Due to what social psychologists call the vividness effect, a tendency to notice only certain distinctive characteristics, the majority population tends to draw conclusions like gays flaunt their sexuality. Such images may be easily recalled to mind due to their vividness, making it harder to appraise

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2794-777: A threat to comfortable interactions). Negative stereotypes are similarly threats, in that individuals anticipate negative behaviour from outgroup members in line with the perceived stereotype (for example, that the outgroup is violent). Often these stereotypes are associated with emotions such as fear and anger. ITT differs from other threat theories by including intergroup anxiety and negative stereotypes as threat types. Additionally, social dominance theory states that society can be viewed as group-based hierarchies. In competition for scarce resources such as housing or employment, dominant groups create prejudiced "legitimizing myths" to provide moral and intellectual justification for their dominant position over other groups and validate their claim over

2921-417: Is a controversial and somewhat contemporary concept; with various disciplinary approaches promoting conflicting messages what normality constitutes, the degree of acceptable individual difference within that category, and the precise criteria for what constitutes medical disorder. This has been most prominent in the case of high-functioning autism, where direct cognitive benefits increasingly appear to come at

3048-740: Is a neighborhood in Upper Manhattan , New York City. It is bounded roughly by the Hudson River on the west; the Harlem River and 155th Street on the north; Fifth Avenue on the east; and Central Park North on the south. The greater Harlem area encompasses several other neighborhoods and extends west and north to 155th Street, east to the East River , and south to Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard , Central Park , and East 96th Street . Originally

3175-485: Is a sentiment based on common cultural characteristics that binds a population and often produces a policy of national independence or separatism . It suggests a "shared identity" amongst a nation's people that minimizes differences within the group and emphasizes perceived boundaries between the group and non-members. This leads to the assumption that members of the nation have more in common than they actually do, that they are "culturally unified", even if injustices within

3302-501: Is also the birthplace of popular hip-hop dances such as the Harlem shake , toe wop, and Chicken Noodle Soup . Harlem's classical music birthed organizations and chamber ensembles such as Roberta Guaspari 's Opus 118, Harlem Chamber Players, Omnipresent Music Festival BIPOC Musicians Festival , Harlem Quartet , and musicians such as violinist Edward W. Hardy . In the 1920s, African-American pianists who lived in Harlem invented their own style of jazz piano, called stride , which

3429-607: Is bounded by Cathedral Parkway/110th Street on the south; 155th Street on the north; Manhattan/Morningside Ave/St. Nicholas/Bradhurst/Edgecombe Avenues on the east; and Riverside Park/the Hudson River on the west. Manhattanville begins at roughly 123rd Street and extends northward to 135th Street. The northernmost section of West Harlem is Hamilton Heights. A chain of large linear parks includes West Harlem Piers , Riverbank State Park , St. Nicholas Park, and Jackie Robinson Park. East Harlem , also called Spanish Harlem or El Barrio ,

3556-427: Is defined as a negative affect towards members of a group, there are many groups against whom prejudice is acceptable (such as rapists, men who abandon their families, pedophiles, neo-Nazis, drink-drivers, queue jumpers, murderers etc.), yet such prejudices are not studied. It has been suggested that researchers have focused too much on an evaluative approach to prejudice, rather than a descriptive approach, which looks at

3683-481: Is defined by dictionary.com as "a biased or discriminatory attitude on distinctions made between social or economic classes". The idea of separating people based on class is controversial in itself. Some argue that economic inequality is an unavoidable aspect of society, so there will always be a ruling class. Some also argue that, even within the most egalitarian societies in history, some form of ranking based on social status takes place. Therefore, one may believe

3810-566: Is enhanced by the ability to analyze social costs and benefits so that humans can recognize and functionally respond to threats and opportunities, and that errors in judgment will be biased toward minimizing costs to reproductive fitness. In other words, human responses to social stimuli proceed from adaptations that motivate action in order to take advantage of opportunities and avoid or confront threats. Some proponents of this perspective believe that these responses can be measured by implicit association tests. One can be prejudiced against or have

3937-461: Is home to over 400 churches, some of which are official city or national landmarks. Major Christian denominations include Baptists , Pentecostals, Methodists (generally African Methodist Episcopal Zionist , or "AMEZ" and African Methodist Episcopalian , or "AME"), Episcopalians , and Roman Catholic . The Abyssinian Baptist Church has long been influential because of its large congregation. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints built

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4064-403: Is influenced by evolutionary processes. These theorists argue that although psychological variation appears between individuals, the majority of our psychological mechanisms are adapted specifically to solve recurrent problems in our evolutionary history , including social problems. For example, James J. Gibson , a founder of ecological psychology , believes that human evolutionary success

4191-494: Is located in Upper Manhattan . The three neighborhoods comprising the greater Harlem area—West, Central, and East Harlem—stretch from the Harlem River and East River to the east, to the Hudson River to the west; and between 155th Street in the north, where it meets Washington Heights , and an uneven boundary along the south that runs along 96th Street east of Fifth Avenue , 110th Street between Fifth Avenue to Morningside Park , and 125th Street west of Morningside Park to

4318-526: Is located within Manhattan Community District 11, which is bounded by East 96th Street on the south, East 138th Street on the north, Fifth Avenue on the west, and the Harlem River on the east. A chain of parks includes Thomas Jefferson Park and Marcus Garvey Park. In the 2010s some real estate professionals started rebranding south Harlem as "SoHa" (a name standing for "South Harlem" in

4445-402: Is natural and often quite rational. This is because prejudices are based on the human tendency to categorise objects and people based on prior experience. This means people make predictions about things in a category based on prior experience with that category, with the resulting predictions usually being accurate (though not always). Bloom argues that this process of categorisation and prediction

4572-420: Is necessary for survival and normal interaction, quoting William Hazlitt, who stated "Without the aid of prejudice and custom, I should not be able to find my way my across the room; nor know how to conduct myself in any circumstances, nor what to feel in any relation of life". In recent years, researchers have argued that the study of prejudice has been traditionally too narrow. It is argued that since prejudice

4699-909: Is now predominantly Hispanic / Latino, with a significant African-American presence. Bigotry Prejudice can be an affective feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership. The word is often used to refer to a preconceived (usually unfavourable) evaluation or classification of another person based on that person's perceived personal characteristics, such as political affiliation , sex , gender , gender identity , beliefs , values , social class , age , disability , religion , sexuality , race , ethnicity , language , nationality , culture , complexion , beauty , height , body weight , occupation , wealth , education , criminality , sport-team affiliation , music tastes or other perceived characteristics. The word "prejudice" can also refer to unfounded or pigeonholed beliefs and it may apply to "any unreasonable attitude that

4826-802: Is served by the New York City Subway and local bus routes. It contains several public elementary, middle, and high schools, and is close to several colleges, including Columbia University , Manhattan School of Music , and the City College of New York . Central Harlem is part of Manhattan Community District 10 . It is patrolled by the 28th and 32nd Precincts of the New York City Police Department . The greater Harlem area also includes Manhattan Community Districts 9 and 11 and several police precincts, while fire services are provided by four New York City Fire Department companies. Harlem

4953-584: Is still debate over whether race actually exists, making the discussion of race a controversial topic. Even though the concept of race is still being debated, the effects of racism are apparent. Racism and other forms of prejudice can affect a person's behavior, thoughts, and feelings, and social psychologists strive to study these effects. While various religions teach their members to be tolerant of those who are different and to have compassion, throughout history there have been wars , pogroms and other forms of violence motivated by hatred of religious groups. In

5080-425: Is the perception that members of an out-group are more similar (homogenous) than members of the in-group. Social psychologists Quattrone and Jones conducted a study demonstrating this with students from the rival schools Princeton University and Rutgers University . Students at each school were shown videos of other students from each school choosing a type of music to listen to for an auditory perception study. Then

5207-511: Is to claim that the victim's sexual orientation, body movement patterns (such as their walking patterns or how they dance), or appearance that is associated with a minority sexual orientation provoked a violent reaction in the defendant. This is not a proven disorder, is no longer recognized by the DSM , and, therefore, is not a disorder that is medically recognized, but it is a term to explain certain acts of violence. Research shows that discrimination on

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5334-585: Is unusually resistant to rational influence". Gordon Allport defined prejudice as a "feeling, favorable or unfavorable, toward a person or thing, prior to, or not based on, actual experience". Auestad (2015) defines prejudice as characterized by "symbolic transfer", transfer of a value-laden meaning content onto a socially-formed category and then on to individuals who are taken to belong to that category, resistance to change, and overgeneralization. The United Nations Institute on Globalization, Culture and Mobility has highlighted research considering prejudice as

5461-646: The Great Migration in the early 20th century. In the 1920s and 1930s, Central and West Harlem were the center of the Harlem Renaissance , a major African-American cultural movement. With job losses during the Great Depression of the 1930s and the deindustrialization of New York City after World War II , rates of crime and poverty increased significantly. In the 21st century, crime rates decreased significantly, and Harlem started to gentrify . The area

5588-468: The Interborough Rapid Transit and elevated railway lines, helped Harlem's economic growth, as they connected Harlem to lower and midtown Manhattan. The Jewish and Italian demographic decreased, while the black and Puerto Rican population increased in this time. The early-20th century Great Migration of black people to northern industrial cities was fueled by their desire to leave behind

5715-493: The Jim Crow South, seek better jobs and education for their children, and escape a culture of lynching violence; during World War I , expanding industries recruited black laborers to fill new jobs, thinly staffed after the draft began to take young men. In 1910, Central Harlem population was about 10% black people. By 1930, it had reached 70%. Starting around the time of the end of World War I, Harlem became associated with

5842-639: The Masjid Malcolm Shabazz (formerly Mosque No. 7 Nation of Islam , and the location of the 1972 Harlem mosque incident ), the Mosque of Islamic Brotherhood and Masjid Aqsa. Judaism, too, maintains a presence in Harlem through the Old Broadway Synagogue . A non-mainstream synagogue of Black Hebrews , known as Commandment Keepers , was based in a synagogue at 1 West 123rd Street until 2008. Many places in Harlem are official city landmarks labeled by

5969-573: The New Negro movement, and then the artistic outpouring known as the Harlem Renaissance , which extended to poetry, novels, theater, and the visual arts. So many black people came that it "threaten[ed] the very existence of some of the leading industries of Georgia, Florida, Tennessee and Alabama." Many settled in Harlem. By 1920, central Harlem was 32.43% black. The 1930 census revealed that 70.18% of central Harlem's residents were black and lived as far south as Central Park , at 110th Street. However, by

6096-591: The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission or are listed on the National Register of Historic Places : Other prominent points of interest include: The demographics of Harlem's communities have changed throughout its history. In 1910, black residents formed 10% of Harlem's population, but by 1930, they had become a 70% majority. The period between 1910 and 1930 was marked by the Great Migration of African Americans from

6223-457: The Section 8 housing that was being placed, many were not able to live there and had to find homes elsewhere or become homeless. These policies are examples of societal racism , also known as structural racism. As public health leaders have named structural racism as a key social determinant of health disparities between racial and ethnic minorities, these 20th century policies have contributed to

6350-631: The redlining policy. This policy rated neighborhoods, such as Central Harlem, as unappealing based on the race, ethnicity, and national origins of the residents. Central Harlem was deemed 'hazardous' and residents living in Central Harlem were refused home loans or other investments. Comparably, wealthy and white residents in New York City neighborhoods were approved more often for housing loans and investment applications. Overall, they were given preferential treatment by city and state institutions. In

6477-495: The 109,091 counted in 2000 . Covering an area of 926.05 acres (374.76 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 128.1 inhabitants per acre (82,000/sq mi; 31,700/km ). The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 9.5% (11,322) White , 63% (74,735) African American , 0.3% (367) Native American , 2.4% (2,839) Asian , 0% (46) Pacific Islander , 0.3% (372) from other races , and 2.2% (2,651) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 22.2% (26,333) of

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6604-414: The 1920s. This research attempted to prove white supremacy . One article from 1925 which reviewed 73 studies on race concluded that the studies seemed "to indicate the mental superiority of the white race". These studies, along with other research, led many psychologists to view prejudice as a natural response to races believed to be inferior. In the 1930s and 1940s, this perspective began to change due to

6731-579: The 1930s, the neighborhood was hit hard by job losses in the Great Depression . In the early 1930s, 25% of Harlemites were out of work, and employment prospects for Harlemites stayed poor for decades. Employment among black New Yorkers fell as some traditionally black businesses, including domestic service and some types of manual labor, were taken over by other ethnic groups. Major industries left New York City altogether, especially after 1950. Several riots happened in this period, including in 1935 and 1943 . There were major changes following World War II . In

6858-484: The 1960s, uneducated black people could find jobs more easily than educated ones could, confounding efforts to improve the lives of people who lived in the neighborhood through education. Land owners took advantage of the neighborhood and offered apartments to the lower-class families for cheaper rent but in lower-class conditions. By 1999 there were 179,000 housing units available in Harlem. Housing activists in Harlem state that, even after residents were given vouchers for

6985-730: The Black population's decrease by 11% (9,544). While the growth of the Hispanic / Latino was predominantly in Central Harlem North, the decrease in the Black population was slightly greater in Central Harlem South, and the drastic increase in the White population was split evenly across the two census tabulation areas. Meanwhile, the Asian population grew by 211% (1,927) but remained a small minority, and

7112-513: The Family , Jefferson lived in a working-class neighborhood in the borough of Queens , next door to the Bunker family, with his wife Louise ( Isabel Sanford ) and son Lionel ( Mike Evans ). During the period between 1971 and 1973, George's perpetual absence was explained as being a result of his refusal to set foot in his bigoted neighbor Archie Bunker 's home, although in later episodes, relationships between Jefferson and Bunker thawed somewhat. When

7239-663: The George Jefferson character is such that Michelle Obama , the wife of then-presidential candidate Barack Obama , referenced George Jefferson in a June 2008 interview with the New York Times . Referring to an unfounded rumor discussed by a blogger that she had once used the word "whitey" in a speech, Michelle Obama told the Times : "You are amazed sometimes at how deep the lies can be . . . I mean, ‘whitey’? That's something that George Jefferson would say." Harlem Harlem

7366-461: The Hudson River. Encyclopædia Britannica references these boundaries, though the Encyclopedia of New York City takes a much more conservative view of Harlem's boundaries, regarding only central Harlem as part of Harlem proper. Central Harlem is the name of Harlem proper; it falls under Manhattan Community District 10. This section is bounded by Fifth Avenue on the east; Central Park on

7493-584: The Jeffersons family roots. However, the show's writers later applied a retroactive change in the continuity of George's father, such that he had died when George was 10 years old. This left George to take care of his mother; therefore, George was unable to complete high school . He was a cook in the US Navy during the Korean War . He began dating Louise when they were teenagers and married her upon his discharge from

7620-718: The Prohibition era, and was dubbed "Jungle Alley" because of "inter-racial mingling" on the street. Some jazz venues, including the Cotton Club , where Duke Ellington played, and Connie's Inn , were restricted to whites only. Others were integrated, including the Renaissance Ballroom and the Savoy Ballroom. In 1936, Orson Welles produced his black Macbeth at the Lafayette Theater in Harlem. Grand theaters from

7747-473: The South to northern cities, including New York. Within the city, this era also witnessed an influx of black residents from downtown Manhattan neighborhoods, where black people were feeling less welcome, to the Harlem area. The black population in Harlem peaked in 1950, with a 98% share of the population of 233,000. As of 2000, central Harlem's black residents comprised 77% of the total population of that area; however,

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7874-410: The accused in court cases, that defense lawyers may use to justify their client's hate crime against someone that the client thought was LGBT. The controversy comes when defense lawyers use the victim's minority status as an excuse or justification for crimes that were directed against them. This may be seen as an example of victim blaming . One method of this defense, homosexual panic disorder ,

8001-511: The actual psychological mechanisms behind prejudiced attitudes. It is argued that this limits research to targets of prejudice to groups deemed to be receiving unjust treatment, while groups researchers deem treated justly or deservedly of prejudice are overlooked. As a result, the scope of prejudice has begun to expand in research, allowing a more accurate analysis of the relationship between psychological traits and prejudice. Some researchers had advocated looking into understanding prejudice from

8128-621: The ages of 0–17, while 35% are between 25 and 44, and 24% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 10% and 11% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community District 10 was $ 49,059. In 2018, an estimated 21% of Community District 10 residents lived in poverty, compared to 14% in all of Manhattan and 20% in all of New York City. Around 12% of residents were unemployed, compared to 7% in Manhattan and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or

8255-408: The apartment would experience an unhappy Christmas again. In the Season 9 episode "Change for a Dollar," it is revealed to the audience that George's weekly tradition of going to his first store after closing to count his money is actually an excuse to provide free dry-cleaning services to his first customer, a well-off woman who referred her friends to his store and has now fallen into poverty following

8382-608: The basis of sexual orientation is a powerful feature of many labor markets. For example, studies show that gay men earn 10–32% less than heterosexual men in the United States, and that there is significant discrimination in hiring on the basis of sexual orientation in many labor markets. Racism is defined as the belief that physical characteristics determine cultural traits, and that racial characteristics make some groups superior. By separating people into hierarchies based upon their race, it has been argued that unequal treatment among

8509-432: The black population has recently declined as many African Americans move out and more immigrants move in. As of 2021, central Harlem's Black residents numbered 56,668, comprising 44% of the total population. In that regard, there are an estimated 27% (34,773) Hispanics, 18% (23,182) White, 4% (5,151) Asian, 6% (7,727) of two or more races and 2% (2,575) Other. Harlem suffers from unemployment rates generally more than twice

8636-459: The case. Some research has connected dark triad personality traits ( Machiavellianism , grandiose narcissism , and psychopathy ) with being more likely to hold racist, sexist, xenophobic, homophobic, and transphobic views. Some evolutionary theorists consider prejudice as having functional utility in evolutionary process. A number of evolutionary psychologists in particular posit that human psychology, including emotion and cognition ,

8763-419: The citywide average, as well as high poverty rates. and the numbers for men have been consistently worse than the numbers for women. Private and governmental initiatives to ameliorate unemployment and poverty have not been successful. During the Great Depression , unemployment in Harlem went past 20% and people were being evicted from their homes. At the same time, the federal government developed and instituted

8890-542: The community has also hosted numerous actors and theater companies, including the New Heritage Repertory Theater, National Black Theater, Lafayette Players, Harlem Suitcase Theater, The Negro Playwrights, American Negro Theater , and the Rose McClendon Players. The Apollo Theater opened on 125th Street on January 26, 1934, in a former burlesque house . The Savoy Ballroom , on Lenox Avenue ,

9017-408: The construction of new projects. From the mid-20th century, the low quality of education in Harlem has been a source of distress. In the 1960s, about 75% of Harlem students tested under grade levels in reading skills, and 80% tested under grade level in math. In 1964, residents of Harlem staged two school boycotts to call attention to the problem. In central Harlem, 92% of students stayed home. In

9144-423: The current population health disparities between Central Harlem and other New York City neighborhoods. For census purposes, the New York City government classifies Central Harlem into two neighborhood tabulation areas: Central Harlem North and Central Harlem South, divided by 126th street. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census , the population of Central Harlem was 118,665, a change of 9,574 (8.1%) from

9271-444: The death of her husband. Hemsley appeared as George twice on The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air , appearing along with Isabel Sanford as Louise, debating whether to buy the house Will Smith 's character had lived in for the last several years from his aunt and uncle in the later episode. The following is a list of All in the Family episodes featuring George Jefferson before and during The Jeffersons . The lingering cultural impact of

9398-489: The desire to express prejudice and the desire to maintain a positive self-concept . This conflict causes people to search for justification for disliking an out-group, and to use that justification to avoid negative feelings ( cognitive dissonance ) about themselves when they act on their dislike of the out-group. The realistic conflict theory states that competition between limited resources leads to increased negative prejudices and discrimination. This can be seen even when

9525-431: The different groups of people is just and fair due to their genetic differences. Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon physical features or even characteristics of their culture. Though people may be lumped together and called a specific race, everyone does not fit neatly into such categories, making it hard to define and describe a race accurately. Scientific racism began to flourish in

9652-419: The eighteenth century and was greatly influenced by Charles Darwin 's evolutionary studies, as well as ideas taken from the writings of philosophers like Aristotle ; for example, Aristotle believed in the concept of " natural slaves ". This concept focuses on the necessity of hierarchies and how some people are bound to be on the bottom of the pyramid. Though racism has been a prominent topic in history, there

9779-405: The entire situation. The majority population may not only think that homosexuals flaunt their sexuality or are "too gay", but may also erroneously believe that homosexuals are easy to identify and label as being gay or lesbian when compared to others who are not homosexual. The idea of heterosexual privilege has been known to flourish in society. Research and questionnaires are formulated to fit

9906-536: The episode "George and Jimmy" George's big-mouthed attempts to invite US President Jimmy Carter to his home as a publicity stunt backfires with George almost being arrested by the US Secret Service. In another episode "George and the Manager" George's refusal to hire any woman to be the manager of his cleaning store results in 1] A qualified African American woman refusing to work for George under any circumstances 2]

10033-437: The existence of social classes is a natural feature of society. Others argue the contrary. According to anthropological evidence, for the majority of the time the human species has been in existence, humans have lived in a manner in which the land and resources were not privately owned. Also, when social ranking did occur, it was not antagonistic or hostile like the current class system. This evidence has been used to support

10160-402: The expectation that one's professional capacity may be judged by the quality of ones social interaction, which can in such cases be an inaccurate and discriminatory metric for employment suitability. Since there are moves by some experts to have these higher-functioning extremes reclassified as extensions of human personality, any legitimisation of discrimination against these groups would fit

10287-588: The expense of social intelligence. Discrimination may also extend to other high functioning individuals carrying pathological phenotypes, such as those with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and bipolar spectrum disorders . In these cases, there are indications that perceived (or actual) socially disadvantageous cognitive traits are directly correlated with advantageous cognitive traits in other domains, notably creativity and divergent thinking, and yet these strengths might become systematically overlooked. The case for "neurological discrimination" as such lies in

10414-426: The fewest opportunities for success. Though the federal government's Model Cities Program spent $ 100 million on job training, health care, education, public safety, sanitation, housing, and other projects over a ten-year period, Harlem showed no improvement. The city began auctioning its enormous portfolio of Harlem properties to the public in 1985. This was intended to improve the community by placing property in

10541-561: The frequent racism and interracial marriage plot-lines of early seasons were replaced with plots involving the Jeffersons' family life, as well as interactions with maid Florence (played by Marla Gibbs ) and neighbors. George would form a grudging friendship with Tom Willis and this was primarily what prompted Hemsley to ask for the aforementioned changes, feeling George would no longer make such jokes if he and Tom were truly becoming friends. In addition, while George nearly always appears to be stingy and insensitive, several episodes expose

10668-440: The girls losing a chance at a scout Jamboree and Louise Jefferson scolding George soundly. Despite his constant self-victimization due to his background and heritage, George shows countless times in the series his immense hypocrisy and prejudices and that he possesses any form of bigotry imaginable: Like Archie Bunker, however, George Jefferson's personality softened as the years passed. By The Jeffersons series finale in 1985,

10795-406: The hands of people who would live in them and maintain them. In many cases, the city would even pay to completely renovate a property before selling it (by lottery) below market value. After the 1990s, Harlem began to grow again. Between 1990 and 2006 the neighborhood's population grew by 16.9%, with the percentage of black people decreasing from 87.6% to 69.3%, then dropping to 54.4% by 2010, and

10922-414: The idea that the existence of a social class system is unnecessary. Overall, society has neither come to a consensus over the necessity of the class system, nor been able to deal with the hostility and prejudice that occurs because of the class system. Individuals with non-heterosexual sexual attraction, such as homosexuals and bisexuals , may experience hatred from others due to their sexual orientation;

11049-667: The importance of the contact hypothesis . This theory posits that contact between different (ethnic) groups can reduce prejudices against those groups. Allport acknowledges the importance of the circumstances in which such contact occurs. He has attached conditions to it to promote positive contact and reduce prejudices. In the 1970s, research began to show that prejudice tends to be based on favoritism towards one's own groups , rather than negative feelings towards another group. According to Marilyn Brewer , prejudice "may develop not because outgroups are hated, but because positive emotions such as admiration, sympathy, and trust are reserved for

11176-488: The in- and out-groups must have a degree of mutual interdependence. Second, both groups need to share a common goal. Third, the two groups must have equal status. Fourth, there must be frequent opportunities for informal and interpersonal contact between groups. Fifth, there should be multiple contacts between the in- and the out-groups. Finally, social norms of equality must exist and be present to foster prejudice reduction. Academics Thomas Pettigrew and Linda Tropp conducted

11303-538: The increasing concern about anti-Semitism due to the ideology of the Nazis . At the time, theorists viewed prejudice as pathological and they thus looked for personality syndromes linked with racism . Theodor Adorno believed that prejudice stemmed from an authoritarian personality ; he believed that people with authoritarian personalities were the most likely to be prejudiced against groups of lower status. He described authoritarians as "rigid thinkers who obeyed authority, saw

11430-534: The individuals involved. Most discrimination today is characterized by individuals making comments towards low-functioning individuals or by harming them physically by themselves, but some institutions practice unsafe activities on these individuals. Humans have an evolved propensity to think categorically about social groups, manifested in cognitive processes with broad implications for public and political endorsement of multicultural policy, according to psychologists Richard J. Crisp and Rose Meleady. They postulated

11557-573: The ingroup". In 1979, Thomas Pettigrew described the ultimate attribution error and its role in prejudice. The ultimate attribution error occurs when ingroup members "(1) attribute negative outgroup behavior to dispositional causes (more than they would for identical ingroup behavior), and (2) attribute positive outgroup behavior to one or more of the following causes: (a) a fluke or exceptional case, (b) luck or special advantage, (c) high motivation and effort, and (d) situational factors"/ Young-Bruehl (1996) argued that prejudice cannot be treated in

11684-488: The late 1950s and early 1960s, Harlem was the scene of a series of rent strikes by neighborhood tenants, led by local activist Jesse Gray , together with the Congress of Racial Equality , Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited (HARYOU), and other groups. These groups wanted the city to force landlords to improve the quality of housing by bringing them up to code, to take action against rats and roaches , to provide heat during

11811-533: The late 19th and early 20th centuries were torn down or converted to churches. Harlem lacked any permanent performance space until the creation of the Gatehouse Theater in an old Croton aqueduct building on 135th Street in 2006. From 1965 until 2007, the community was home to the Harlem Boys Choir , a touring choir and education program for young boys, most of whom are black. The Girls Choir of Harlem

11938-673: The leadership of Peter Stuyvesant . During the American Revolution , the British burned Harlem to the ground. It took a long time to rebuild, as Harlem grew more slowly than the rest of Manhattan during the late 18th century. After the American Civil War , Harlem experienced an economic boom starting in 1868. The neighborhood continued to serve as a refuge for New Yorkers, but increasingly those coming north were poor and Jewish or Italian. The New York and Harlem Railroad , as well as

12065-494: The limited resources. Legitimizing myths, such as discriminatory hiring practices or biased merit norms, work to maintain these prejudiced hierarchies. Prejudice can be a central contributing factor to depression. This can occur in someone who is a prejudice victim, being the target of someone else's prejudice, or when people have prejudice against themselves that causes their own depression. Paul Bloom argues that while prejudice can be irrational and have terrible consequences, it

12192-455: The majority; i.e., heterosexuals . The status of assimilating or conforming to heterosexual standards may be referred to as " heteronormativity ", or it may refer to ideology that the primary or only social norm is being heterosexual. In the US legal system , all groups are not always considered equal under the law . The gay or queer panic defense is a term for defenses or arguments used to defend

12319-423: The mediational value of increased knowledge was less strong than anxiety reduction and empathy. In addition, some individuals confront discrimination when they see it happen, with research finding that individuals are more likely to confront when they perceive benefits to themselves, and are less likely to confront when concerned about others' reactions. One problem with the notion that prejudice evolved because of

12446-752: The mid-1980s, linguist Tove Skutnabb-Kangas captured this idea of discrimination based on language as the concept of linguicism. Kangas defined linguicism as the ideologies and structures used to "legitimate, effectuate, and reproduce unequal division of power and resources (both material and non-material) between groups which are defined on the basis of language". Broadly speaking, attribution of low social status to those who do not conform to neurotypical expectations of personality and behaviour. This can manifest through assumption of 'disability' status to those who are high functioning enough to exist outside of diagnostic criteria, yet do not desire to (or are unable to) conform their behaviour to conventional patterns. This

12573-465: The modern world, researchers in western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic countries have done various studies exploring the relationship between religion and prejudice; thus far, they have received mixed results. A study done with US college students found that those who reported religion to be very influential in their lives seem to have a higher rate of prejudice than those who reported not being religious. Other studies found that religion has

12700-402: The nation based on differences like status and race exist. During times of conflict between one nation and another, nationalism is controversial since it may function as a buffer for criticism when it comes to the nation's own problems since it makes the nation's own hierarchies and internal conflicts appear to be natural. It may also serve a way of rallying the people of the nation in support of

12827-515: The navy in 1951; by 1979 they had been married 28 years. Before the Jeffersons' store opening, the family lived in a derelict section of Harlem . George had worked as a janitor at the Hempstead Apartments, and Louise as a housekeeper. In the third episode of All in the Family "My Aching Back", Lionel Jefferson explained that his father was able to open his cleaning store with a $ 3,200 ($ 21,467.34 in 2021) settlement after being rear-ended by

12954-445: The part of George. Once Hemsley became available and joined the cast, the character of his brother became extraneous, and as a result, Henry Jefferson never appeared on The Jeffersons . Henry's absence was attributed to his family's move to Chicago , but was mentioned one time when he had a son named Raymond (played by Gary Coleman ), who came to visit his aunt Louise and uncle George in one episode of The Jeffersons . During All in

13081-408: The participants were asked to guess what percentage of the videotaped students' classmates would choose the same. Participants predicted a much greater similarity between out-group members (the rival school) than between members of their in-group. The justification-suppression model of prejudice was created by Christian Crandall and Amy Eshleman. This model explains that people face a conflict between

13208-481: The percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 48% in Community District 10, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 45% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, as of 2018 , Community District 10 is considered to be gentrifying : according to the Community Health Profile, the district was low-income in 1990 and has seen above-median rent growth up to 2010. In 2010,

13335-505: The percentage of whites increasing from 1.5% to 6.6% by 2006, and to "almost 10%" by 2010. A renovation of 125th Street and new properties along the thoroughfare also helped to revitalize Harlem. In the 1920s and 1930s, Central and West Harlem was the focus of the " Harlem Renaissance ", an outpouring of artistic work without precedent in the American Black community. Though Harlem musicians and writers are particularly well remembered,

13462-399: The perspective of collective values than just as biased psychological mechanism and different conceptions of prejudice, including what lay people think constitutes prejudice. This is due to concerns that the way prejudice has been operationalised does not fit its psychological definition and that it is often used to indicate a belief is faulty or unjustified without actually proving this to be

13589-727: The population of West Harlem was 110,193. West Harlem, consisting of Manhattanville and Hamilton Heights , is predominately Hispanic / Latino, while African Americans make up about a quarter of the West Harlem population. In 2010, the population of East Harlem was 120,000. East Harlem originally formed as a predominantly Italian American neighborhood. The area began its transition from Italian Harlem to Spanish Harlem when Puerto Rican migration began after World War II, though in recent decades, many Dominican , Mexican and Salvadoran immigrants have also settled in East Harlem. East Harlem

13716-428: The population. Harlem's Black population was more concentrated in Central Harlem North, and its White population more concentrated in Central Harlem South, while the Hispanic / Latino population was evenly split. The most significant shifts in the racial composition of Central Harlem between 2000 and 2010 were the White population's increase by 402% (9,067), the Hispanic / Latino population's increase by 43% (7,982), and

13843-412: The post-World War II era, Harlem ceased to be home to a majority of the city's black people, but it remained the cultural and political capital of black New York, and possibly black America. By the 1970s, many of those Harlemites who were able to escape from poverty left the neighborhood in search of better schools and homes, and safer streets. Those who remained were the poorest and least skilled, with

13970-673: The practice of rebranding historically recognized neighborhoods illegal. Politically, central Harlem is in New York's 13th congressional district . It is in the New York State Senate 's 30th district, the New York State Assembly 's 68th and 70th districts, and the New York City Council 's 7th, 8th, and 9th districts. Before the arrival of European settlers, the area that would become Harlem (originally Haarlem)

14097-486: The realistic conflict theory and symbolic racism . It also uses the social identity theory perspective as the basis for its validity; that is, it assumes that individuals operate in a group-based context where group memberships form a part of individual identity. ITT posits that outgroup prejudice and discrimination is caused when individuals perceive an outgroup to be threatening in some way. ITT defines four threats: Realistic threats are tangible, such as competition for

14224-581: The resource is insignificant. In the Robber's Cave experiment, negative prejudice and hostility was created between two summer camps after sports competitions for small prizes. The hostility was lessened after the two competing camps were forced to cooperate on tasks to achieve a common goal. Another contemporary theory is the integrated threat theory (ITT), which was developed by Walter G Stephan. It draws from and builds upon several other psychological explanations of prejudice and ingroup/outgroup behaviour, such as

14351-405: The singular; one should rather speak of different prejudices as characteristic of different character types. Her theory defines prejudices as being social defences, distinguishing between an obsessional character structure, primarily linked with anti-semitism, hysterical characters, primarily associated with racism, and narcissistic characters, linked with sexism. The out-group homogeneity effect

14478-424: The small population of all other races increased by 4% (142). The entirety of Community District 10, which comprises Central Harlem, had 116,345 inhabitants as of NYC Health 's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 76.2 years. This is lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are children and middle-aged adults: 21% are between

14605-634: The south; Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Avenue and Edgecombe Avenue on the west; and the Harlem River on the north. A chain of large linear parks includes Morningside Park, St. Nicholas Park , Jackie Robinson Park , as well as Marcus Garvey Park (also known as Mount Morris Park) which separates this area from East Harlem to the east. Central Harlem includes the Mount Morris Park Historic District . West Harlem ( Manhattanville , Hamilton Heights , and Sugar Hill ) comprises Manhattan Community district 9. The three neighborhoods' area

14732-510: The spin-off series The Jeffersons began in January 1975, George and his family had moved "to a deluxe apartment in the sky" on the Upper East Side of Manhattan , owing to the success of his expanding chain of stores. Like his neighbor Archie Bunker , George Jefferson was frequently opinionated, rude, bigoted, prone to scheming and not particularly intelligent in a scholastic sense, but still

14859-1207: The style of SoHo or NoHo ) in an attempt to accelerate gentrification of the neighborhoods. "SoHa", applied to the area between West 110th and 125th Streets, has become a controversial name. Residents and other critics seeking to prevent this renaming of the area have labelled the SoHa brand as "insulting and another sign of gentrification run amok" and have said that "the rebranding not only places their neighborhood's rich history under erasure but also appears to be intent on attracting new tenants, including students from nearby Columbia University". Multiple New York City politicians have initiated legislative efforts to curtail this practice of neighborhood rebranding, which when successfully introduced in other New York City neighborhoods, have led to increases in rents and real estate values, as well as "shifting demographics". In 2011, U.S. Representative Hakeem Jeffries attempted but failed to implement legislation "that would punish real estate agents for inventing false neighborhoods and redrawing neighborhood boundaries without city approval." By 2017, New York State Senator Brian Benjamin also worked to render

14986-497: The very definition of prejudice, as medical validation for such discrimination becomes redundant. Recent advancements in behavioural genetics and neuroscience have made this a very relevant issue of discussion, with existing frameworks requiring significant overhaul to accommodate the strength of findings over the last decade. Assumptions may be made about the intelligence or value of individuals who have or exhibit behaviors of mental disorders or conditions. Individuals who have

15113-470: The winter, and to keep prices in line with existing rent control regulations. The largest public works projects in Harlem in these years were public housing, with the largest concentration built in East Harlem. Typically, existing structures were torn down and replaced with city-designed and managed properties that would, in theory, present a safer and more pleasant environment than those available from private landlords. Ultimately, community objections halted

15240-467: The words and phrases from the dictionary. He released several editions until 1944, the last being The New Cab Calloway's Hepsters Dictionary: Language of Jive . Poet Lemn Sissay observed that "Cab Calloway was taking ownership of language for a people who, just a few generations before, had their own languages taken away." Religious life has historically had a strong presence in Black Harlem. The area

15367-528: The world as black and white , and enforced strict adherence to social rules and hierarchies". In 1954, Gordon Allport , in his classic work The Nature of Prejudice , linked prejudice to categorical thinking. Allport claimed that prejudice is a natural and normal process for humans. According to him, "The human mind must think with the aid of categories... Once formed, categories are the basis for normal prejudgment. We cannot possibly avoid this process. Orderly living depends upon it." In his book, he emphasizes

15494-533: Was a renowned venue for swing dancing, and was immortalized in a popular song of the era, " Stompin' at the Savoy ". In the 1920s and 1930s, between Lenox and Seventh Avenues in central Harlem, over 125 entertainment venues were in operation, including speakeasies , cellars, lounges, cafes, taverns, supper clubs, rib joints, theaters, dance halls, and bars and grills. 133rd Street , known as "Swing Street", became known for its cabarets, speakeasies and jazz scene during

15621-652: Was founded in 1989, and closed with the Boys Choir. From 1967 to 1969, the Harlem Cultural Festival took place in Mount Morris Park . Another name for this festival is "Black Woodstock". Artists like Stevie Wonder , The 5th Dimension , and Gladys Knight performed here. Harlem is also home to the largest African American Day Parade , which celebrates the culture of African diaspora in America. The parade

15748-778: Was founded in 2021 to celebrate cuisine, community, and culture. It is one of the largest night markets in Manhattan . The main attractions include musical performances, arts and crafts shows, and food. Many R&B/Soul groups and artists formed in Harlem. The Main Ingredient , Frankie Lymon & The Teenagers , Black Ivory , Cameo , Keith Sweat , Freddie Jackson , Alyson Williams , Johnny Kemp , Teddy Riley , Dave Wooley , and others got their start in Harlem. Manhattan's contributions to hip-hop stems largely from artists with Harlem roots such as Doug E. Fresh , Big L , Kurtis Blow , The Diplomats , Mase or Immortal Technique . Harlem

15875-563: Was heavily influenced by ragtime . This style played a very important role in early jazz piano In 1938, jazz bandleader and singer Cab Calloway published the first dictionary by an African-American, Cab Calloway's Cat-ologue: A "Hepster's" Dictionary , which became the official jive language reference book of the New York Public Library . In 1939, Calloway published an accompanying book titled Professor Cab Calloway's Swingformation Bureau , which instructed readers how to apply

16002-464: Was inhabited by a Native American band , the Wecquaesgeek , dubbed Manhattans or Manhattoe by Dutch settlers, who along with other Native Americans, most likely Lenape , occupied the area on a semi-nomadic basis. As many as several hundred farmed the Harlem flatlands. Between 1637 and 1639, a few settlements were established. The settlement of Harlem was formally incorporated in 1660 under

16129-535: Was started up in the spring of 1969 with Congressman Adam Clayton Powell Jr. as the Grand Marshal of the first celebration. Arthur Mitchell , a former dancer with the New York City Ballet , established Dance Theatre of Harlem as a school and company of classical ballet and theater training in the late 1960s. The company has toured nationally and internationally. Generations of theater artists have gotten

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