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121-1031: Garanti BBVA (legal name Türkiye Garanti Bankası A.Ş. ; formerly referred to as Garanti Bank in English) is a Turkish financial services company based in Turkey . 86% of Garanti's stakes are owned by the Spanish bank Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria (BBVA). Garanti Bank is the second-largest private bank in Turkey with ₺ 220 billion assets at the end of 2023. Garanti provides services in all business lines including payment systems , retail , commercial , corporate , SME , private and investment banking . Together with its domestic and international subsidiaries (Garanti Bank International, Garanti Bank SA, Garanti Bank Moscow), Garanti offers services also in pension and life insurance, leasing, factoring, brokerage and asset management. Garanti serves more than twenty-five million customers through 805 domestic branches, 7 foreign branches in

242-696: A charter member of the United Nations. In 1950 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe . After fighting as part of the UN forces in the Korean War , Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean . Military coups or memorandums, which happened in 1960 , 1971 , 1980 , and 1997 , complicated Turkey's transition to a democratic multiparty system . Between 1960 and

363-631: A civilian alternative to military service. Sultanate of Rum The Sultanate of Rûm seceded from the Seljuk Empire under Suleiman ibn Qutalmish in 1077, just six years after the Byzantine provinces of central Anatolia were conquered at the Battle of Manzikert (1071). It had its capital first at Nicaea and then at Iconium . It reached the height of its power during the late 12th and early 13th century, when it succeeded in taking key Byzantine ports on

484-792: A "second Iran" in Anatolia. Iranian cultural, political, and literary traditions deeply influenced Anatolia in the early 13th century. The notable historian Ibn Bibi composed a six-volume Persian language poetic work called the Selçukname , modeled after the Shahnamah , which focused on the Seljuk sultans. Despite their Turkic origins, the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes; even their histories, which replaced Arabic, were in Persian. Their usage of Turkish

605-698: A Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems. Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system. Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs . These agencies are

726-729: A guide for developing "orthodox expressions of basic Christian teachings". The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages . The eastern half of the Empire survived the conditions that caused the fall of the West in the 5th century AD, and continued to exist until

847-694: A mixture of " Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences ". In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and Anatolia. At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized . The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and later established the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum . During this period, there were also Turkish principalities such as Danishmendids . Seljuk arrival started

968-658: A model for the later devşirme during the time of the Ottoman Empire . The earliest documented Rum Seljuq copper coins were made in the first part of the twelfth century in Konya and the eastern Anatolian emirates. Extensive numismatic evidence suggests that, starting in the middle of the thirteenth century and continuing until the end of the Seljuk dynasty, silver-producing mints and silver coinage flourished, particularly in central and eastern Anatolia. Most of Kilij Arslan II's coins were minted in Konya between 1177–78 and 1195, with

1089-644: A person. As an ethnonym , the etymology is still unknown. In addition to usage in languages such as Chinese in the 6th century, the earliest mention of Turk ( 𐱅𐰇𐰺𐰜 , türü̲k̲ ; or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚 , türk/tẄrk ) in Turkic languages comes from the Second Turkic Khaganate . In Byzantine sources in the 10th century, the name Tourkia was used for defining two medieval states: Hungary ( Western Tourkia ); and Khazaria ( Eastern Tourkia ). The Mamluk Sultanate , with its ruling elite of Turkic origin,

1210-560: A pitched battle, the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated. Loss of the sultan's banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks. Süleymanshah himself was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum. Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties, but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for

1331-582: A reassertion of the ancient, indigenous culture of the Hattian cities of Anatolia". Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including Miletus . Around 1000 BC, Greeks started migrating to the west coast of Anatolia. These eastern Greek settlements played a vital role in shaping the Archaic Greek civilization; important cities included Miletus , Ephesus , Halicarnassus , Smyrna (now İzmir ) and Byzantium (now Istanbul ),

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1452-570: A rich and diverse cuisine , Turkey is the fifth most visited country in the world. Turchia , meaning "the land of the Turks", had begun to be used in European texts for Anatolia by the end of the 12th century. As a word in Turkic languages , Turk may mean "strong, strength, ripe" or "flourishing, in full strength". It may also mean ripe as in for a fruit or "in the prime of life, young, and vigorous" for

1573-586: A secret route, presumably guided by the Byzantines. Suleiman tried, unsuccessfully, to conquer Aleppo in 1086, and died in the Battle of Ain Salm , either fighting his enemies or by suicide. In the aftermath, Suleiman's son Kilij Arslan I was imprisoned and a general of his, Abu'l-Qasim , took power in Nicaea. Following the death of sultan Malik Shah in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and established himself in his father's territories between 1092 and 1094, possibly with

1694-462: A significant portion of the townspeople knew the language. One of its most famous Persian writers, Rumi , took his name from the name of the state. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the native Byzantine (Rûm) peasants remained numerous in the region. Based on their genealogy, it appears that

1815-627: A small amount also occurring in Sivas, which the Rum Seljuks conquered from the Danishmendids. Sivas may have started minting coins in 1185–1186. The majority of Kılıj Arslan II's coins are silver dirhams ; however, there are also a few dinars and one or two fulūs (small copper coins) issues. Following his death the sultanate was divided among his sons. Muhyiddin Mesut, son of Kilij Arslan II, minted coins in

1936-719: Is Syria, with which Turkey had cut its relations after the start of the Syrian civil war . There are disputes with Greece over maritime boundaries and with Cyprus . In 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces began an operation in Syria aimed at ousting US-backed YPG (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed PKK ) from the enclave of Afrin . Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in Iraqi Kurdistan , which

2057-522: Is a unitary presidential republic . Turkey is a founding member of the OECD , G20 , and Organization of Turkic States . With a geopolitically significant location, Turkey is a regional power and an early member of NATO . An EU candidate , Turkey is part of the EU Customs Union , CoE , OIC , and TURKSOY . Turkey has coastal plains, a high central plateau , and various mountain ranges; its climate

2178-495: Is a representation of the ideal Seljuq king of the Great Age. The image initially appeared on Rum Seljuq copper coins in the late eleventh century. The first to add equestrian iconography to silver and gold coins was Suleiman II of Rûm (r. 1196–1204). Antalya minted coins with Kaykaus I 's name from November 1261 to November 1262. Between 1211 and 1219, the bulk of his coins are minted at Konya and Sivas. A significant portion of

2299-620: Is divided into districts ( ilçe ), for a total of 973 districts. Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions ( bölge ) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic measurements, surveys and classifications; this does not refer to an administrative division. Turkey is a presidential republic within a multi-party system . The current constitution was adopted in 1982 . In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to three levels of government : national, provincial, and local. The local government 's duties are commonly split between municipal governments and districts, in which

2420-550: Is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding Mongols . The forces of the Mongol Empire took Erzurum in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by Baiju in the Battle of Köse Dağ (a mountain between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan ), resulting in the Seljuk Turks being forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals. The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after

2541-442: Is temperate with harsher conditions in the interior. Home to three biodiversity hotspots , Turkey is prone to frequent earthquakes and is highly vulnerable to climate change . Turkey has a universal healthcare system , growing access to education , and increasing levels of innovativeness . It is a leading TV content exporter. With 21 UNESCO World Heritage sites, 30 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions, and

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2662-466: Is the Main Opposition Leader . The last parliamentary and presidential elections were in 2023. The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or having ties to terrorism , or ban their existence altogether. The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes. Smaller parties can avoid

2783-622: The Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks . Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans . Mehmed II completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople , on 29 May 1453. Selim I united Anatolia under Ottoman rule. Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and

2904-667: The 1913 coup d'état , the Three Pashas took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian genocide . As a result, an estimated 600,000 to more than 1 million, or up to 1.5 million Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge

3025-687: The Allies in the aftermath of World War I initiated the Turkish National Movement . Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha , a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli , the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920). The Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara , which had declared itself

3146-684: The Armistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule. The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres, led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923,

3267-414: The Balkans , Caucasus , and Crimea . Under the control of the Three Pashas , the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in 1914, during which the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian , Greek , and Assyrian subjects. Following Ottoman defeat, the Turkish War of Independence resulted in the abolition of the sultanate and the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne . The Republic

3388-474: The Byzantine cities of Nicaea (present-day İznik ) and briefly also Nicomedia (present-day İzmit ). Around two years later, he established a principality that, while initially a Byzantine vassal state , became increasingly independent after six to ten years. Nevertheless, it seems that Suleiman was tasked by Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos in 1085 to reconquer Antioch and the former travelled there on

3509-717: The Cold War 's start. Following threats from the Soviet Union , Turkey sought to ally with the United States and joined NATO in 1952. Overall, Turkey aims for good relations with Central Asia , the Caucasus , Russia, the Middle East , and Iran. With the West, Turkey also aims to keep its arrangements. By trading with the east and joining the EU, Turkey pursues economic growth. Turkey joined

3630-581: The EEC in 1987, joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005. Customs Union had an important impact on the Turkish manufacturing sector. In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct presidential election . On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government. According to

3751-471: The European Union Customs Union in 1995, but its EU accession talks are frozen as of 2024. Turkey has been called an emerging power, a middle power , and a regional power . Turkey has sought closer relations with the Central Asian Turkic states after the breakup of the Soviet Union. Closer relations with Azerbaijan , a culturally close country, was achieved. Turkey is a founding member of

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3872-505: The Galatians . When Pergamon requested assistance in its conflict with the Seleucids, Rome intervened in Anatolia in the second century BC. Without an heir, Pergamum's king left the kingdom to Rome, which was annexed as province of Asia . Roman influence grew in Anatolia afterwards. Following Asiatic Vespers massacre, and Mithridatic Wars with Pontus , Rome emerged victorious. Around

3993-667: The General Directorate of Security , the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command . In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in

4114-598: The International Organization of Turkic Culture and Organization of Turkic States . It is also a member of Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe , Council of Europe , and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . Following the Arab Spring , Turkey had problems with countries such as United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. Relations with these countries have improved since then. The exception

4235-704: The Ionian School of philosophy , thereby laying the foundations of rationalism and Western philosophy . Cyrus attacked eastern Anatolia in 547 BC, and Achaemenid Empire eventually expanded into western Anatolia . In the east, the Armenian province was part of the Achaemenid Empire. Following the Greco-Persian Wars , the Greek city-states of the Anatolian Aegean coast regained independence, but most of

4356-447: The Karamanids in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans. The Seljuk dynasty of Rum, as successors to the Great Seljuks, based its political, religious and cultural heritage on the Turco-Persian tradition and Greco-Roman world , even to

4477-497: The Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. In the east, the sultanate reached Lake Van . Trade through Anatolia from Iran and Central Asia was developed by a system of caravanserai . Especially strong trade ties with the Genoese formed during this period. The increased wealth allowed the sultanate to absorb other Turkish states that had been established following the conquest of Byzantine Anatolia: Danishmendids , House of Mengüjek , Saltukids , Artuqids . The Seljuk sultans bore

4598-403: The Ottoman Empire's name . In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan called for expanded official usage of Türkiye , saying that Türkiye "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way". In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the United Nations and other international organizations to use Türkiye officially in English;

4719-500: The Ottoman dynasty , which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to become the Ottoman Empire . Since the 1030s, migratory Turkish groups in search of pastureland had penetrated Byzantine borders into Anatolia. In the 1070s, after the battle of Manzikert , the Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutulmish , a distant cousin of Alp Arslan and a former contender for the throne of the Seljuk Empire , came to power in western Anatolia . Between 1075 and 1081, he gained control of

4840-475: The Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia. Initially, Proto- Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadic pastoralists . Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic , Mongolic , Tocharian , Uralic , and Yeniseian peoples. During

4961-431: The Second Balkan War (1913). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in estimated 5 million deaths, with more than 3 million in Balkans; the casualties included Turks. Five to seven or seven to nine million refugees migrated into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans , Caucasus , Crimea , and Mediterranean islands, shifting

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5082-414: The Sheikh Said rebellion in 1925 and the Dersim rebellion in 1937. İsmet İnönü became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey remained neutral during almost all of World War II , but entered the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945 . Later that year, Turkey became

5203-407: The Supreme Electoral Council lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp. The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million ballots without a stamp were accepted as valid. Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of public administration, and the provinces are subordinate to the central government in Ankara . In province centers the government is represented by

5324-406: The Turkification process in Anatolia; there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam. The shift took several centuries and happened gradually. Members of Islamic mysticism orders, such as Mevlevi Order , played a role in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia. Seljuk expansion was one of the reasons for the Crusades . In 13th century, there

5445-411: The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and one in Malta ; 2 international representative offices in Düsseldorf and Shanghai ; more than 5,511 ATMs; a call center and Internet, mobile and social banking platforms built on technological infrastructure. The shares of the stock of Garanti Bank are traded on the Borsa Istanbul , LSE and OTCQX . The shareholding in the bank's stock is as depicted in

5566-407: The Yabgu Khaganate . In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan and established the Seljuk Empire in Greater Khorasan . Baghdad , the Abbasid Caliphate 's capital and center of the Islamic world , was taken by Seljuks in 1055. Given the role Khurasani traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as

5687-598: The adoption of Christianity as the state religion , and the predominance of Greek instead of Latin , modern historians continue to make a distinction between the earlier Roman Empire and the later Byzantine Empire . In the early Byzantine Empire period, the Anatolian coastal areas were Greek speaking. In addition to natives, interior Anatolia had diverse groups such as Goths , Celts , Persians and Jews . Interior Anatolia had been "heavily Hellenized". Anatolian languages eventually became extinct after Hellenization of Anatolia. According to historians and linguists,

5808-420: The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the Mediterranean world . The term Byzantine Empire was only coined following the empire's demise; its citizens referred to the polity as the "Roman Empire" and to themselves as Romans . Due to the imperial seat's move from Rome to Byzantium ,

5929-405: The right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934. In Turkey, turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%. President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is currently serving as the head of state and head of government . Özgür Özel

6050-399: The 13th century, most Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language. It was in this century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration, religion and culture reached its zenith, encouraged by the major influx of Persian refugees fleeing Mongol invasions, who brought Persian culture with them and were instrumental in creating

6171-516: The 1st century BC, Rome expanded into parts of Pontus and Bithynia , while turning rest of Anatolian states into Roman satellites. Several conflicts with Parthians ensued , with peace and wars alternating. According to Acts of the Apostles , early Christian Church had significant growth in Anatolia because of St Paul's efforts. Letters from St. Paul in Anatolia comprise the oldest Christian literature . Under Roman authority, ecumenical councils such as Council of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325 served as

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6292-415: The 9th and 10th centuries CE, the Oghuz were a Turkic group that lived in the Caspian and Aral steppes. Partly due to pressure from the Kipchaks , the Oghuz migrated into Iran and Transoxiana . They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to Islam . Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkoman . The Seljuks originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks who resided in

6413-412: The Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from Istanbul . The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital. The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey . Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first president and introduced many reforms . The reforms aimed to transform

6534-415: The Anatolian interior, which met resistance in some places. Following Alexander's death, the Seleucids ruled large parts of Anatolia, while native Anatolian states emerged in the Marmara and Black Sea areas. In eastern Anatolia, the kingdom of Armenia appeared. In third century BC, Celts invaded central Anatolia and continued as a major ethnic group in the area for around 200 years. They were known as

6655-400: The Balkans. The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent . In the 16th and 17th centuries, Sephardic Jews moved into Ottoman Empire following their expulsion from Spain. From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline . The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II in 1839, aimed to modernize

6776-534: The Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage of the Crusade by the Byzantines was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the Empire as an obstacle, and moreover Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus, which ended in their retreat. In

6897-402: The Georgians. Suleiman II died in 1204 and was succeeded by his son Kilij Arslan III , whose reign was unpopular. Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign. Under his rule and those of his two successors, Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I , Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of Attalia (Antalya) on

7018-447: The Great ; Hellenization continued during the Roman and Byzantine eras. The Seljuk Turks began migrating into Anatolia in the 11th century, starting the Turkification process. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into Turkish principalities . Beginning in 1299, the Ottomans united the principalities and expanded ; Mehmed II conquered Istanbul in 1453 . During

7139-509: The Hittite kingdom was disintegrating, further waves of Indo-European peoples migrated from southeastern Europe, which was followed by warfare. The Thracians were also present in modern-day Turkish Thrace . It is not known if the Trojan war is based on historical events. Troy's Late Bronze Age layers matches most with Iliad 's story. Around 750 BC, Phrygia had been established, with its two centers in Gordium and modern-day Kayseri . Phrygians spoke an Indo-European language, which

7260-410: The Islamic Near East may have experienced a "silver famine" owing to little, or very little, silver mintings from the eleventh and most of the twelfth centuries. However, at the start of the thirteenth century a "silver flood" occurred in Rum Seljuq territory when Anatolian silver mines were discovered. The fineness of Rum Seljuq dirhams is similar to that of dinars ; frequently, both were struck using

7381-417: The Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured Sinop and made the Empire of Trebizond his vassal in 1214. He also subjugated Cilician Armenia but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo, acquired from al-Kamil . Kayqubad continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225. In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the Black Sea to Crimea . In

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7502-424: The Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples , leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians , which claimed up to 300,000 lives. Ottoman territories in Europe ( Rumelia ) were lost in the First Balkan War (1912–1913). Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as Edirne , in

7623-431: The Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 was the first among Muslim states, but was short-lived . As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875 which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) . The decline of

7744-435: The President, General Staff , Air Force , Naval Force , and Land Force usually report to the Minister of National Defence. The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior . Military service is required for 6–12 months for men, which is reduced to one month after paying a fee. Turkey does not recognize conscientious objection and does not offer

7865-434: The Pride of Islam . When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, Mesud II , established himself as sultan in Kayseri . He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by

7986-418: The Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system, replacing Sharia -derived Ottoman law . The Civil Code , adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code , originally based on the Italian Criminal Code , was replaced in 2005 by

8107-417: The Seljuk sultanate. Suleiman II rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, with an army of 150,000–400,000 and encamped in the Basiani valley. Tamar of Georgia quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort, David Soslan . Georgian troops under David Soslan made a sudden advance into Basiani and assailed the enemy's camp in 1203 or 1204. In

8228-432: The Seljuk sultans favored Christian ladies, just like the early Ottoman sultans. Within the Seljuk harem, Greek women were the most dominant. Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th-century, particularly during the gradual rise of the Ottomans . With a population that included Byzantine Greeks , Armenians , Kurds , Turks, and Persians, the Seljuks were very successful between 1220 and 1250 and set

8349-402: The Turkish government, there are 13,251 arrested or convicted people in jail as of 2024, related to the 2016 coup attempt. With a referendum in 2017 , the parliamentary republic was replaced by an executive presidential system . The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway,

8470-926: The UN agreed. Present-day Turkey has been inhabited by modern humans since the late Paleolithic period and contains some of the world's oldest Neolithic sites. Göbekli Tepe is close to 12,000 years old. Parts of Anatolia include the Fertile Crescent , an origin of agriculture . Other important Anatolian Neolithic sites include Çatalhöyük and Alaca Höyük . Neolithic Anatolian farmers differed genetically from farmers in Iran and Jordan Valley . These early Anatolian farmers also migrated into Europe , starting around 9,000 years ago. Troy's earliest layers go back to around 4500 BC. Anatolia's historical records start with clay tablets from approximately around 2000 BC that were found in modern-day Kültepe . These tablets belonged to an Assyrian trade colony . The languages in Anatolia at that time included Hattian, Hurrian, Hittite , Luwian , and Palaic . Hattian

8591-491: The age of 65. Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with democratic backsliding , being described as a competitive authoritarian system. Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential (national), parliamentary (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or municipal council members (local), and muhtars (local). Referendums are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has

8712-603: The approval of Malik Shah's son and successor Berkyaruq . Kilij Arslan, although victorious against the People's Crusade of 1096, was defeated by soldiers of the First Crusade and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with its capital in Konya . He defeated three Crusade contingents in the Crusade of 1101 . In 1107, he ventured east and captured Mosul but died

8833-405: The battle, where he died in 1246; his death started a period of tripartite, and then dual, rule that lasted until 1260. The Seljuk realm was divided among Kaykhusraw's three sons. The eldest, Kaykaus II (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river Kızılırmak . His younger brothers, Kilij Arslan IV (1248–1265) and Kayqubad II (1249–1257), were set to rule the regions east of

8954-685: The brunt of the Crusades and eventually succumbed to the Mongol invasion at the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ . For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuks acted as vassals of the Ilkhanate . Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate, Mesud II , was murdered in 1308. The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small Anatolian beyliks (Turkish principalities), among them that of

9075-538: The center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia. In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as Circassians and Crimean Tatars . Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators. Circassian refugees included the survivors of the Circassian genocide . Following

9196-558: The east he defeated the Mengujekids and began to put pressure on the Artuqids . Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around Diyarbakır , but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named Baba Ishak . After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It

9317-633: The east; Iraq , Syria , and the Mediterranean Sea to the south; and the Aegean Sea , Greece , and Bulgaria to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people; most are ethnic Turks , while ethnic Kurds are the largest ethnic minority . Officially a secular state , Turkey has a Muslim-majority population. Ankara is Turkey's capital and second-largest city , while Istanbul is its largest city and economic and financial center. Other major cities include İzmir , Bursa , and Antalya . Turkey

9438-492: The electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold. On the right side of the Turkish political spectrum , parties like the Democrat Party , Justice Party , Motherland Party , and Justice and Development Party became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish right-wing parties are more likely to embrace

9559-420: The end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the beyliks (including the early Ottoman state) and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the khutbah in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin,

9680-538: The end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel , Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal . PKK started a "campaign of terrorist attacks on civilian and military targets" in the 1980s. It is designated as a terrorist organization by Turkey, the United States, and the European Union. Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey applied for full membership of

9801-522: The end, the crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a victory for the Muslims. It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century. Mesud's son, Kilij Arslan II , is the first known Seljuk ruler who is known to have used the title of sultan and captured the remaining territories around Sivas and Malatya from

9922-496: The events as genocide and states that Armenians were only "relocated " from the eastern war zone. Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks . Following the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought the partition of the Ottoman Empire through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres . The occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by

10043-650: The executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. The government comprises three branches: first is the legislative branch, which is Grand National Assembly of Turkey ; second is the executive branch, which is the President of Turkey ; and third is the judicial branch, which includes the Constitutional Court , the Court of Cassation and Court of Jurisdictional Disputes . The Parliament has 600 seats, distributed among

10164-645: The groundwork for later Islamization of Anatolia. In their construction of caravanserais , madrasas and mosques , the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone. Among these, the caravanserais (or hans ), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuk period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect, Seljuk architecture

10285-738: The interior stayed part of the Achaemenid Empire. Two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World , the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus , were located in Anatolia. Following the victories of Alexander in 334 BC and 333 BC , the Achaemenid Empire collapsed and Anatolia became part of the Macedonian Empire . This led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization of

10406-707: The last of the Danishmends. At the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, Kilij Arslan II also defeated a Byzantine army led by Manuel I Komnenos . Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the Holy Roman Empire 's forces of the Third Crusade , the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power. During the last years of Kilij Arslan II's reign, the sultanate experienced a civil war with Kaykhusraw I fighting to retain control and losing to his brother Suleiman II in 1196. Following Kilij Arslan II's death,

10527-495: The latter founded by colonists from Megara in the seventh century BCE. These settlements were grouped as Aeolis , Ionia , and Doris , after the specific Greek groups that settled them. Further Greek colonization in Anatolia was led by Miletus and Megara in 750–480 BC. The Greek cities along the Aegean prospered with trade, and saw remarkable scientific and scholarly accomplishments. Thales and Anaximander from Miletus founded

10648-521: The legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920 , started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled. The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of

10769-523: The names of the sultans, there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other, either for fidelity in transliterating the Persian variant of the Arabic script which the sultans used, or for a rendering corresponding to the modern Turkish phonology and orthography. Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy. While

10890-621: The native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, he had to return to his home base in Egypt , and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely. Also, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia captured the Mediterranean coast from Selinos to Seleucia , as well as the cities of Marash and Behisni , from the Seljuk in the 1240s. Near

11011-527: The northwesterly cities of Ankara, Çankırı, Eskişehir, and Kaztamunu from 1186 to 1200. Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II 's reign in Erzurum, another son of Kilij Arslan II, minted silver dirhams in 1211–1212. The sun-lion and the equestrian are the two central motifs in the Rum Seljuq numismatic figural repertoire. The image of a horseman with two more arrows ready and his bow taut represents strength and control and

11132-543: The old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic under a secular constitution . Women gained the right to vote nationally in 1934. With the Surname Law , the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" ( Father Turk ). Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some Kurdish and Zaza tribes leading to

11253-645: The point of naming their sons with New Persian names. The Seljuks of Rum had inherited the administrative method of Persian statecraft from the Seljuk Empire, which they would later pass on to the Ottomans. As an expression of Turco-Persian culture, Rum Seljuks patronized Persian art , architecture , and literature . Unlike the Seljuk Empire, the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as Kay Khosrow , Kay Kawad/Qobad , and Kay Kāvus . The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm were generally Persian. In

11374-468: The principles of political ideologies such as conservatism , nationalism or Islamism . On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the Republican People's Party , Social Democratic Populist Party and Democratic Left Party once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of socialism , Kemalism or secularism . With the founding of

11495-459: The promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty. Turkey's constant foreign policy goal is to pursue its national interests. These interests are mainly growing the economy, and maintaining security from internal terrorist and external threats. After the establishment of the Republic, Atatürk and İnönü followed the " peace at home, peace in the world " principle until

11616-453: The province governors ( vali ) and in towns by the governors ( kaymakam ). Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government, except for the mayors ( belediye başkanı ) who are elected by the constituents. Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies ( belediye meclisi ) for decision-making on municipal issues. Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces ( il or vilayet ) for administrative purposes. Each province

11737-445: The provinces proportionally to the population . The Parliament and the president serve a five-year terms, with elections on the same day. The president is elected by direct vote and cannot run for re-election after two terms, unless the parliament calls early presidential elections during the second term. The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members, elected for single 12-year terms. They are obliged to retire when they are over

11858-545: The reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent , the Ottoman Empire became a global power . From 1789 onwards, the empire saw a major transformation , reforms , and centralization while its territory declined . In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in large-scale loss of life and mass migration into modern-day Turkey from

11979-403: The river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near Aksaray and all of Anatolia became officially subject to Möngke Khan . In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265, and Kaykhusraw III (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or

12100-470: The road between the cities of Konya and Aksaray, in the township of Sultanhanı , covering 3,900 m (42,000 sq ft). Two caravanserais carry the name Sultan Han , the other one being between Kayseri and Sivas. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in Kangal , Durağan , Hekimhan and Kadınhanı , as well as

12221-458: The same dies. The Seljuq silver coinage's superior quality and prominence contributed to the dynasty's affluence throughout the early part of the thirteenth century and explains why it served as a kind of anchor for the local "currency community." The Empire of Trebizond and Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia silver coins were modeled after the fineness and weight specifications of Rum Seljuq coins. ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) As regards with

12342-488: The same year fighting Malik Shah's son, Mehmed Tapar . He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades. Meanwhile, another Rum Seljuk, Malik Shah (not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, Mesud I , took the city with the help of the Danishmends . Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia. The Second Crusade

12463-532: The settlement in Kalehisar contiguous to an ancient Hittite site near Alaca , founded by the Seljuk commander Hüsameddin Temurlu , who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the Battle of Köse Dağ and had founded a township comprising a castle, a madrasa, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered,

12584-471: The sultan's influential regents. The Seljuk state had started to split into small emirates ( beyliks ) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan , temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm. But since

12705-626: The sultanate was divided amongst his sons. Elbistan was given to Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II , but when Erzurum was taken from the Saltukids at the start of the thirteenth century, he was installed there. Tughril governed Erzurum from 1192 to 1221. During 1211–1212, he broke free from the Seljuk state. In 1230, Jahan Shah bin Tughril who was allied to the Khwarazmshah Jalal al-Din, lost the Battle of Yassıçemen , allowing for Erzurum to be annexed by

12826-720: The table below: The companies that comprise the Garanti Bank Group include, but are not limited to, the following: Turkey Turkey , officially the Republic of Türkiye , is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia , with a smaller part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe . It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia , Armenia , Azerbaijan , and Iran to

12947-469: The township of Akhan within the Denizli metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in Arabic with information relating to the tower, two further inscriptions in Armenian and Syriac , since it was constructed by the sultan Kayqubad I 's doctor ( hekim ), who is thought to have been a Christian convert to Islam . There are other particular cases, like

13068-840: The two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad ;I carry the names Kubadabad Palace and Keykubadiye Palace, he named his mosque in Konya as Alâeddin Mosque and the port city of Alanya he had captured as " Alaiye ". Similarly, the medrese built by Kaykhusraw I in Kayseri, within the complex ( külliye ) dedicated to his sister Gevher Nesibe , was named Gıyasiye Medrese, and the one built by Kaykaus I in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese. Period post-First Crusade Second Crusade Period post-Second Crusade Third Crusade Period post-Third Crusade Fourth Crusade Fifth Crusade Sixth Crusade and aftermath Seventh Crusade End of

13189-626: Was a language indigenous to Anatolia, with no known modern-day connections. Hurrian language was used in northern Syria . Hittite, Palaic, and Luwian languages were "the oldest written Indo-European languages ", forming the Anatolian sub-group . Hattian rulers were gradually replaced by Hittite rulers. The Hittite kingdom was a large kingdom in Central Anatolia, with its capital of Hattusa . It co-existed in Anatolia with Palaians and Luwians , approximately between 1700 and 1200 BC. As

13310-424: Was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled Mongol expansion. Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities. Based around Söğüt , Ottoman Beylik was founded by Osman I in the early 14th century. According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from

13431-519: Was announced by Pope Eugene III, and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, with help from a number of other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that

13552-614: Was called the "State of the Turks" ( Dawlat at-Turk , or Dawlat al-Atrāk , or Dawlat-at-Turkiyya ). Turkestan, also meaning the "land of the Turks", was used for a historic region in Central Asia . Middle English usage of Turkye or Turkeye is found in The Book of the Duchess (written in 1369–1372) to refer to Anatolia or the Ottoman Empire . The modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least 1719. The bird called turkey

13673-429: Was closer to Greek than Anatolian languages. Phrygians shared Anatolia with Neo-Hittites and Urartu . Luwian-speakers were probably the majority in various Anatolian Neo-Hittite states. Urartians spoke a non-Indo-European language and their capital was around Lake Van . Urartu and Phrygia fell in seventh century BC. They were replaced by Carians , Lycians and Lydians . These three cultures "can be considered

13794-609: Was criticized by Iraq for violating its sovereignty and killing civilians. Diplomatic relations with Israel were damaged after the Gaza flotilla raid , normalized in 2016, and cut again following the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip . In 2024, Turkey stopped trading with Israel. Turkish Armed Forces is responsible for defense against foreign threats. While the Commander-in-Chief is

13915-548: Was dedicated to Sultan Kaykhusraw I . Even the Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq , an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum, was written in Persian. The sultans of Rum were largely not educated in Arabic. This clearly limited the Arab influence, or at least the direct influence, to a relatively small degree. In contrast, Persian literature and Iranian influence expanded because most sultans and even

14036-576: Was explored in the 1960s by the art historian Oktay Aslanapa , and the finds as well as several documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463 Ottoman firman which instructs the headmaster of the madrasa to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai. The Seljuk palaces, as well as their armies, were staffed with ghilmān ( Arabic : غِلْمَان ), singular ghulam ), slave-soldiers taken as children from non-Muslim communities, mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories. The practice of keeping ghilmān may have offered

14157-525: Was first inhabited by modern humans during the Late Paleolithic . Home to important Neolithic sites like Göbekli Tepe and some of the earliest farming areas , present-day Turkey was inhabited by various ancient peoples . The Hattians were assimilated by the Anatolian peoples , such as the Hittites . Classical Anatolia transitioned into cultural Hellenization following the conquests of Alexander

14278-664: Was hardly promoted at all. Even Sultan Kilij Arslan II , as a child, spoke to courtiers in Persian. Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau. Persian poetry was written by sultans Suleiman II , Kayqubad I , and Kaykhusraw II . The Rahat al-sudur , the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup, written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi,

14399-574: Was inspired by local Byzantine architects, for example in the Celestial Mosque in Sivas , and by Armenian architecture . Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture. Later, this Anatolian architecture would be inherited by the Sultanate of India . The largest caravanserai is the Sultan Han (built-in 1229) on

14520-412: Was named as such due to trade of guineafowl from Turkey to England. The name Turkey has been used in international treaties referring to the Ottoman Empire. With the Treaty of Alexandropol , the name Türkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the expression Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to

14641-469: Was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, modelled on the reforms initiated by the country's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk . Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II , but was involved in the Korean War . Several military interventions interfered with the transition to a multi-party system. Turkey is an upper-middle-income and emerging country ; its economy is the world's 17th-largest by nominal and 12th-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP . It

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